{{Short description|Country in northwestern Europe}} {{Hatnote|"UK" redirects here. For other uses, see [[UK (disambiguation)]] and [[United Kingdom (disambiguation)]]. Not to be confused with [[England]] or [[Great Britain]].}} {{pp-sock|small=yes}} {{pp-move|small=yes}} {{Use British English|date=April 2012}} {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2025}} {{Infobox country | common_name = United Kingdom | linking_name = the United Kingdom | conventional_long_name = United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | image_flag = Flag of the United Kingdom (1-2).svg | flag_type = [[Union Jack|Flag]] | alt_flag = A flag composed of a red cross edged in white and superimposed on a red saltire, also edged in white, superimposed on a white saltire on a blue background | image_coat = | other_symbol = [[File:Coat of arms of the United Kingdom (2022, both variants).svg|250px]]
Used in relation to [[Scotland]] (right) and elsewhere (left) | other_symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of the United Kingdom|Coat of arms]]: | national_anthem = "[[God Save the King]]"{{Efn|"God Save the King" is the [[national anthem]] by custom, not statute, and there is no authorised version. Typically only the first verse is usually sung, although the second verse is also often sung as well at state and public events.{{Cite web |title=National Anthem |url=https://www.royal.uk/encyclopedia/national-anthem |access-date=10 April 2024 |website=The Royal Family |archive-date=20 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240520130352/https://www.royal.uk/encyclopedia/national-anthem |url-status=live}} The words ''King, he, him, his'', used at present, are replaced by ''Queen, she, her'' when the monarch is female.}}
[[File:United States Navy Band - God Save the Queen.ogg|God Save the King / Queen ]]
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Europe-UK (orthographic projection).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Europe-UK.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|[[File:United Kingdom (+overseas territories and crown dependencies) in the World (+Antarctica claims).svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show [[British Overseas Territories]] and [[Crown Dependencies]]|[[File:Territorial waters - United Kingdom.svg|upright=1.15|frameless]]|Show [[Exclusive economic zone of the United Kingdom|their exclusive economic zones]]|default=1}} | map_caption = | capital = [[London]] | coordinates = {{Coord|51|30|N|0|7|W|type:city(9,100,000)_region:GB-LND}} | largest_city = capital | languages_type = [[National language]] | languages = [[English language|English]] | languages2_type = Regional and minority languages{{Efn|Scots, Ulster Scots, Welsh, Cornish, Scottish Gaelic and Irish are classed as [[Regional language|regional]] or [[Minority language|minority]] languages under the [[Council of Europe]]'s [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages]].{{Cite web |title=List of declarations made with respect to treaty No. 148 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |access-date=12 December 2013 |publisher=[[Council of Europe]] |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212175720/http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/Commun/ListeDeclarations.asp?CL=ENG&NT=148&VL=1 |url-status=dead}} These include defined obligations to promote those languages.{{Cite web |title=Welsh language on GOV.UK – Content design: planning, writing and managing content – Guidance |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/content-design/welsh-language-on-gov-uk |access-date=3 August 2018 |website=gov.uk |archive-date=4 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014121/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/content-design/welsh-language-on-gov-uk |url-status=live |postscript=;}} {{Cite news |title=Welsh language scheme |work=GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-transport/about/welsh-language-scheme |access-date=3 August 2018 |archive-date=4 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180804014119/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/department-for-transport/about/welsh-language-scheme |url-status=live |postscript=;}} {{Cite news |title=Welsh language scheme |work=GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/home-office/about/welsh-language-scheme |access-date=3 August 2018 |archive-date=2 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180802010917/https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/home-office/about/welsh-language-scheme |url-status=live}} See also [[Languages of the United Kingdom]]. Welsh has limited ''[[de jure]]'' official status in Wales, as well as in the provision of national government services provided for Wales.}} | languages2 = {{Hlist | [[Scots language|Scots]] | [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] | [[Welsh language|Welsh]] | [[Cornish language|Cornish]] | [[Scottish Gaelic]] | [[Irish language|Irish]] | [[British Sign Language]] }} | ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list | 83.1% [[White people in the United Kingdom|White]] | 8.6% [[British Asian|Asian]] | 3.7% [[Black British|Black]] | 2.7% [[Mixed (United Kingdom ethnicity category)|Mixed]] | 2.0% [[Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom|other]] }} | ethnic_groups_year = 2021 | ethnic_groups_ref = {{Efn|name=UK-wide2021|Whereas the censuses of England and Wales and of Northern Ireland went ahead as planned in 2021, the census in Scotland was postponed until 2022. The Office for National Statistics reports that these UK-wide statistics "have been created to provide an image of how UK census data may have looked if the most recent UK censuses had been conducted with an aligned date of 21 March 2021".}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/censusbasedstatisticsuk2021|title=Table 06: UK06 - Ethnic group by sex by age, United Kingdom|work=Census-based statistics UK: 2021|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=27 June 2025|access-date=28 March 2026}} | religion = {{unbulleted list | 46.6% [[Religion in the United Kingdom#Christianity|Christianity]] | 37.6% [[Irreligion in the United Kingdom|no religion]] | 6.0% [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Islam]] | 1.6% [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|Hinduism]] | 2.2% [[Religion in the United Kingdom|other]] | 5.9% not stated }} | religion_year = 2021 | religion_ref = {{Efn|name=UK-wide2021}}{{cite web|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/censusbasedstatisticsuk2021|title=Table 07: UK07 - Religion by sex by age, United Kingdom|work=Census-based statistics UK: 2021|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=27 June 2025|access-date=28 March 2026}} | demonym = {{hlist |[[British people|British]] |Briton |Brit (colloquial) }} | government_type = Unitary [[Westminster parliamentary system|parliamentary constitutional monarchy]]{{Efn|Although the United Kingdom has traditionally been seen as a [[unitary state]], an alternative description of the UK as a "union state", put forward by, amongst others, [[Vernon Bogdanor]],{{Cite book |last=Bradbury |first=Jonathan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QWEAAAQBAJ&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA19 |title=Constitutional Policy and Territorial Politics in the UK: Volume 1: Union and Devolution 1997–2012 |date=2021 |publisher=Policy Press |isbn=978-1-5292-0588-6 |pages=19–20 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002204328/https://books.google.com/books?id=c3QWEAAAQBAJ&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA19#v=onepage&q=%2522union%20state%2522%20UK%20unitary&f=false |url-status=live}} has become increasingly influential since the adoption of devolution in the 1990s.{{Cite book |last=Leith |first=Murray Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PeBvAAAAQBAJ&q=Uk+%2522unitary+state%2522&pg=PA39 |title=Political Discourse and National Identity in Scotland |date=2012 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-7486-8862-3 |page=39 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002204223/https://books.google.com/books?id=PeBvAAAAQBAJ&q=Uk+%2522unitary+state%2522&pg=PA39#v=onepage&q=Uk%20%2522unitary%20state%2522&f=false |url-status=live}} A union state is considered to differ from a unitary state in that while it maintains a central authority it also recognises the authority of historic rights and infrastructures of its component parts.{{Cite book |last1=Gagnon |first1=Alain-G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0ahE2fTxS0C&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA47 |title=Multinational Democracies |last2=Tully |first2=James |date=2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80473-8 |page=47 |access-date=3 October 2021 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002204329/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0ahE2fTxS0C&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA47#v=onepage&q=%2522union%20state%2522%20UK%20unitary&f=false |url-status=live |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Bogdanor |first=Vernon |title=Constitutional Reform in the United Kingdom: Practice and Principles |date=1998 |publisher=Hart Publishing |isbn=978-1-901362-84-8 |editor-last=Beatson |editor-first=Jack |location=Oxford |page=18 |chapter=Devolution: the Constitutional Aspects |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YEEgDsCYmbQC&q=%2522union+state%2522+UK+unitary&pg=PA18}}}} | leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Monarch]] | leader_name1 = [[Charles III]] | leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] | leader_name2 = [[Andy Burnham]] | legislature = [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] | upper_house = [[House of Lords]] | lower_house = [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]] | sovereignty_type = [[Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|Formation]] | established_event1 = [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|Laws in Wales Acts]] | established_date1 = 1535 and 1542 | established_event2 = [[Union of the Crowns]] | established_date2 = 24 March 1603 | established_event3 = [[Treaty of Union]] | established_date3 = 22 July 1706 | established_event4 = [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union of England and Scotland]] | established_date4 = 1 May 1707 | established_event5 = [[Acts of Union 1800|Acts of Union of Great Britain and Ireland]] | established_date5 = 1 January 1801 | established_event6 = [[Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922|Irish Free State Constitution Act]] | established_date6 = 6 December 1922 | area_label = Total{{efn|name=ONSArea|[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] Standard Area Measurement, 'area to mean high water'. Excludes the [[Crown Dependencies]] and [[British Overseas Territories]].}} | area_km2 = 244376 | area_footnote = {{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |title=Standard Area Measurements for Administrative Areas (December 2023) in the UK |author= |date=31 May 2024 |website=[[ONS Open Geography Portal|Open Geography Portal]] |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=7 June 2024 |archive-date=7 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240607052407/https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/ons::standard-area-measurements-for-administrative-areas-december-2023-in-the-uk/about |url-status=live}} | area_rank = 78th | area_sq_mi = auto | area_label2 = Land{{efn|name=ONSLandArea|[[Office for National Statistics|ONS]] Standard Area Measurement, "area to mean high water excluding inland water". Excludes the [[Crown Dependencies]] and [[British Overseas Territories]].}} | area_data2 = {{convert|{{UK subdivision area|GSS=K02000001}}|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} | percent_water = | population_estimate = {{IncreaseNeutral}} {{UK subdivision population|GSS=K02000001}}{{UK subdivision statistics citation}} | population_estimate_year = {{UK subdivision statistics year}} | population_estimate_rank = 20th | population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 66,912,637{{Efn|name=UK-wide2021}} | population_census_year = 2021 | population_census_rank = | population_density_km2 = {{UK subdivision density|GSS=K02000001}} | population_density_sq_mi = auto | population_density_rank = 48th | pop_den_footnote = | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $4.721 trillion{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=14 April 2026 |access-date=18 April 2026}} | GDP_PPP_year = 2026 | GDP_PPP_rank = 10th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $67,585 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 33rd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $4.265 trillion | GDP_nominal_year = 2026 | GDP_nominal_rank = 5th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $61,056 | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 21st | Gini = 35.4 | Gini_year = 2021 | Gini_change = decrease | Gini_ref = {{Cite web |title=Income inequality |url=https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |access-date=12 February 2024 |website=OECD Data |publisher=[[OECD]] |archive-date=1 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220701171540/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |url-status=live}} | HDI = 0.946 | HDI_year = 2023 | HDI_change = increase | HDI_ref = {{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}} | HDI_rank = 13th | currency = [[Pound sterling|Sterling]]{{Efn|Commonly also known as the "pound" (the name of [[pound (currency)|its base unit]]) or "pound sterling". Some of the devolved countries, [[Crown Dependency|Crown Dependencies]] and [[British Overseas Territory|British Overseas Territories]] issue their own sterling banknotes or currencies, or use another nation's currency. See [[List of British currencies]].}} ([[£]]) | currency_code = GBP | utc_offset = +0 | time_zone = [[Greenwich Mean Time|GMT]] | utc_offset_DST = +1 | time_zone_DST = [[British Summer Time|BST]]{{Efn|Also observed by the [[Crown Dependencies]]. For further information, see [[Time in the United Kingdom]].}} | DST_note = | date_format = {{Abbr|dd|day}}/{{Abbr|mm|month}}/{{Abbr|yyyy|year}} ([[Anno Domini|AD]]){{efn|The UK Government uses the [[ISO 8601]] format, {{Abbr|yyyy|year}}-{{Abbr|mm|month}}-{{Abbr|dd|day}}, for machine-readable dates and times.{{cite web |title=Formatting dates and times in data |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-standards-for-government/date-times-and-time-stamps-standard |date=9 August 2022 |website=[[gov.uk]] |publisher=[[Government of the United Kingdom|HM Government]] |access-date=1 June 2024 |archive-date=9 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240509092813/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/open-standards-for-government/date-times-and-time-stamps-standard |url-status=live}} See [[Date and time notation in the United Kingdom]].}} | calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom|+44]]{{Efn|Excludes most overseas territories. See [[Telephone numbers in the United Kingdom#Telephone numbers in Overseas Territories]].}} | cctld = [[.uk]]{{Efn|The [[.gb]] domain is also reserved for the UK, but has been little used.}} }} The '''United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''', commonly known as the '''United Kingdom''' ('''UK''') or '''Britain''',{{Efn|Usage is mixed. ''[[The Guardian]]''{{Cite news |date=2021-04-23 |title=Guardian style guide: U |url=https://www.theguardian.com/guardian-style-guide-u |access-date=2025-12-29 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} and ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]''{{Cite news |date=2025-07-25 |title=Places |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/style-book/places/ |access-date=2025-12-29 |work=The Telegraph |language=en-GB |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=17 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251117111222/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/style-book/places/ |url-status=live }} use ''Britain'' as a synonym for the United Kingdom. The British [[Cabinet Office]]'s [[Government Digital Service]] style guide{{Cite web |title=Style guide - A to Z - Guidance - GOV.UK |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z#great-britain |access-date=2026-01-02 |website=www.gov.uk |language=en |archive-date=22 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122222025/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z#great-britain |url-status=live }} for use on [[gov.uk]] recommends: "Use UK and United Kingdom in preference to Britain and British (UK business, UK foreign policy, ambassador and high commissioner). But British embassy, not UK embassy."}} is a country in [[northwestern Europe]], off the coast of [[European mainland|the continental mainland]]. It comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]],{{efn|The [[Isle of Man]], [[Bailiwick of Guernsey|Guernsey]] and [[Jersey]] are [[Crown Dependencies]] and not part of the UK.}} with a population of over 69 million in 2024. The UK includes the island of [[Great Britain]], the north-eastern part of the island of [[Ireland]], and most of [[List of islands of the United Kingdom|the smaller islands]] within the [[British Isles]], covering {{Convert|244376|km2|sqmi|order=flip}}.{{efn|name=ONSArea}} It shares [[Republic of Ireland–United Kingdom border|a land border]] with the [[Republic of Ireland]] and is surrounded by the [[Atlantic Ocean]], the [[North Sea]], the [[English Channel]], the [[Celtic Sea]] and the [[Irish Sea]], while maintaining sovereignty over the [[Crown Dependencies]] and the [[British Overseas Territories]]. The capital and largest city of England and the UK is [[London]]; [[Edinburgh]], [[Cardiff]] and [[Belfast]] are the national capitals of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland, respectively. The British Isles have been continuously inhabited since the [[Neolithic]]. In AD 43 the [[Roman conquest of Britain]] began. The [[end of Roman rule in Britain|Roman departure]] between 383 and 410 was followed by [[Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain|Anglo-Saxon settlement]] beginning around 450. In 1066 the [[Norman Conquest|Normans conquered England]]. Over the 17th century the role of the [[British monarchy]] was reduced, particularly as a result of the [[English Civil War]]. In 1707 the Kingdom of England and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] united under the [[Treaty of Union]] to create the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]. The [[Acts of Union 1800]] incorporated the [[Kingdom of Ireland]] to create the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] in 1801. Most of Ireland [[Partition of Ireland|seceded]] from the UK in 1922 as the [[Irish Free State]], and the [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927]] created the present United Kingdom. The UK [[History of industrialisation#Industrial Revolution in Europe|became the first industrialised country]] and was the world's [[foremost power]] for the majority of the 19th and early 20th centuries, particularly during the ''[[Pax Britannica]]'' between 1815 and 1914. The [[British Empire]] was the leading [[economic power]] for most of the 19th century, a position supported by [[British Agricultural Revolution|its agricultural prosperity]], its role as a dominant [[trading nation]], a massive industrial capacity, [[List of British innovations and discoveries in the 19th century|significant technological achievements]], and the rise of [[19th-century London]] as the world's principal financial centre. At its height in the 1920s, the empire encompassed around a quarter of the world's landmass and population, and was the [[List of largest empires#Empires at their greatest extent|largest in history]]. However, [[History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|its involvement in the First World War]] and [[Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II|in the Second World War]] damaged [[Economy of the British Empire|Britain's economic power]], and a global wave of [[decolonisation]] led to the independence of most British colonies. The UK is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and [[parliamentary democracy]]{{Efn|The United Kingdom does not have a codified constitution but an unwritten one formed of Acts of Parliament, court judgments, traditions, and conventions.{{Citation |title=What is the UK Constitution? |date=9 August 2018 |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/what-uk-constitution/what-uk-constitution |publisher=The Constitution Unit of UCL |access-date=6 February 2020 |archive-date=7 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107060057/http://www.ucl.ac.uk/constitution-unit/whatis/uk-constitution |url-status=live}}}} with three distinct jurisdictions: [[English law|England and Wales]], [[Scots law|Scotland]], and [[Law of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]. Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland have their own governments and parliaments which control various [[Devolution in the United Kingdom|devolved]] matters. A [[developed country]] with [[Economy of the United Kingdom|an advanced economy]], the UK ranks amongst the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|largest economies by nominal GDP]] and is one of the world's [[List of countries by exports|largest exporters]] and [[List of countries by imports|importers]]. As a [[nuclear state]] with one of the [[List of countries by military expenditures|highest defence budgets]], the UK maintains [[British Armed Forces|one of the strongest militaries in Europe]]. [[Culture of the United Kingdom|British culture]] is globally influential, notably in the [[Anglosphere]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|the Commonwealth]]; [[Anglicisation|its soft power influence]] is observable in the legal and political systems of many [[List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom|former colonies]], and in its exports [[English-speaking world|of language]], [[British literature|literature]], [[Theatre of the United Kingdom|theatre]], [[Cinema of the United Kingdom|cinema]], [[Music of the United Kingdom|music]], [[Mass media in the United Kingdom|media]], [[Art of the United Kingdom|art]] and [[Sport in the United Kingdom|sport]]. A [[great power]], the UK is part of [[Foreign relations of the United Kingdom#International organisations|numerous international organisations]]. == Etymology and terminology == {{Anchor|Etymology}} {{See also|Britain (place name)|Terminology of the British Isles}} The [[Acts of Union 1707]] declared that the [[Kingdom of England]] and the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] were "United into One Kingdom by the Name of Great Britain".{{Efn|Compare to section 1 of both of the 1800 [[Acts of Union (1800)|Acts of Union]] which reads: "the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland shall{{spaces}}... be united into one kingdom, by the name of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland".}}{{Cite web |title=The Treaty (act) of the Union of Parliament 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=23 August 2011 |publisher=Scots History Online |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last1=Barnett, Hilaire |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LYc1tSYonrQC&pg=PA165 |title=Constitutional & Administrative Law |last2=Jago, Robert |publisher=Routledge |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-415-56301-7 |edition=8th |location=Abingdon |page=165 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140722/https://books.google.com/books?id=LYc1tSYonrQC&pg=PA165 |url-status=live}} The term "United Kingdom" has occasionally been used for the former [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], although its official name from 1707 to 1800 was simply "Great Britain"."After the political union of England and Scotland in 1707, the nation's official name became 'Great Britain{{'"}}, ''The American Pageant, Volume 1'', Cengage Learning (2012); "From 1707 until 1801 ''Great Britain'' was the official designation of the kingdoms of England and Scotland". ''The Standard Reference Work: For the Home, School and Library, Volume 3'', Harold Melvin Stanford (1921); "In 1707, on the union with Scotland, 'Great Britain' became the official name of the British Kingdom, and so continued until the union with Ireland in 1801". ''United States Congressional serial set, Issue 10; Issue 3265'' (1895); {{Cite web |last=Gascoigne, Bamber |author-link=Bamber Gascoigne |title=History of Great Britain (from 1707) |url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab07 |access-date=18 July 2011 |publisher=History World |archive-date=27 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527205230/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ab07 |url-status=live}} The [[Acts of Union 1800]] formed the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. Following the [[partition of Ireland]] and the independence of the [[Irish Free State]] in 1922, which left [[Northern Ireland]] as the only part of the island of Ireland within the United Kingdom, the name was changed in 1927 to the "United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland".{{Cite book |last=Cottrell, P. |url=https://archive.org/details/irishcivilwar00cott_573 |title=The Irish Civil War 1922–23 |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-270-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/irishcivilwar00cott_573/page/n85 85] |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |url-access=limited}} Although the United Kingdom is a sovereign country, England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland are widely referred to as [[Countries of the United Kingdom|countries]].{{Citation |last1=S. Dunn |title=An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict |year=2000 |place=[[Lewiston, New York]] |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |quote=One specific problem – in both general and particular senses – is to know what to call Northern Ireland itself: in the general sense, it is not a country, or a province, or a state – although some refer to it contemptuously as a statelet: the least controversial word appears to be jurisdiction, but this might change. |last2=H. Dawson |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |date=15 December 2011 |title=Changes in the list of subdivision names and code elements |url=http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_3166-2_newsletter_ii-3_2011-12-13.pdf |access-date=28 May 2012 |website=ISO 3166-2 |publisher=International Organization for Standardization |archive-date=19 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919073956/http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_3166-2_newsletter_ii-3_2011-12-13.pdf |url-status=live}} The UK Prime Minister's website has used the phrase "countries within a country" to describe it.{{Cite web |date=10 January 2003 |title=Countries within a country |url=http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20080909013512/http://www.number10.gov.uk/Page823 |archive-date=9 September 2008 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Prime Minister's Office}} Some statistical summaries, such as those for the twelve [[NUTS of the United Kingdom|NUTS 1 regions]], refer to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland as "regions".{{Cite web |title=Statistical bulletin: Regional Labour Market Statistics |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_346117.xml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224045523/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_346117.xml |archive-date=24 December 2014 |access-date=5 March 2014 |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |title=13.4% Fall In Earnings Value During Recession |url=http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/fall-in-earnings-value-during-recession |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103194604/http://www.gmb.org.uk/newsroom/fall-in-earnings-value-during-recession |archive-date=3 January 2014 |access-date=5 March 2014}} Northern Ireland is also referred to as a "province".{{Cite book |last1=Dunn, Seamus |title=An Alphabetical Listing of Word, Name and Place in Northern Ireland and the Living Language of Conflict |last2=Dawson, Helen |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-7734-7711-7 |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Murphy, Dervla |title=[[A Place Apart (Murphy book)|A Place Apart]] |publisher=Penguin |year=1979 |isbn=978-0-14-005030-1 |location=London}} With regard to Northern Ireland, the descriptive name used "can be controversial, with the choice often revealing one's political preferences".{{Cite book |last1=Whyte |first1=John |title=Interpreting Northern Ireland |last2=FitzGerald |first2=Garret |publisher=Clarendon Press |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-19-827380-6 |location=Oxford |author-link=John Henry Whyte |author-link2=Garret FitzGerald}} The term "Great Britain" conventionally refers to the island of Great Britain, or politically to England, Scotland and Wales in combination.{{Cite news |date=19 December 2008 |title=Guardian Unlimited Style Guide |publisher=Guardian News and Media Limited |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/styleguide/page/0,,184840,00.html |access-date=23 August 2011 |postscript=;}} {{Cite news |date=19 August 2002 |title=BBC style guide (Great Britain) |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/radio_newsroom/1099593.stm#g |access-date=23 August 2011 |archive-date=15 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090215074832/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/radio_newsroom/1099593.stm#g |url-status=live |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |title=Key facts about the United Kingdom |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012517 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=Government, citizens and rights |publisher=HM Government}} It is sometimes used as a loose synonym for the United Kingdom as a whole.[[New Oxford American Dictionary]]: "Great Britain: England, Wales, and Scotland considered as a unit. The name is also often used loosely to refer to the United Kingdom." The word ''England'' is occasionally used incorrectly to refer to the United Kingdom as a whole, a mistake principally made by people from outside the UK."When people say England, they sometimes mean Great Britain, sometimes the United Kingdom, sometimes the British Isles — but never England." — {{Citation |last=George Mikes |title=How To Be An Alien |year=1946 |publisher=Penguin}} {{ISBN|978-0-582-41686-4|postscript=;}} {{Cite web |title=England OR United Kingdom (UK)? {{!}} Vocabulary {{!}} EnglishClub |url=https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/cw-uk-england.htm |access-date=16 October 2022 |website=englishclub.com |archive-date=16 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016192638/https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/cw-uk-england.htm |url-status=live}} The term "Britain" is used as a synonym for [[Great Britain]],{{Cite web |title=Britain Meaning in the Cambridge English Dictionary |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/britain |website=dictionary.cambridge.org |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024348/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/britain |url-status=live |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |title=Definition of Britain in English by Oxford Dictionaries |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/britain |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926204707/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/britain |archive-date=26 September 2016 |website=Oxford Dictionaries – English}}{{Cite web |title=Britain definition and meaning |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/britain |website=collinsdictionary.com |publisher=Collins English Dictionary |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024837/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/britain |url-status=live}} but also sometimes for the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |title=Britain – Definition for English-Language Learners |url=http://learnersdictionary.com/definition/Britain |website=learnersdictionary.com |publisher=Merriam-Webster's Learner's Dictionary |access-date=19 June 2018 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620024648/http://learnersdictionary.com/definition/Britain |url-status=live}} Usage is mixed: the [[style guide]] of the [[Government of the United Kingdom|UK Government]] prefers the term "UK" rather than "Britain" or "British" (except when referring to embassies{{Efn|"UK" embassies became "British" embassies in 1961.{{Cite news |date=21 October 1961 |title='Cold U.K.' Becomes British |work=[[The Times]] |page=8}}}}),{{Cite web |date=21 November 2024 |orig-date=23 February 2016 |title=Style guide: A to Z |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241122222025/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/style-guide/a-to-z |archive-date=22 November 2024 |publisher=UK Government}} while other government documents acknowledge that both terms refer to the United Kingdom and that elsewhere "British government" is used at least as frequently as "United Kingdom government".{{Cite web |last=Permanent Committee on Geographical Names |title=Toponymic guidelines for the United Kingdom |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |website=gov.uk |date=17 May 2023 |publisher=UK Government |access-date=17 June 2018 |archive-date=17 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180617165832/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/toponymic-guidelines |url-status=live}} The UK [[Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use|Permanent Committee on Geographical Names]] recognises "United Kingdom", "UK" and "U.K." as shortened and abbreviated geopolitical terms for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland in its toponymic guidelines; it does not list "Britain" but notes that "it is only the one specific nominal term 'Great Britain' which invariably excludes Northern Ireland". The [[BBC]] historically preferred to use "Britain" as shorthand only for Great Britain, though the present style guide does not take a position except that "Great Britain" excludes Northern Ireland.{{Cite web |title=BBC News style guide – Names |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133537 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191110082858/https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/en/articles/art20130702112133537 |archive-date=10 November 2019 |access-date=9 November 2019 |website=BBC Academy |publisher=BBC |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |title=Alphabetical checklist |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/journalism/news-style-guide/article/art20130702112133551 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180326162901/http://www.bbc.co.uk/academy/journalism/news-style-guide/article/art20130702112133551 |archive-date=26 March 2018 |access-date=17 June 2018 |website=BBC News |publisher=BBC}} The adjective "British" is commonly used to refer to matters relating to the United Kingdom and is used in law to refer to United Kingdom citizenship and [[British nationality law|nationality]].{{Cite book |last1=Bradley, Anthony Wilfred |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA36 |title=Constitutional and administrative law |last2=Ewing, Keith D. |publisher=Pearson Longman |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4058-1207-8 |edition=14th |volume=1 |location=Harlow |page=36 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140723/https://books.google.com/books?id=HT_GS2zgN5QC&pg=PA36 |url-status=live}}{{Efn|Historically, the term ''British'' was used to refer to members and institutions within the British Empire and later Commonwealth and was not limited to the geographical British Isles. The UK Government adopted the term for its exclusive use only in 1961, but in recognition of its wider usage first sought the prior consent of Australia, Canada and New Zealand.{{Cite book |last1=Curran |first1=James |title=The Unknown Nation: Australia after Empire |last2=Ward |first2=Stuart |date=2010 |publisher=Melbourne University Publishing |isbn=978-0-522-85645-3 |location=Carlton, Vic |pages=26–7}}{{Cite book |last=Ward |first=Stuart |title=Untied kingdom: A Global History of the End of Britain |date=2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-14599-3 |at=Chapter 1}}}} People of the United Kingdom use several different terms to describe their national identity and may identify themselves as being [[British people|British]], [[English people|English]], [[Scottish people|Scottish]], [[Welsh people|Welsh]], [[People of Northern Ireland|Northern Irish]] or [[Irish people|Irish]];{{Cite web |year=2010 |title=Which of these best describes the way you think of yourself? |url=http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2010/Community_Relations/NINATID.html |access-date=1 July 2010 |website=Northern Ireland Life and Times Survey 2010 |publisher=ARK – Access Research Knowledge |archive-date=23 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923175111/http://www.ark.ac.uk/nilt/2010/Community_Relations/NINATID.html |url-status=live}} or as having a combination of different national identities.{{Cite web |title=Ethnicity and National Identity in England and Wales |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |access-date=25 June 2020 |website=Office for National Statistics |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121012603/https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/ethnicity/articles/ethnicityandnationalidentityinenglandandwales/2012-12-11 |url-status=live |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Schrijver, Frans |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=u8gZklxHTMUC&pg=PA275 |title=Regionalism after regionalisation: Spain, France and the United Kingdom |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-90-5629-428-1 |pages=275–277 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140905/https://books.google.com/books?id=u8gZklxHTMUC&pg=PA275#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}} == History == {{Main|Formation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland|History of the British Isles}} {{Further|History of the constitution of the United Kingdom|Timeline of British history}} === Prior to the Treaty of Union === {{Main|History of England|History of Wales|History of Scotland|History of Ireland}} {{further|Kingdom of England|Kingdom of Scotland}} [[File:Stonehenge2007 07 30.jpg|thumb|[[Stonehenge]] in [[Wiltshire]] is a ring of stones, each about {{Cvt|13|ft|0|order=flip}} high, {{Cvt|7|ft|0|order=flip}} wide and 25 [[tonne]]s, erected 2400–2200 BC.]] Settlement by [[Cro-Magnon]]s of what is now the United Kingdom occurred in waves beginning by about 30,000 years ago.[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/wales/south_west/7069001.stm "Ancient skeleton was 'even older'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210213081240/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/south_west/7069001.stm |date=13 February 2021}}". [[BBC News]]. 30 October 2007. Retrieved 27 April 2011. The island has been continuously inhabited since the last retreat of ice around 11,500 years ago.{{Cite web |date=9 February 2018 |title=A 12,000-year story - revealing the history of settlers in Britain from the end of the Ice Age to the present day {{!}} University of Oxford |url=https://www.ox.ac.uk/news/2018-02-09-12000-year-story-revealing-history-settlers-britain-end-ice-age-present-day |access-date=6 July 2025 |website=ox.ac.uk |language=en }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} By the end of the [[Prehistoric Britain|region's prehistoric period]], the population is thought to have belonged largely to a culture termed [[Insular Celts|Insular Celtic]], comprising [[Britons (historical)|Brittonic Britain]] and [[Gaelic Ireland]].{{Cite book |last=Koch, John T. |url=https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128 |title=Celtic culture: A historical encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-85109-440-0 |location=Santa Barbara, CA |page=[https://archive.org/details/celticculturehis00koch_128/page/n1016 973] |url-access=limited}} The [[Roman conquest of Britain|Roman conquest]], beginning in AD 43, and the 400-year [[Roman Britain|rule of southern Britain]], was followed by an invasion by [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Anglo-Saxon]] settlers, reducing the Brittonic area mainly [[Wales#Post-Roman era|to what was to become Wales]], [[Cornwall]] and, until the latter stages of the Anglo-Saxon settlement, the [[Hen Ogledd]] (northern England and parts of southern Scotland).{{Cite book |title=[[Encyclopaedia of Wales|The Welsh Academy Encyclopaedia of Wales]] |publisher=University of Wales Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7083-1953-6 |editor-last=Davies |editor-first=John |editor-link=John Davies (historian) |location=Cardiff |page=915 |editor-last2=Jenkins |editor-first2=Nigel |editor-link2=Nigel Jenkins |editor-last3=Baines |editor-first3=Menna |editor-last4=Lynch |editor-first4=Peredur I. |editor-link4=Peredur Lynch}} Most of the [[Anglo-Saxon England|region settled by the Anglo-Saxons]] became unified as the Kingdom of England in the 10th century.{{Cite magazine |title=Short Athelstan biography |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/athelstan.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=9 April 2013 |archive-date=13 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070213191353/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/historic_figures/athelstan.shtml |url-status=live}} [[Dál Riata|Gaelic speakers in north-west Britain]] (with connections to the north-east of Ireland and traditionally supposed to have migrated from there in the 5th century){{Cite book |last=Mackie, J.D. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 |title=A History of Scotland |publisher=Penguin |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-14-013649-4 |location=London |pages=[https://archive.org/details/historyofscotlan00mack_0/page/18 18–19] |author-link=J.D. Mackie |postscript=;}} {{Cite book |last=Campbell |first=Ewan |title=Saints and Sea-kings: The First Kingdom of the Scots |publisher=Canongate |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-86241-874-8 |location=Edinburgh |pages=8–15}} united with the [[Picts]] to create the [[Kingdom of Scotland]] in the 9th century.{{Cite book |last=Haigh |first=Christopher |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30 |title=The Cambridge Historical Encyclopedia of Great Britain and Ireland |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-521-39552-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgehistori0000unse_a9n8/page/30 30]}} [[File:Roman Baths in Bath Spa, England - July 2006.jpg|alt=Photograph of the Baths showing a rectangular area of greenish water surrounded by yellow stone buildings with pillars. In the background is the tower of the abbey.|thumb|The [[Roman Baths (Bath)|Roman Baths]] in [[Bath, Somerset]], are a well-preserved ''[[thermae]]'' from [[Roman Britain]].]] In 1066, the [[Normans]] invaded England from northern France. After [[Norman conquest of England|conquering England]] they seized [[Norman invasion of Wales|large parts of Wales]], [[Norman invasion of Ireland|conquered much of Ireland]] and were invited to settle in Scotland, bringing to each country [[feudalism]] on the Northern French model and [[Norman-French]] culture.{{Cite book |last=Ganshof, F.L. |url=https://archive.org/details/feudalism0000gans_j4b5 |title=Feudalism |publisher=University of Toronto |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8020-7158-3 |page=165 |url-access=registration}} The [[Anglo-Normans|Anglo-Norman]] [[ruling class]] greatly influenced, but eventually assimilated with, the local cultures.{{Cite book |last=Chibnall, Marjorie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qJl5Jm-IndUC&pg=PA115 |title=The Debate on the Norman Conquest |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7190-4913-2 |pages=115–122 |author-link=Marjorie Chibnall |access-date=20 March 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164802/https://books.google.com/books?id=qJl5Jm-IndUC&pg=PA115 |url-status=live}} Subsequent [[House of Plantagenet|medieval English kings]] completed the [[conquest of Wales]] and tried unsuccessfully [[Wars of Scottish Independence|to annex Scotland]]. Asserting its independence in the 1320 [[Declaration of Arbroath]], Scotland maintained its independence thereafter, albeit in [[Anglo-Scottish Wars|near-constant conflict with England]].{{Cite web |date=3 June 2023 |title=The Declaration of Arbroath |url=https://www.nms.ac.uk/past-exhibitions/the-declaration-of-arbroath |access-date=6 July 2025 |website=NMS |language=en}} In 1215, [[Magna Carta]] was the first document to state that no government was above the law and that citizens have rights protecting them.{{Cite web |title=Magna Carta |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/magnacarta/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=parliament.uk}} {{Cite web |title=The contents of Magna Carta |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/magnacarta/magnacartaclauses/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=parliament.uk |archive-date=28 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220828101448/https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/originsofparliament/birthofparliament/overview/magnacarta/magnacartaclauses/ |url-status=live}} {{Cite web |title=Magna Carta Key Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/summary/Magna-Carta-Key-Facts |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=Britannica |archive-date=27 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240527191804/https://www.britannica.com/summary/Magna-Carta-Key-Facts |url-status=live}} The English monarchs, through inheritance of [[Angevin Empire|substantial territories in France]] and claims to the French crown, were also heavily involved in conflicts in France, most notably the [[Hundred Years' War]], while the [[List of Scottish monarchs|Kings of Scots]] were in [[Auld Alliance|an alliance with the French]] during this period.Keen, Maurice. [https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml "The Hundred Years' War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214092949/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/hundred_years_war_01.shtml |date=14 December 2013 }}. BBC History. [[Early modern Britain]] saw religious conflict resulting from the [[Reformation]] and the introduction of [[Protestant]] state churches in each country.[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism/41558/The-Reformation-in-England-and-Scotland The Reformation in England and Scotland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150515015218/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/479892/Protestantism/41558/The-Reformation-in-England-and-Scotland |date=15 May 2015 }} and [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22978/The-Reformation-period Ireland: The Reformation Period & Ireland under Elizabeth I] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150521133445/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293754/Ireland/22978/The-Reformation-period |date=21 May 2015 }}, Encyclopædia Britannica Online. The [[English Reformation]] ushered in political, constitutional, social and cultural change in the 16th century and [[State religion|established]] the [[Church of England]]. It defined a national identity for England and slowly, but profoundly, changed people's religious beliefs.{{Cite web |title=English Reformation c1527-1590 |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-english-reformation-c1527-1590/ |access-date=20 January 2023 |website=The National Archives |archive-date=2 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202002512/https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/the-english-reformation-c1527-1590/ |url-status=live}} Wales was [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|fully incorporated into the Kingdom of England]],{{Cite magazine |date=5 November 2009 |title=British History in Depth – Wales under the Tudors |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |magazine=BBC History |access-date=21 September 2010 |archive-date=7 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120207145836/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/wales_tudors_01.shtml |url-status=live}} and Ireland was constituted as a kingdom in personal union with the English crown.{{Cite book |last=Nicholls |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000nich |title=A history of the modern British Isles, 1529–1603: The two kingdoms |publisher=Blackwell |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-631-19334-0 |location=Oxford |pages=171–172 |url-access=registration}} During the [[Plantation of Ulster]] in the 17th century, the lands of the Catholic Gaelic nobility were confiscated by the Crown and granted to Protestant settlers from England and Scotland.{{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas P. |url=https://archive.org/details/makingirelandbri00cann |title=Making Ireland British, 1580–1650 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-925905-2 |pages=189–200 |url-access=registration}} [[File:Adam de Colone (c.1572-1651) - James VI and I (1566–1625), King of Scotland (1567–1625), King of England and Ireland (1603–1625) - PG 2172 - National Galleries of Scotland.jpg|thumb|right|[[James VI and I|James VI]], [[King of Scotland]], succeeded to the English and Irish thrones in 1603.]] The [[Union of the Crowns]] occurred in 1603 when [[James VI of Scotland]] inherited the thrones of England and Ireland, subsequently moving his court from Edinburgh to London. Although unified under a single monarch, the three realms remained entirely separate political entities, preserving their respective parliaments, judicial systems, and established churches.Ross, D. (2002). ''[[iarchive:chronologyofscot0000ross|Chronology of Scottish History]]''. Glasgow: Geddes & Grosset. p. 56. {{ISBN|978-1-85534-380-1}}; Hearn, J. (2002). ''Claiming Scotland: National Identity and Liberal Culture''. Edinburgh University Press. p. 104. {{ISBN|978-1-902930-16-9}}. In the mid-17th century, all three kingdoms [[Wars of the Three Kingdoms|were involved in a series of connected wars]] (including the [[English Civil War]]) which led to the temporary overthrow of the monarchy, with [[Execution of Charles I|the execution]] of [[Charles I of England|King Charles I]], and the establishment of the short-lived [[unitary republic]] of the [[Commonwealth of England]], Scotland and Ireland.{{Cite encyclopedia |title=English Civil Wars |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187936/English-Civil-Wars |access-date=28 April 2013 |archive-date=2 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502204708/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/187936/English-Civil-Wars |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |date=14 March 2010 |title=Scotland and the Commonwealth: 1651–1660 |url=http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/scotland/01_laws.php |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Archontology.org |archive-date=16 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120716194016/http://www.archontology.org/nations/uk/scotland/01_laws.php |url-status=live}} Although the [[Restoration (1660)|monarchy was restored]], the [[Interregnum (1649–1660)|Interregnum]] along with the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688 and the subsequent [[Bill of Rights 1689]] in England and [[Claim of Right Act 1689]] in Scotland ensured that, unlike much of the rest of Europe, [[royal absolutism]] would not prevail, and a professed Catholic could never accede to the throne. The [[British constitution]] would develop on the basis of [[constitutional monarchy]] and the [[parliamentary system]].{{Cite book |last=Lodge |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |title=The History of England – From the Restoration to the Death of William III (1660–1702) |publisher=Read Books |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4067-0897-4 |page=8 |orig-date=1910 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140723/https://books.google.com/books?id=EBSpvBxGyqcC |url-status=live}} With the founding of the [[Royal Society]] in 1660, science was greatly encouraged. During this period, particularly in England, the development of [[English navy|naval power]] and an interest in [[Age of Discovery|voyages of discovery]] led to the acquisition and settlement of overseas colonies, particularly in North America and the Caribbean.{{Cite web |title=Tudor Period and the Birth of a Regular Navy |url=http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111103013901/http://www.royal-navy.org/lib/index.php?title=Tudor_Period_and_the_Birth_of_a_Regular_Navy_Part_Two |archive-date=3 November 2011 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=Royal Navy History |url-status=usurped |publisher=Institute of Naval History}}; {{Cite book |last=Canny |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eQHSivGzEEMC |title=The Origins of Empire, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume I |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924676-2 |ref=refOHBEv1 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111135256/https://books.google.com/books?id=eQHSivGzEEMC |url-status=live}} Though previous attempts at uniting the two kingdoms within Great Britain in 1606, 1667 and 1689 had proved unsuccessful, the attempt initiated in 1705 led to the [[Treaty of Union]] of 1706 being agreed and ratified by both parliaments. {{Clear left}} === Union of England and Scotland === {{Main|Treaty of Union|Kingdom of Great Britain}} [[File:Articles of Union between England and Scotland 28 Jan 1707.png|thumb|right|170px|The [[Treaty of Union]] which unified the [[Kingdom of England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland]] on 1 May 1707]] On 1 May 1707 the Kingdom of Great Britain was formed, the result of the [[Acts of Union 1707]] between the [[Kingdom of England]] and [[Kingdom of Scotland]].{{Cite web |title=Articles of Union with Scotland 1707 |url=http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm |access-date=19 October 2008 |publisher=UK Parliament |archive-date=8 June 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120608152446/http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/pathways/citizenship/rise_parliament/docs/articles_union.htm |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Acts of Union 1707 |url=http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny |access-date=6 January 2011 |publisher=UK Parliament |archive-date=27 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101227033859/http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/ |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Treaty (act) of Union 1706 |url=http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527074630/http://www.scotshistoryonline.co.uk/union.html |archive-date=27 May 2019 |access-date=3 February 2011 |publisher=Scottish History online}} In the 18th century cabinet government developed under [[Robert Walpole]], who is considered the ''[[de facto]]'' first [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|prime minister]] from 1721 to 1742. A series of [[Jacobite uprisings]] sought to remove the Protestant [[House of Hanover]] from the throne and restore the Catholic [[House of Stuart]]. In 1746, the Jacobites were defeated at the [[Battle of Culloden]], after which the [[Scottish Highlanders]] were forcibly assimilated into Scotland by revoking the feudal independence of [[Scottish clan chief|clan chiefs]]. The British colonies in North America that broke away in the [[American Revolutionary War|American War of Independence]] became the [[United States]]. British imperial ambition turned towards Asia, particularly to [[British Raj|India]].Library of Congress, [https://books.google.com/books?id=BQDgr_XvsHoC&pg=PA73 ''The Impact of the American Revolution Abroad''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328140724/https://books.google.com/books?id=BQDgr_XvsHoC&pg=PA73 |date=28 March 2024 }}, p. 73. British merchants played a leading part in the [[Atlantic slave trade]], mainly between 1662 and 1807 when British or British-colonial [[slave ships]] transported nearly 3.3 million slaves from Africa.{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA12 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |publisher=Oxford University Press, USA |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-156627-1 |page=12 |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141229/https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA12#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}} The slaves were taken to [[Plantation economy|work on plantations]], principally [[History of the British West Indies|in the Caribbean]] but also [[British America|in North America]].{{Cite book |last=Morgan |first=Kenneth |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA15 |title=Slavery and the British Empire: From Africa to America |publisher=Oxford University Press, US |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-19-156627-1 |page=15 |access-date=5 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141229/https://books.google.com/books?id=SGcwgJz5rQMC&pg=PA15#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}} However, with pressure from the [[Abolitionism in the United Kingdom|abolitionist movement]], Parliament banned the trade in 1807, banned slavery in the British Empire in 1833, and Britain took a leading role in the movement to abolish slavery worldwide through the [[blockade of Africa]] and pressing other nations to end their trade with a series of treaties.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081103004954/https://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml |date=3 November 2008 }}. BBC Devon. 2007.; {{Cite book |last=Lovejoy |first=Paul E. |url=https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 |title=Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-78012-4 |edition=2nd |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love/page/290 290]}} === United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland === {{Main|History of the United Kingdom|Acts of Union 1800|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[File:Victoria in her Coronation robes.jpg|upright|thumb|[[Queen Victoria|Victoria]] reigned as [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|Queen of the United Kingdom]] and [[Empress of India]] during the 19th century.]] In 1800, the parliaments of Great Britain and Ireland each passed an Act of Union, uniting the two kingdoms and creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland on 1 January 1801.{{Cite web |title=The Act of Union |url=http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120415061235/http://www.actofunion.ac.uk/actofunion.htm#act |archive-date=15 April 2012 |access-date=15 May 2006 |publisher=Act of Union Virtual Library}} After the defeat of France at the end of the [[French Revolutionary Wars]] and [[Napoleonic Wars]] (1792–1815), the United Kingdom emerged as the principal naval and imperial power (with London the [[List of largest cities throughout history|largest city in the world from about 1830]]).Tellier, L.-N. (2009). ''Urban World History: an Economic and Geographical Perspective''. Quebec: PUQ. p. 463. {{ISBN|978-2-7605-1588-8}}. [[History of the Royal Navy (after 1707)#Pax Britannica, 1815–1914|Unchallenged at sea]], British dominance was later described as the ''[[Pax Britannica]]'' ("British Peace"), a period of [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|relative peace amongst the great powers]] (1815–1914) during which the British Empire became the global [[hegemon]]{{Cite book |last=Mathias |first=P. |title=The First Industrial Nation: the Economic History of Britain, 1700–1914 |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-26672-7 |location=London}}; {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Niall |url=https://archive.org/details/empire00nial |title=Empire: The rise and demise of the British world order and the lessons for global power |publisher=Basic Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-465-02328-8 |location=New York |url-access=registration}}{{Cite encyclopedia |title=20th-century international relations |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155 |access-date=6 May 2023 |last=McDougall |first=Walter A. |date=4 May 2023 |author-link=Walter A. McDougall |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190712124130/https://www.britannica.com/topic/20th-century-international-relations-2085155 |archive-date=12 July 2019 |url-status=live}} and adopted the role of [[global policeman]].Sondhaus, L. (2004). ''Navies in Modern World History''. London: Reaktion Books. p. 9. {{ISBN|978-1-86189-202-7}}.{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924678-6 |page=332 |ref=refOHBEv3}} From 1853 to 1856 Britain took part in the [[Crimean War]], allied with the [[Ottoman Empire]] against [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]].{{Cite journal |last=Benn |first=David Wedgwood |title=The Crimean War and its lessons for today |journal=[[International Affairs (journal)|International Affairs]] |volume=88 |issue=2 |date=March 2012 |pages=387–391 |jstor=41428613 |publisher=Oxford University Press |doi=10.1111/j.1468-2346.2012.01078.x}} Following the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] the British government led by [[Henry John Temple, 3rd Viscount Palmerston|Lord Palmerston]] assumed [[direct rule]] over [[British Raj|India]]. Alongside the formal control it exerted over its own colonies, British dominance of much of world trade meant that it [[Informal empire|effectively controlled]] the economies of regions such as [[East Asia]] and [[Latin America]].{{Cite book |last=Porter |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oo3F2X8IDeEC |title=The Nineteenth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume III |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924678-6 |page=8 |ref=refOHBEv3}}; {{Cite book |last=Marshall |first=P.J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC |title=The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-521-00254-7 |pages=156–157 |ref=refMarshall |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=16 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230116094154/https://books.google.com/books?id=S2EXN8JTwAEC |url-status=live}} Throughout the [[Victorian era]] (1837–1901) political attitudes favoured [[free trade]] and ''[[laissez-faire]]'' policies. Beginning with the [[Great Reform Act]] in 1832, Parliament gradually [[Reform Acts|widened the voting franchise]], with the [[Representation of the People Act 1884|1884 Reform Act]] championed by [[William Ewart Gladstone|William Gladstone]] granting [[suffrage]] to a majority of males for the first time. The British population increased at a dramatic rate, accompanied by rapid [[urbanisation]], causing significant social and economic stresses.{{Cite book |last=Tompson |first=Richard S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H5kcJqmXk2oC&pg=PA63 |title=Great Britain: a reference guide from the Renaissance to the present |publisher=Facts on File |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8160-4474-0 |location=New York |page=63}} By the late 19th century, [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative governments]] under [[Benjamin Disraeli]] and [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] accelerated [[Scramble for Africa|imperial expansion in Africa]], sustained a foreign policy of "[[splendid isolation]]" from European alliances, and intensified strategic containment of the [[Russian Empire]] in [[Central Asia]], a competition known as the [[Great Game]].{{Cite journal |last=Fromkin |first=David |date=1980 |title=The Great Game in Asia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512 |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=58 |issue=4 |pages=936–951 |doi=10.2307/20040512 |jstor=20040512 |issn=0015-7120 |access-date=4 June 2023 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412053528/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20040512 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}} During this time, [[Canada]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] were granted self-governing [[dominion]] status.{{Cite book |last=Hosch, William L. |title=World War I: People, Politics, and Power |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-61530-048-8 |series=America at War |location=New York |page=21}} At the turn of the 20th century, Britain's industrial dominance became challenged by the [[German Empire]] and the [[United States]].{{Cite book |last=Zarembka |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NSrwpggmHigC&pg=PP1 |title=Contradictions: Finance, Greed, and Labor Unequally Paid |date=2013 |publisher=Emerald Group Publishing |isbn=978-1-78190-670-5 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141231/https://books.google.com/books?id=NSrwpggmHigC&pg=PP1#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}} The [[Edwardian era]] (1901–1910) saw [[Liberal welfare reforms|social reform]] and [[Irish Home Rule movement|home rule for Ireland]] become important domestic issues, while the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] emerged from an alliance of [[Trade unions in the United Kingdom|trade unions]] and small socialist groups in 1900, and [[suffragettes]] campaigned for women's right to vote.Sophia A. Van Wingerden, ''The women's suffrage movement in Britain, 1866–1928'' (1999) ch 1. === World wars and partition of Ireland === {{Main|History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|Partition of Ireland|Interwar Britain|United Kingdom home front during the Second World War|Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II}} [[File:Wreaths Are Laid at the Cenotaph, London During Remembrance Sunday Service MOD 45152052.jpg|thumb|Wreaths being laid during the [[Remembrance Sunday]] service at the [[The Cenotaph|Cenotaph]] in [[Whitehall]], London]] [[File:Spitfire and Hurricane in the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight.jpg|thumb|A [[Supermarine Spitfire|Spitfire]] and a [[Hawker Hurricane|Hurricane]] as flown in the [[Battle of Britain]] during the [[Second World War]]]] Britain was one of the principal [[Allies of World War I|Allies]] that defeated the [[Central Powers]] in the [[First World War]] (1914–1918). Alongside their French, Russian and (after 1917) American counterparts,Turner, John (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. London: Unwin Hyman. pp. 22–35. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}. British armed forces were engaged across much of the British Empire and in several regions of Europe, particularly on the [[Western Front (World War I)|Western Front]]. The high fatalities of [[trench warfare]] caused the loss of much of a generation of men, with lasting social effects in the nation and a great disruption in the social order. Britain had suffered 2.5 million casualties and finished the war with a huge national debt.Westwell, I.; Cove, D. (eds) (2002). ''History of World War I, Volume 3''. London: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 698, 705. {{ISBN|978-0-7614-7231-5}}. The consequences of the war persuaded the government to expand the right to vote in national and local elections to all adult men and most adult women with the [[Representation of the People Act 1918]]. After the war Britain became a permanent member of the Executive Council of the [[League of Nations]] and received [[League of Nations mandate|a mandate]] over a number of former German and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] colonies. Under the leadership of [[David Lloyd George]], the British Empire reached its greatest extent, covering a fifth of the world's land surface and a quarter of its population.Turner, J. (1988). ''Britain and the First World War''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 41. {{ISBN|978-0-04-445109-9}}. By the mid-1920s, most of the British population could listen to [[BBC]] radio programmes.{{Cite web |date=15 June 2020 |title=100 years of radio since Marconi's big breakthrough |url=https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/features-and-news/100-years-of-radio |access-date=17 November 2020 |website=Ofcom |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804031332/https://www.ofcom.org.uk/about-ofcom/latest/features-and-news/100-years-of-radio |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=History of the BBC: The origins of BBC Local Radio |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/research/local-radio |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=[[BBC]] |last=Linfoot |first=Matthew |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920232207/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/research/local-radio/ |url-status=live}} Experimental [[Television in the United Kingdom|television]] broadcasts [[History of television#United Kingdom|began in 1929]] and the [[First day of BBC television|first scheduled BBC Television Service]] commenced in 1936.{{Cite web |title=History of the BBC: 1920s |url=https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/timelines/1920s |access-date=18 September 2022 |website=[[BBC]] |archive-date=26 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926064808/https://www.bbc.com/historyofthebbc/timelines/1920s |url-status=live}} The rise of [[Irish nationalism]], and disputes within Ireland over the terms of [[Irish Home Rule]], led eventually to the [[Partition of Ireland|partition of the island]] in 1921.[[SR&O 1921]]/533 of 3 May 1921. [[The Troubles in Ulster (1920–1922)|A period of conflict in what is now Northern Ireland]] occurred from June 1920 until June 1922. The [[Irish Free State]] became independent, initially with [[Dominion]] status in 1922, and [[Statute of Westminster 1931#Irish Free State|unambiguously independent in 1931]]. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |title=The Anglo-Irish Treaty, 6 December 1921 |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |access-date=15 May 2006 |website=CAIN Web Service |archive-date=14 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120514145108/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/issues/politics/docs/ait1921.htm |url-status=live}} The [[1928 Equal Franchise Act]] gave women electoral equality with men in national elections. Strikes in the mid-1920s culminated in the [[General Strike of 1926]]. Still suffering from the long-term economic effects of the First World War, Britain was severely impacted by the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]] (1929–1932), which intensified hardship in old industrial areas in traditional sectors, led to mass unemployment peaking near 3 million, and precipitated widespread political instability and social unrest. [[National Government (1931)|A coalition government]] was formed in 1931.Rubinstein, W.D. (2004). ''Capitalism, Culture, and Decline in Britain, 1750–1990''. Abingdon: Routledge. p. 11. {{ISBN|978-0-415-03719-8}}. Nonetheless, Britain was described as "a very wealthy country, formidable in arms, ruthless in pursuit of its interests and sitting at the heart of a global production system."{{Cite book |last=Edgerton |first=David |date=2012 |title=Britain's War Machine |url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/55731/britain-s-war-machine/9780141026107.html |access-date=10 May 2020 |publisher=Penguin |postscript=none |archive-date=28 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428080558/https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/55731/britain-s-war-machine/9780141026107.html |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Britain's War Machine: Weapons, Resources and Experts in the Second World War |url=https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1114 |access-date=10 May 2020 |website=[[Reviews in History]] |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612173058/https://reviews.history.ac.uk/review/1114 |url-status=live}} After [[Nazi Germany]]'s [[invasion of Poland]] in 1939, Britain entered the [[Second World War]]. Despite the defeat of its European allies in the first year, Britain and its empire continued the war against Germany. In 1940, the [[Royal Air Force]] successfully defended British airspace by repelling the German ''[[Luftwaffe]]'' in the [[Battle of Britain]]. Urban areas suffered heavy bombing during [[the Blitz]]. The [[Grand Alliance (World War II)|Grand Alliance]] of Britain, the United States and the [[Soviet Union]] formed in 1941, leading the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] against the [[Axis powers]]. There were eventual hard-fought victories in the [[Battle of the Atlantic]], the [[North Africa campaign]] and the [[Italian campaign (World War II)|Italian campaign]]. British forces played important roles in the [[Normandy landings]] of 1944 and the [[liberation of Europe]]. The British Army led the [[Burma campaign]] against Japan, and the [[British Pacific Fleet]] fought Japan at sea. [[British contribution to the Manhattan Project|British scientists contributed]] to the American [[Manhattan Project]], whose task was to build a [[nuclear weapon]].{{cite book |author=Septimus H. Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fSZpgW-N628C&pg=PA1 |title=Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 |publisher=Ohio State U.P. |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-8142-0852-6 |pages=1–5}} === Post-war 20th century === {{Main|Post-war Britain (1945–1979)|Social history of post-war Britain (1945–1979)}} [[File:British Empire 1921.png|thumb|right|upright=1.4|The [[British Empire]] at its territorial peak in 1921]] The United Kingdom was one of the [[Big Three (World War II)|Big Three]] powers (with the United States and the Soviet Union) who met to plan the [[Aftermath of World War II|post-war world]];{{Cite book |last1=Doenecke |first1=Justus D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62 |title=Debating Franklin D. Roosevelt's foreign policies, 1933–1945 |last2=Stoler |first2=Mark A. |year=2005 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8476-9416-7 |access-date=19 March 2016 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141231/https://books.google.com/books?id=xdMF9rX6mX8C&pg=PA62#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live|author-link=Justus Drew Doenecke}}; {{Cite book |last=Kelly |first=Brian |url=https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |title=The Four Policemen and Postwar Planning, 1943–1945: The Collision of Realist and Idealist Perspectives |publisher=Indiana University of Pennsylvania |access-date=25 August 2015 |archive-date=22 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022125442/https://www.iup.edu/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=37681 |url-status=live}} it drafted the [[Declaration by United Nations]] with the United States and became one of the five permanent members of the [[United Nations Security Council]]. It worked closely with the United States to establish the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[World Bank]] and [[NATO]].{{Cite web |date=22 July 2010 |title=The "Special Relationship" between Great Britain and the United States Began with FDR |work=Roosevelt Institute |url=http://rooseveltinstitute.org/special-relationship-between-great-britain-and-united-states-began-fdr |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180125021103/http://rooseveltinstitute.org/special-relationship-between-great-britain-and-united-states-began-fdr |archive-date=25 January 2018 |access-date=24 January 2018 |quote=and the joint efforts of both powers to create a new post-war strategic and economic order through the drafting of the Atlantic Charter; the establishment of the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank; and the creation of the United Nations.}}; {{Cite press release |title=Remarks by the President Obama and Prime Minister Cameron in Joint Press Conference |date=22 April 2016 |publisher=The White House |url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/04/22/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-cameron-joint-press |quote=That's what we built after World War II. The United States and the UK designed a set of institutions – whether it was the United Nations, or the Bretton Woods structure, IMF, World Bank, NATO, across the board. |access-date=24 January 2018 |archive-date=8 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210608110653/https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2016/04/22/remarks-president-obama-and-prime-minister-cameron-joint-press |url-status=live}} The war left the UK severely weakened and financially dependent on the American [[Marshall Plan]],{{Cite news |date=28 December 2006 |title=Britain to make its final payment on World War II loan from U.S. |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/business/worldbusiness/28iht-nazi.4042453.html |access-date=25 August 2011 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820022220/http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/business/worldbusiness/28iht-nazi.4042453.html |url-status=live}} but it was spared the total war that devastated [[eastern Europe]].{{Cite news |last=Reynolds |first=David |date=17 April 2011 |title=Britain's War Machine by David Edgerton – review |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/apr/17/britains-war-machine-david-edgerton-review |access-date=10 May 2020 |archive-date=12 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612130213/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2011/apr/17/britains-war-machine-david-edgerton-review |url-status=live}} In the immediate post-war years the [[Labour Government 1945–1951|Labour government]] under [[Clement Attlee]] initiated a radical programme of reforms, which significantly affected British society [[Post-war consensus|in the following decades]].{{Cite book |last=Francis |first=Martin |title=Ideas and policies under Labour, 1945–1951: Building a new Britain |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7190-4833-3 |pages=225–233}} Major industries and public utilities were [[nationalised]], a [[welfare state]] was established, and a comprehensive, publicly funded healthcare system, the [[National Health Service]], was created.{{Cite book |last=Lee |first=Stephen J. |url=https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees |title=Aspects of British political history, 1914–1995 |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-415-13103-2 |location=London; New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/aspectsbritishpo00lees/page/n183 173]–199 |url-access=limited}} The rise of nationalism in the colonies coincided with Britain's much-diminished economic position after [[History of the United Kingdom during the First World War|its involvement in the First World War]] and [[Military history of the United Kingdom during World War II|in the Second World War]], so that a policy of [[decolonisation]] was unavoidable.{{cite book |last=Brown |first=Judith |author-link=Judith M. Brown |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |title=The Twentieth Century, The Oxford History of the British Empire Volume IV |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-924679-3 |ref=refOHBEv4 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103114315/http://books.google.com/books?id=CpSvK3An3hwC |archive-date=3 January 2014 |url-status=live}} p. 319.{{cite book |last=Louis |first=Wm. Roger |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |title=Ends of British Imperialism: The Scramble for Empire, Suez and Decolonization |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-84511-347-6 |ref=refLouis2006 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222045215/https://books.google.com/books?id=NQnpQNKeKKAC |archive-date=22 February 2017 |url-status=live}} p. 337.{{cite book |last=Abernethy |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |title=The Dynamics of Global Dominance, European Overseas Empires 1415–1980 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-300-09314-8 |ref=refAbernethy2000 |access-date=22 July 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214082531/http://books.google.com/books?id=ennqNS1EOuMC |archive-date=14 December 2011 |url-status=live}} p. 146. Independence was granted to India and Pakistan in 1947.{{Cite book |last=Larres |first=Klaus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7D66_9YOof4C&pg=PA118 |title=A companion to Europe since 1945 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4051-0612-2 |location=Chichester |page=118 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141350/https://books.google.com/books?id=7D66_9YOof4C&pg=PA118 |url-status=live}} Over the next three decades, most colonies of the British Empire gained their independence, and many became members of the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].{{Cite web |date=19 March 2009 |title=Country List |url=http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/System/YearbookHomePage.asp?NodeID=152099&load=countrylist |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506071236/http://www.thecommonwealth.org/Templates/System/YearbookHomePage.asp?NodeID=152099&load=countrylist |archive-date=6 May 2013 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=[[Commonwealth Secretariat]]}} The UK was the third country to develop [[Nuclear weapons and the United Kingdom|a nuclear weapons arsenal]], with its first atomic bomb test, [[Operation Hurricane]], in 1952, although the post-war limitations of Britain's international role were illustrated by the [[Suez Crisis]] of 1956. As a result of a shortage of workers in the 1950s, the government [[Modern immigration to the United Kingdom|encouraged immigration]] from [[Commonwealth countries]]. In the following decades the UK became a more [[Multiracialism|multiracial]] and [[Multiculturalism|multicultural]] society.{{Cite book |last=Julios |first=Christina |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84 |title=Contemporary British identity: English language, migrants, and public discourse |publisher=Ashgate |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-7158-9 |series=Studies in migration and diaspora |location=Aldershot |page=84 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141350/https://books.google.com/books?id=s3RQ4dsFEkoC&pg=PA84 |url-status=live}} Despite rising living standards in the late 1950s and 1960s, the United Kingdom's economic performance was less successful than many of its main competitors such as France, [[West Germany]] and Japan. In 1969, the United Kingdom was the first democratic nation to [[Representation of the People Act 1969|lower its voting age to 18]].{{Cite journal |last1=Loughran |first1=Thomas |last2=Mycock |first2=Andrew |last3=Tonge |first3=Jonathan |date=3 April 2021 |title=A coming of age: how and why the UK became the first democracy to allow votes for 18-year-olds |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |journal=Contemporary British History |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=284–313 |doi=10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |issn=1361-9462 |s2cid=233956982 |access-date=24 May 2024 |archive-date=4 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604093606/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13619462.2021.1890589 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}} In the decades-long process of [[European integration]] the UK was a founding member of the [[Western European Union]], established with the [[London and Paris Conferences]] in 1954. In 1960 the UK was one of the seven founding members of the [[European Free Trade Association]] (EFTA), but in 1973 it left to join the [[European Communities]] (EC). In a [[1975 United Kingdom European Communities membership referendum|1975 referendum]] 67 per cent voted to stay in it.{{Cite news |title=1975: UK embraces Europe in referendum |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm |access-date=8 March 2015 |archive-date=20 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620044520/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/june/6/newsid_2499000/2499297.stm |url-status=live}} When the EC became the [[European Union]] (EU) in 1993, the UK was one of the 12 founding member states. From the late 1960s, Northern Ireland experienced communal and [[paramilitary]] violence, sometimes affecting other parts of the UK, known as [[the Troubles]]. It is usually considered to have ended with the 1998 [[Belfast Agreement|Belfast "Good Friday" Agreement]].{{Cite book |last=Aughey |first=Arthur |url=https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh |title=The Politics of Northern Ireland: Beyond the Belfast Agreement |publisher=Routledge |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-415-32788-6 |location=London |page=[https://archive.org/details/politicsnorthern00augh/page/n15 7] |url-access=limited}}; "The troubles were over, but the killing continued. Some of the heirs to Ireland's violent traditions refused to give up their inheritance." {{Cite book |last=Holland |first=Jack |url=https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 |title=Hope against History: The Course of Conflict in Northern Ireland |publisher=Henry Holt |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-8050-6087-4 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/hopeagainsthisto00holl/page/221 221]}}; Elliot, Marianne (2007). ''The Long Road to Peace in Northern Ireland: Peace Lectures from the Institute of Irish Studies at Liverpool University.'' University of Liverpool Institute of Irish Studies, Liverpool University Press. p. 2. {{ISBN|978-1-84631-065-2}}. Following a period of widespread economic slowdown and industrial strife in the 1970s, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] government of the 1980s led by [[Margaret Thatcher]] initiated a radical policy of [[monetarism]], [[deregulation]], particularly of the financial sector (for example, the [[Big Bang (financial markets)|Big Bang]] in 1986) and labour markets, the sale of state-owned companies (privatisation), and the withdrawal of subsidies to others.{{Cite book |last=Dorey |first=Peter |title=British politics since 1945 |publisher=Blackwell |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-631-19075-2 |series=Making contemporary Britain |location=Oxford |pages=164–223}} In 1982, [[Argentina]] invaded the British territories of [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] and the [[Falkland Islands]], leading to the 10-week [[Falklands War]] in which Argentine forces were defeated. The inhabitants of the islands strongly favour British sovereignty, expressed in a [[2013 Falkland Islands sovereignty referendum|2013 referendum]]. From 1984 the British economy was helped by the inflow of substantial [[North Sea oil]] revenues.{{Cite book |last1=Griffiths, Alan |url=http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf |title=Applied Economics |last2=Wall, Stuart |publisher=Financial Times Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-273-70822-3 |edition=11th |location=Harlow |page=6 |access-date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=23 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090823124048/http://vig.pearsoned.co.uk/catalog/uploads/Griffiths_C01.pdf |url-status=dead}} Another British Overseas Territory, [[Gibraltar]],{{cite wikisource |title=Peace and Friendship Treaty of Utrecht between Spain and Great Britain}} is [[Port of Gibraltar|a key military base]]; a [[2002 Gibraltar sovereignty referendum|referendum in 2002]] on shared sovereignty with Spain was rejected. By the late 20th century, major changes were made to the governance of the UK with the establishment of [[devolution|devolved]] administrations for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=1 January 1998 |title=Reforging the Union: Devolution and Constitutional Change in the United Kingdom |journal=Publius: The Journal of Federalism |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=217–234 |doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.pubjof.a029948}} [[Human Rights Act 1998|The statutory incorporation]] followed acceptance of the [[European Convention on Human Rights]]. The UK remained a [[List of modern great powers#United Kingdom|great power]] with global diplomatic and military influence and a leading role in the United Nations and NATO.{{Cite book |last=McCourt |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&q=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics |title=Britain and World Power Since 1945: Constructing a Nation's Role in International Politics |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |year=2014 |isbn=978-0-472-07221-7 |access-date=21 October 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=lwpOnwEACAAJ&q=Britain+and+World+Power+Since+1945:+Constructing+a+Nation%27s+Role+in+International+Politics |url-status=live}} === 21st century === {{Main|Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)|Social history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)}} [[File:Johnson signed Brexit Withdrawal Agreement.jpg|thumb|Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]] signs the [[Brexit withdrawal agreement]] in 2020, formally [[Brexit|withdrawing the UK]] from the [[European Union]] (EU).]] The United Kingdom broadly supported the United States' approach to the "[[war on terror]]" in the early 21st century.{{Cite news |last=McSmith |first=Andy |date=5 July 2016 |title=The inside story of how Tony Blair led Britain to war in Iraq |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-iraq-war-inquiry-tony-blair-george-bush-us-uk-what-happened-a7119761.html |access-date=17 February 2022 |archive-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704200931/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/chilcot-report-iraq-war-inquiry-tony-blair-george-bush-us-uk-what-happened-a7119761.html |url-status=live}} British troops fought in the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)|war in Afghanistan]], but controversy surrounded Britain's [[Iraq War|military deployment in Iraq]], which saw the [[15 February 2003 anti-war protests|largest protest in British history]] in opposition to the government led by [[Tony Blair]].{{Cite news |last=Adams |first=Tim |date=11 February 2023 |title='A beautiful outpouring of rage': did Britain's biggest ever protest change the world? |work=The Observer |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/feb/11/slugs-iraq-war-london-protest-2003-legacy |access-date=5 June 2023 |archive-date=6 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406052000/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/feb/11/slugs-iraq-war-london-protest-2003-legacy |url-status=live}} The [[Great Recession]] (2007–2010) severely affected the British economy,{{cite web |date=20 December 2013 |title=Quarterly National Accounts – National accounts aggregates (ABMI Gross Domestic Product: chained volume measures: Seasonally adjusted £m, constant prices) |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=ABMI&dataset=qna&table-id=A2 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=29 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150929150429/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/datasets-and-tables/data-selector.html?cdid=ABMI&dataset=qna&table-id=A2 |url-status=live}} and was followed by a period of weak growth and stagnation.{{Cite web |last=Harari |first=Daniel |date=16 July 2024 |title=Low growth: The economy's biggest challenge |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/low-growth-the-economys-biggest-challenge/#:~: |access-date=16 April 2025 |website=House of Commons Library}}{{Cite news |last1=Rees |first1=Tom |last2=Atkinson |first2=Andrew |last3=Aldrick |first3=Philip |date=12 March 2023 |title=A Lost Decade Worse Than Japan's Threatens to Change UK Forever |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-12/a-lost-decade-worse-than-japan-s-threatens-to-change-uk-forever |access-date=16 April 2025 |work=[[Bloomberg News]] |archive-date=13 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230313051724/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2023-03-12/a-lost-decade-worse-than-japan-s-threatens-to-change-uk-forever |url-status=live }} The [[Cameron–Clegg coalition]] government of 2010 introduced [[United Kingdom government austerity programme|austerity measures]] intended to tackle the substantial public deficits.{{Cite news |date=7 November 2022 |title=What is austerity and where could 'eye-watering' cuts fall now? |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/63304224 |access-date=28 July 2023 |archive-date=28 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230728105646/https://www.bbc.com/news/63304224 |url-status=live}} [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|A referendum]] on [[Scottish independence]] in 2014 resulted in the Scottish electorate voting by 55.3 to 44.7 per cent to remain part of the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |title=Scottish independence referendum – Results |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results |access-date=18 February 2022 |website=BBC News |archive-date=18 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140918212409/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/events/scotland-decides/results |url-status=live}} In 2016, 51.9 per cent of voters in the UK [[2016 United Kingdom European Union membership referendum|voted to leave the European Union]] (EU).{{Cite news |date=24 June 2016 |title=In stunning decision, Britain votes to leave the E.U. |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/britons-head-to-the-polls-for-historic-vote-on-eu/2016/06/23/0d466fb0-34a7-11e6-ab9d-1da2b0f24f93_story.html |access-date=24 June 2016 |first1=Griff |last1=Witte |first2=Karla |last2=Adam |first3=Dan |last3=Balz |archive-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130215030/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/britons-head-to-the-polls-for-historic-vote-on-eu/2016/06/23/0d466fb0-34a7-11e6-ab9d-1da2b0f24f93_story.html |url-status=live}} The [[Brexit|UK left the EU]] in 2020.{{Cite news |date=1 January 2021 |title=Brexit: New era for UK as it completes separation from European Union |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781 |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114212309/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-55502781 |url-status=live}} On 1 May 2021 the [[EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement]], a free trade agreement between the UK and the EU, came into force.{{Cite web |title=The EU-UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement |url=https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-non-eu-countries/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325155905/https://commission.europa.eu/strategy-and-policy/relations-non-eu-countries/relations-united-kingdom/eu-uk-trade-and-cooperation-agreement_en |archive-date=25 March 2023 |access-date=25 March 2023}}{{Cite web |access-date=12 September 2025 |title=Free Trade Agreements EU-UK |url=https://rtais.wto.org/UI/PublicShowRTAIDCard.aspx?rtaid=1137}} The [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|COVID-19 pandemic]] had a severe [[Economic impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|impact on the British economy]], caused major [[Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on education in the United Kingdom|disruptions to education]] and had [[Social impact of the COVID-19 pandemic in the United Kingdom|far-reaching impacts on society and politics]] in 2020 and 2021.{{cite web |url=https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/ |title=Coronavirus (COVID-19) in the UK |website=[[gov.uk]] |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |access-date=15 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210501022145/https://coronavirus.data.gov.uk/ |archive-date=1 May 2021}}{{Cite web |title=Coronavirus and the impact on output in the UK economy: April 2020 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/articles/coronavirusandtheimpactonoutputintheukeconomy/april2020 |access-date=2 August 2020 |publisher=Government of the United Kingdom |website=ons.gov.uk |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802031859/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/articles/coronavirusandtheimpactonoutputintheukeconomy/april2020 |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Andrew |date=10 June 2020 |title=Coronavirus: UK economy could be among worst hit of leading nations, says OECD |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52991913 |access-date=2 August 2020 |archive-date=18 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200818031423/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-52991913 |url-status=live}} The United Kingdom was the first country in the world to use an approved [[COVID-19 vaccine]]. Developing a [[Oxford–AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine|vaccine in the UK]] allowed the rollout to be amongst the fastest in the world.{{Cite web |title=Landmark moment as first NHS patient receives COVID-19 vaccination |url=https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/12/landmark-moment-as-first-nhs-patient-receives-covid-19-vaccination/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225194320/https://www.england.nhs.uk/2020/12/landmark-moment-as-first-nhs-patient-receives-covid-19-vaccination/ |archive-date=25 February 2023 |website=NHS |date=8 December 2020}}{{Cite web |title=Oxford University/AstraZeneca COVID-19 vaccine approved |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/oxford-universityastrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-approved |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225194442/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/oxford-universityastrazeneca-covid-19-vaccine-approved |archive-date=25 February 2023 |website=UK Government}} == Geography == {{Main|Geography of the United Kingdom|Fauna of Great Britain|Flora of Great Britain and Ireland}} [[File:MODIS - Great Britain and Northern Ireland - 2012-06-04 during heat wave (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|A satellite image of the United Kingdom excluding [[Shetland]]]] The total area of the United Kingdom is approximately {{Convert|244376|km2|sqmi|order=flip}},{{efn|name=ONSArea}} with a land area of {{convert|242741|km2|sqmi|order=flip}}. It occupies the major part of the [[British Isles]][[Oxford English Dictionary]]: "British Isles: a geographical term for the islands comprising Great Britain and Ireland with all their offshore islands including the Isle of Man and the Channel Islands." and includes the island of Great Britain, the north-eastern one-sixth of the island of Ireland and [[List of islands of the United Kingdom|some smaller surrounding islands]], meaning it comprises [[England]], [[Scotland]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland]].{{cite web |url=https://geoportal.statistics.gov.uk/datasets/d1f39e20edb940d58307a54d6e1045cd/about |title=A Beginner's Guide to UK Geography (2023) |author= |date=4 February 2025 |website=Open Geography Portal |publisher=Office for National Statistics |access-date=14 May 2025}} Geographically, the United Kingdom lies between the [[North Atlantic Ocean]] and the [[North Sea]] with the southeast coast coming within {{Convert|35|km|mi|0|order=flip}} of the coast of northern France, from which it is separated by the [[English Channel]].{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom |access-date=21 January 2007 |website=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |archive-date=9 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom |url-status=dead}} The nearby island polities of the [[Isle of Man]], [[Jersey]] and [[Guernsey]] are [[Crown Dependencies]], in union with the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], but do not strictly form part of the United Kingdom or any of its three jurisdictions or four countries, although the British government retains responsibility for their external affairs. The Isle of Man lies roughly midway between Great Britain and the [[Ireland|island of Ireland]] in the [[Irish Sea]], while the Channel Islands lie just off the northern French coast. The [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich|Royal Greenwich Observatory]] in London was chosen as the defining point of the [[Prime Meridian]]{{Cite web |last=ROG Learning Team |date=23 August 2002 |title=The Prime Meridian at Greenwich |url=http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151107023957/http://www.rmg.co.uk/explore/astronomy-and-time/astronomy-facts/history/the-prime-meridian-at-greenwich |archive-date=7 November 2015 |access-date=11 September 2012 |website=Royal Museums Greenwich}} at the [[International Meridian Conference]] in 1884.{{Cite news |date=13 August 2015 |title=Greenwich Royal Observatory: How the Prime Meridian line is actually 100 metres away from where it was believed to be |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/greenwich-royal-observatory-how-the-prime-meridian-line-is-actually-100-metres-away-from-where-it-10452386.html |access-date=13 December 2018 |archive-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323081414/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/greenwich-royal-observatory-how-the-prime-meridian-line-is-actually-100-metres-away-from-where-it-10452386.html |url-status=live}} The UK lies between latitudes [[49th parallel north|49°]] and [[61st parallel north|61° N]], and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9° W]] and [[2nd meridian east|2° E]]. Northern Ireland shares a {{Convert|499|km|mi|0|adj=on|order=flip}} land boundary with the Republic of Ireland and has a {{Convert|650|km|mi|0|adj=on|order=flip}} coastline.{{Cite web |title=Northern Ireland Coastal and Marine Forum |url=https://library2.nics.gov.uk/pdf/dard/2014/EEUD.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241123094028/https://library2.nics.gov.uk/pdf/dard/2014/EEUD.pdf |archive-date=23 November 2024 |access-date=13 March 2025 |publisher=Northern Ireland Coastal and Marine Forum}} The length of coastline of Great Britain plus its principal islands is about {{Convert|31368|km|mi|0|order=flip}} long, with the coastline of the main island Great Britain being {{Convert|17820|km|mi|0|order=flip}} of that,{{Cite web |last=Darkes |first=Giles |date=January 2008 |title=How long is the UK coastline? |url=http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120522042745/http://www.cartography.org.uk/default.asp?contentID=749 |archive-date=22 May 2012 |access-date=24 January 2015 |publisher=The [[British Cartographic Society]]}} though measurements can vary greatly due to the [[coastline paradox]].{{Cite web |last=Weiner |first=Sophie |date=3 March 2018 |title=Why it's Impossible to Accurately Measure a Coastline |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a19068718/why-its-impossible-to-accurately-measure-a-coastline/ |access-date=29 June 2024 |website=Popular Mechanics |archive-date=29 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240629025825/https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/environment/a19068718/why-its-impossible-to-accurately-measure-a-coastline/ |url-status=live}} It is connected to continental Europe by the [[Channel Tunnel]], which at {{Convert|50|km|mi|0|order=flip}} ({{Convert|38|km|mi|0|order=flip}} underwater) is the longest underwater tunnel in the world.{{Cite web |title=The Channel Tunnel |url=http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101218114514/http://www.eurotunnel.com/ukcP3Main/ukcCorporate/ukcTunnelInfrastructure/ukcInfrastructure |archive-date=18 December 2010 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Eurotunnel}} The UK contains four terrestrial [[ecoregion]]s: [[Celtic broadleaf forests]], [[English Lowlands beech forests]], [[North Atlantic moist mixed forests]], and [[Caledonian Forest|Caledonian conifer forests]].{{Cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant |last10=Noss |first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |display-authors=1 |year=2017 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |issn=0006-3568 |pmc=5451287 |pmid=28608869 |doi-access=free |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen |last20=Sechrest |first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya |last30=Potapov |first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A. |last40=Timberlake |first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad}} The area of woodland in the UK was estimated to be 3.25 million hectares in 2023, which represents 13 per cent of its land area.{{Cite web |url=https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/statistics-by-topic/woodland-statistics/ |title=Woodland Statistics, Key findings |work=Forest Research |access-date=8 July 2023 |archive-date=2 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802030149/https://www.forestresearch.gov.uk/tools-and-resources/statistics/statistics-by-topic/woodland-statistics/ |url-status=live}} === Climate === {{Main|Climate of the United Kingdom|Climate change in the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Climate of England|Climate of Scotland|Climate of Wales|Climate of Northern Ireland}} Most of the United Kingdom has a temperate climate, with generally cool temperatures and plentiful rainfall all year round. The temperature varies with the seasons rarely dropping below {{Convert|0|C|lk=on}} or rising above {{Convert|30|C}}.{{Cite web |title=Hottest day of each year from 1900 |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/hottest-day-of-each-year-from-1900.html |website=trevorharley.com |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=16 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230616173152/https://www.trevorharley.com/hottest-day-of-each-year-from-1900.html |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Coldest day of each year from 1900 |url=https://www.trevorharley.com/coldest-days-of-each-year-from-1900.html |website=trevorharley.com |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709173537/https://www.trevorharley.com/coldest-days-of-each-year-from-1900.html |url-status=live}} Some parts, away from the coast, of upland England, Wales, Northern Ireland and most of Scotland, experience a [[subpolar oceanic climate]]. Higher elevations in Scotland experience a [[Subarctic climate|continental subarctic climate]] and the mountains experience a [[tundra climate]].{{Cite web |date=9 August 2016 |title=English: A map of Köppen climate types in the United Kingdom (SVG version) |url=https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UK_K%C3%B6ppen.svg |access-date=23 November 2019 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709202702/https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:UK_K%C3%B6ppen.svg |url-status=live}} The prevailing wind is from the southwest and bears frequent spells of mild and wet weather from the Atlantic Ocean, although the eastern parts are mostly sheltered from this wind. Since the majority of the rain falls over the western regions, the eastern parts are the driest. Atlantic currents, warmed by the [[Gulf Stream]], bring mild winters, especially in the west where winters are wet and even more so over high ground. Summers are warmest in the southeast of England and coolest in the north. Heavy snowfall can occur in winter and early spring on high ground, and occasionally settles to great depth away from the hills.{{Cite web |title=Atlantic Ocean Circulation (Gulf Stream) |url=http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |access-date=8 March 2015 |website=UK Climate Projections |publisher=Met Office |archive-date=17 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181017162552/http://ukclimateprojections.metoffice.gov.uk/23152 |url-status=live}} The average total annual sunshine in the United Kingdom was 1,339.7 hours between 1971 and 2000.{{cite web |title=UK 1971–2000 averages |url=http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/uk.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090705140124/http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/averages/19712000/areal/uk.html |archive-date=5 July 2009 |access-date=4 August 2007 |publisher=Met Office}} The hours of sunshine vary from 1,200 to about 1,580 hours per year.{{Cite web |url=https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-temperature-rainfall-and-sunshine-time-series |title=UK temperature, rainfall and sunshine time series |website=Met Office |access-date=31 December 2022 |archive-date=17 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017203556/https://www.metoffice.gov.uk/research/climate/maps-and-data/uk-temperature-rainfall-and-sunshine-time-series |url-status=live}} Climate change has serious impacts on the country. A third of food price rise in 2023 was attributed to it.{{cite web |last1=Smeeton |first1=George |title=Families hit by £605 food bill as extreme weather and energy crisis bites |url=https://eciu.net/media/press-releases/2023/families-hit-by-605-food-bill-as-extreme-weather-and-energy-crisis-bites |website=Energy & Climate Intelligence Unit |date=28 November 2023 |access-date=19 July 2024 |archive-date=16 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240716124143/https://eciu.net/media/press-releases/2023/families-hit-by-605-food-bill-as-extreme-weather-and-energy-crisis-bites |url-status=live}} In 2024 the United Kingdom ranked 5th out of 180 countries in the [[Environmental Performance Index]].{{Cite web |title=2024 Environmental Performance Index |url=https://epi.yale.edu/measure/2024/EPI |access-date=27 May 2025 |website=Environmental Performance Index |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240710023935/https://epi.yale.edu/measure/2024/EPI |url-status=live }} A law has been passed that [[Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom|UK greenhouse gas emissions]] will be [[net zero]] by 2050.{{Cite web |title=UK net zero target |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainers/net-zero-target#:~:text=In%20June%202019%2C%20parliament%20passed,to%201990%20levels%20by%202050.&text=Prior%20to%20this%2C%20the%20UK,1990%20levels%2C%20also%20by%202050. |access-date=20 March 2024 |website=Institute for Government |date=20 April 2020|last=Shepheard|first=Marcus}}{{Update after|2050|01|01|category|reason=Hello from 2024! By the time you're reading this, that law will be a little older than 30 years old. Could you check if the UK ever ended up hitting that net zero GHG target?}} === Topography === [[File:uk topo en.jpg|thumb|right|The United Kingdom's topography]] [[Geography of England|England]] accounts for 53 per cent of the UK, covering {{Convert|130395|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.{{Cite news |date=11 February 2010 |title=England – Profile |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm |access-date=9 October 2010 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415064122/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/country_profiles/7327029.stm |url-status=live}} Most of the country consists of lowland terrain,{{Cite web |last=Latimer Clarke Corporation Pty Ltd |title=United Kingdom – Atlapedia Online |url=http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm |access-date=26 October 2010 |website=Atlapedia.com |archive-date=21 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120321191308/http://www.atlapedia.com/online/countries/unitedki.htm |url-status=live}}{{better source needed|date=July 2023}} with upland and mountainous terrain northwest of the [[Tees–Exe line]] which roughly divides the UK into [[lowland and upland]] areas. Lowland areas include [[Cornwall]], the [[New Forest]], the [[South Downs]] and the [[The Broads|Norfolk Broads]]. Upland areas include the [[Lake District]], the [[Pennines]], the [[Yorkshire Dales]], [[Exmoor]] and [[Dartmoor]]. The main rivers and estuaries are the [[River Thames|Thames]], [[River Severn|Severn]], and the [[Humber]]. England's highest mountain is [[Scafell Pike]], at {{Convert|978|m|ft|0}} in the Lake District; its largest island is the [[Isle of Wight]]. [[Geography of Scotland|Scotland]] accounts for 32 per cent of the UK, covering {{Convert|78772|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.{{Cite web |title=Scotland Facts |url=http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080621045248/http://www.scotland.org/about/fact-file/index.html |archive-date=21 June 2008 |access-date=16 July 2008 |publisher=Scotland Online Gateway}} This includes [[List of islands of Scotland|nearly 800 islands]],{{Cite news |last=Winter |first=Jon |date=1 June 2000 |title=The complete guide to the ... Scottish Islands |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-the--scottish-islands-633851.html |access-date=8 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402164423/http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/uk/the-complete-guide-to-the--scottish-islands-633851.html |url-status=live}} notably the [[Hebrides]], [[Orkney]] Islands and [[Shetland Islands]]. Scotland is the most mountainous constituent country of the UK. The [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] to the north and west are the more rugged region containing the majority of Scotland's mountainous land, including the [[Cairngorms]], [[Loch Lomond and The Trossachs]] and [[Ben Nevis]] which at {{Convert|1345|m|ft|0}}{{Cite web |date=18 March 2016 |title=Great Britain's tallest mountain is taller |work=Ordnance Survey Blog |url=https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/2016/03/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller |access-date=9 September 2018 |publisher=Ordnance Survey |archive-date=9 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180909000504/https://www.ordnancesurvey.co.uk/blog/2016/03/britains-tallest-mountain-is-taller/ |url-status=live}} is the highest point in the British Isles.{{Cite web |title=Ben Nevis Weather |url=http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510193022/http://www.bennevisweather.co.uk/index.asp |archive-date=10 May 2012 |access-date=26 October 2008 |publisher=Ben Nevis Weather}} [[Geography of Wales|Wales]] accounts for less than 9 per cent of the UK, covering {{Convert|20779|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}}.{{Cite news |date=9 June 2010 |title=Profile: Wales |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm |access-date=7 November 2010 |archive-date=26 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180826085704/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/6233450.stm |url-status=live}} It is mostly mountainous, though [[South Wales]] is less mountainous than [[North Wales|North]] and [[Mid Wales]]. The highest mountains in Wales are in [[Snowdonia]] and include [[Snowdon]] ({{Langx|cy|Yr Wyddfa}}) which, at {{Convert|1085|m|ft|0}}, is the highest peak in Wales. Wales has over {{Convert|1680|mi|0|abbr=off}} of coastline including the [[Pembrokeshire Coast]]. Several islands lie off the Welsh mainland, the largest of which is [[Anglesey]] (''Ynys Môn''). [[Geography of Ireland|Northern Ireland]], separated from Great Britain by the [[Irish Sea]] and [[North Channel (Great Britain and Ireland)|North Channel]], has an area of {{Convert|14160|km2|sqmi|order=flip|-1}} and is mostly hilly. It includes [[Lough Neagh]] which, at {{Convert|388|km2|sqmi|order=flip|0}}, is the largest lake in the British Isles by area,{{Cite web |title=Geography of Northern Ireland |url=http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |access-date=22 May 2006 |publisher=University of Ulster |archive-date=18 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118133131/http://cain.ulst.ac.uk/ni/geog.htm |url-status=live}} [[Lough Erne]], which has over 150 islands, and the [[Giant's Causeway]], which is listed by [[UNESCO]] as a [[World Heritage Site]]. The highest peak in Northern Ireland is [[Slieve Donard]] in the [[Mourne Mountains]] at {{Convert|852|m|ft|0}}. == Government and politics == {{Main|Politics of the United Kingdom|Government of the United Kingdom|Monarchy of the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Constitution of the United Kingdom}}{{Multiple image | direction = horizontal | align = right | caption_align = center | total_width = 320 | image1 = King Charles III (July 2023).jpg | image2 = Prime Minister Andy Burnham portrait (cropped).jpg | caption1 = {{nowrap|[[Charles III]]}}
[[Monarch of the United Kingdom|King]] | caption2 = {{nowrap|[[Andy Burnham]]}}
{{nowrap|[[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]]}} | alt1 = | alt2 = }} The United Kingdom is a [[constitutional monarchy]] and a [[parliamentary democracy]][http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx The British Monarchy, "What is constitutional monarchy?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604151257/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/HowtheMonarchyworks/Whatisconstitutionalmonarchy.aspx|date=4 June 2019}}. Retrieved 17 July 2013; [https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ "United Kingdom"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109221834/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/|date=9 January 2021}} CIA ''The World Factbook''. Retrieved 17 July 2013 operating under the [[Westminster system]], otherwise known as a "democratic parliamentary monarchy".{{Cite journal |last1=Stepan |first1=Alfred |last2=Linz |first2=Juan J. |last3=Minoves |first3=Juli F. |date=2014 |title=Democratic Parliamentary Monarchies |url=http://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v025/25.2.stepan.html |journal=Journal of Democracy |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=35–36 |doi=10.1353/jod.2014.0032 |issn=1086-3214 |s2cid=154555066 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=31 January 2026 |access-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260131155632/https://muse.jhu.edu/content/crossref/journals/journal_of_democracy/v025/25.2.stepan.html |url-status=live }} It is a [[Centralized government|centralised]], [[unitary state]]{{Cite web |last=Lewer |first=Andrew |date=5 May 2021 |title=The UK is one of the most centralised advanced democracies – it's time that changed |url=https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=[[New Statesman]] |archive-date=3 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230703131907/https://www.newstatesman.com/spotlight/2021/05/the-uk-is-one-of-the-most-centralised-advanced-democracies-its-time-that-changed |url-status=live|author-link=Andrew Lewer}}{{Cite web |title=Centralisation Nation: Britain's system of local government and its impact on the national economy |url=https://www.centreforcities.org/?post_type=publication&p=40951 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=Centre for Cities |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141833/https://www.centreforcities.org/publication/centralisation-nation/ |url-status=live}} wherein the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom]] is [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|sovereign]].{{Cite web |title=Parliamentary Sovereignty |url=https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]] |archive-date=11 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210811195135/https://www.parliament.uk/site-information/glossary/parliamentary-sovereignty/ |url-status=live}} Parliament is made up of the elected [[House of Commons of the United Kingdom|House of Commons]], the appointed [[House of Lords]] and [[the Crown]] (as personified by [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|the monarch]]).{{Efn|British [[sovereignty]] derives from the Crown, a [[corporation sole]] occupied by the monarch. It is therefore by and through the monarch that Parliament exercises supreme legislative authority over both the executive and judiciary. Distinguished Professor of [[Public Law]] Maurice Sunkin opined the Crown symbolically occupies "...what in other places would be a core element of a written constitution."{{Cite web |url=https://www.ibanet.org/Relationship-between-UK-Crown-and-law-in-focus-as-Carolean-era-begins |title=Relationship between UK Crown and law in focus as Carolean era begins |author=Polly Botsford |publisher=International Bar Association |publication-date=22 September 2022 |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=6 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230506211218/https://www.ibanet.org/Relationship-between-UK-Crown-and-law-in-focus-as-Carolean-era-begins |url-status=live}} As a result of this state of constitutional affairs, the monarch is formally referred to as "[[Sovereign|the Sovereign]]" in legislation.{{Cite web |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/section/10 |title=Interpretation Act 1978 (c. 30, s. 10) |publisher=The National Archives |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=30 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730073659/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1978/30/section/10 |url-status=live}}}}{{Cite web |title=Parliament |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]] |archive-date=18 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260218150954/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/ |url-status=live }} The main business of Parliament takes place in the two houses, but [[royal assent]] is required for a bill to become an [[Act of Parliament (UK)|act of Parliament]] (that is, [[statute law]]).{{Cite web |title=Royal Assent |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]] |archive-date=16 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716022947/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/laws/passage-bill/lords/lrds-royal-assent/ |url-status=live}} As a result of parliamentary sovereignty, the [[Constitution of the United Kingdom|British constitution]] is [[Uncodified constitution|uncodified]], consisting mostly of disparate written sources, including parliamentary [[statute]]s, judge-made [[case law]] and international treaties, together with [[British Constitution#Conventions|constitutional conventions]].{{Cite web |last=Carter, Sarah |title=A Guide To the UK Legal System |url=http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm#UK%20Legal%20System |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505115306/http://www.llrx.com/features/uk2.htm |archive-date=5 May 2012 |access-date=16 May 2006 |publisher=[[University of Kent]] at Canterbury}} Nevertheless, the [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] recognises a number of principles underlying the British constitution, such as parliamentary sovereignty, the [[rule of law]], [[democracy]] and upholding [[Internationalism (politics)|international law]].See ''[[R (Miller) v Prime Minister]]'' [2019] UKSC 41 (Parliamentary sovereignty), ''[[R (UNISON) v Lord Chancellor]]'' [2017] [http://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html UKSC 51] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104095357/https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKSC/2017/51.html|date=4 January 2023}}, [67] ff (rule of law), ''[[R (Animal Defenders International) v Secretary of State for Culture Media and Sport]]'' [2008] UKHL 15, [48] (democracy), ''[[R v Lyons]]'' [2002] [https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html UKHL 44] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230122064021/https://www.bailii.org/uk/cases/UKHL/2002/44.html|date=22 January 2023}}, [27] (international law). [[Charles III|King Charles III]] is the [[monarch]] and [[head of state]] of the United Kingdom and 14 other independent [[sovereign state]]s, referred to as "[[Commonwealth realm]]s". The monarch is formally vested with all executive authority as the personal embodiment of [[the Crown]] and is "fundamental to the law and working of government in the UK".{{Cite journal |url=https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united |title=The Constitutional Role and Working of the Monarchy in the United Kingdom |author=Robert Blackburn |journal=Jahrbuch des Öffentlichen Rechts der Gegenwart |series=Neue Folge |year=2022 |volume=70 |pages=181–201 |editor=O. Lepsius |editor2=A. Nußberger |editor3=C. Schönberger |editor4=C. Waldhoff |editor5=C. Walter |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Mohr Siebeck |doi=10.1628/joer-2022-0009 |s2cid=257830288 |publication-date=2 June 2022 |access-date=19 June 2023 |archive-date=19 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230619174428/https://kclpure.kcl.ac.uk/portal/en/publications/the-constitutional-role-and-working-of-the-monarchy-in-the-united |url-status=live}} The disposition of such powers however, including those belonging to the [[Royal prerogative in the United Kingdom|royal prerogative]], is generally exercised only on the [[Advice (constitutional law)|advice]] of [[ministers of the Crown]] responsible to Parliament and thence to the electorate. Nevertheless, in the performance of official duties the monarch has "the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn".[[Walter Bagehot|Bagehot, Walter]] (1867). ''The English Constitution''. London: Chapman and Hall. p. 103. In addition the monarch has a number of [[Reserve power#United Kingdom|reserve powers]] at his disposal to uphold [[responsible government]] and prevent [[constitutional crisis|constitutional crises]].{{Efn|For instance, the monarch alone appoints the prime minister and confers [[Orders, decorations, and medals of the United Kingdom|state honours]] in the personal gift of the Crown. When necessary, the monarch may also refuse a [[dissolution of Parliament|dissolution]] or [[Prorogation in the United Kingdom|prorogation of Parliament]], withhold [[royal assent]] to [[Act of Parliament (UK)|primary legislation]], and prevent illegal use of the [[British Armed Forces]], amongst other reserve powers.{{Cite web |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8885/CBP-8885.pdf |title=The Crown and the Constitution |author=David Torrance |publisher=House of Commons Library |publication-date=11 January 2023 |access-date=19 June 2023 |pages=22 |archive-date=2 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230302033737/https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-8885/CBP-8885.pdf |url-status=live}}}} The prime minister is the [[head of government]] in the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |title=The Government, Prime Minister and Cabinet |url=http://direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120921004951/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/UKgovernment/Centralgovernmentandthemonarchy/DG_073444 |archive-date=21 September 2012 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=Public services all in one place |publisher=[[Directgov]]}} Acting under the direction and supervision of a [[Cabinet of the United Kingdom|Cabinet]] of senior ministers selected and led by the prime minister, [[His Majesty's Government]] serves as the principal instrument for public policymaking, administers public services and, through the [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Council]], promulgates [[statutory instrument (UK)|statutory instruments]] and tenders advice to the monarch.{{Cite web |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/cabinet |title=Cabinet |author=Tim Durrant |date=25 March 2020 |publisher=Institute for Government |publication-date=25 March 2020 |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704112925/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/cabinet |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/relations-with-other-institutions/parliament-government/ |title=Parliament and Government |publisher=UK Parliament |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704112925/https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/role/relations-with-other-institutions/parliament-government/ |url-status=live}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mN6SzMefot4C |title=The Monarchy and the Constitution, Chapter 3 – The Basic Constitutional Rules: Influence and the Prerogative |author=Vernon Bogdanor |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-829334-7 |publication-date=1995 |access-date=4 July 2023}} Nearly all prime ministers have served concurrently as [[First Lord of the Treasury]]{{Cite web |last1=Blick |first1=Andrew |last2=Jones |first2=George |date=1 January 2012 |title=The Institution of Prime Minister – History of government |url=https://history.blog.gov.uk/2012/01/01/the-institution-of-prime-minister |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721060401/https://history.blog.gov.uk/2012/01/01/the-institution-of-prime-minister/ |url-status=live}} and all prime ministers have continuously served as First Lord of the Treasury since 1905,{{Cite book |last=Brown |first=Jack |title=The Prime Ministers |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5293-1214-0 |editor-last=Dale |editor-first=Iain |page=303}} [[Minister for the Civil Service]] since 1968,{{Cite web |title=Minister for the Civil Service |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-civil-service |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |archive-date=2 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902233116/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-civil-service |url-status=live}} and [[Minister for the Union]] since 2019.{{Cite news |last=Woodcock |first=Andrew |date=26 July 2021 |title=Boris Johnson accused of 'cynical rebranding' after appointing himself 'Minister for the Union' |work=[[The Independent|Independent]] |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-minister-union-scotland-independence-referendum-snp-a9022356.html |access-date=19 July 2021 |archive-date=27 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727080405/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/boris-johnson-minister-union-scotland-independence-referendum-snp-a9022356.html |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Minister for the Union |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-union |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |archive-date=19 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719053618/https://www.gov.uk/government/ministers/minister-for-the-union |url-status=live}} While appointed by the monarch, in modern times the prime minister is, by [[Constitutional conventions of the United Kingdom|convention]], an MP, the leader of the political party with the most seats in the House of Commons, and holds office by virtue of their ability to [[Confidence motions in the United Kingdom|command the confidence]] of the House of Commons.{{Cite web |date=October 2011 |title=The Cabinet Manual |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[gov.uk]] |pages=7, 21 |archive-date=15 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180415090557/https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/60641/cabinet-manual.pdf |url-status=live}}{{Cite book |last=Norton |first=Philip |title=Governing Britain: Parliament, Ministers and Our Ambiguous Constitution |publisher=[[Manchester University Press]] |year=2020 |isbn=978-1-5261-4545-1 |page=130}} The prime minister as of 20 July 2026 is [[Andy Burnham]], the [[Leader of the Labour Party (UK)|leader of the Labour Party]]. Although not part of the United Kingdom, the three [[Crown Dependencies]] of [[Jersey]], [[Guernsey]] and the [[Isle of Man]], as well as the 14 [[British Overseas Territories]], are subject to the sovereignty of the British Crown.{{cite book |last=Palan |first=Rolen |editor-last1=Palan |editor-first1=Rolen |editor-last2=Halperin |editor-first2=Sandra |chapter=The second British Empire and the re-emergence of global finance |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=76QyCgAAQBAJ&dq=%22British+overseas+territories%22+%22crown+dependencies%22+UK+%22British+crown%22&pg=PA48 |title=Legacies of Empire: Imperial Roots of the Contemporary Global Order |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-10946-9 |page=48 |access-date=13 April 2024 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002212946/https://books.google.com/books?id=76QyCgAAQBAJ&dq=%22British+overseas+territories%22+%22crown+dependencies%22+UK+%22British+crown%22&pg=PA48#v=onepage&q=%22British%20overseas%20territories%22%20%22crown%20dependencies%22%20UK%20%22British%20crown%22&f=false |url-status=live}} [[Democratic backsliding]] was found by the 2026 [[V-Dem Institute#Democracy Report|V-Dem Democracy Report]] for the United Kingdom.{{cite web | title=Democracy Report 2026, Unraveling The Democratic Era? | url=https://v-dem.net/documents/75/V-Dem_Institute_Democracy_Report_2026_lowres.pdf | access-date=2026-03-17}}{{Relevance inline|date=August 2026|discuss=A country becoming a bit more or less democratic is not unusual and happens all the time. Such a development is not in itself notable, unless the change is disproportionately big, or the country slips under a certain threshold (e.g., being no longer classified as a liberal democracy, but as a hybrid regime). Is this the case here? If yes, then that should be more thoroughly explained. If no, then this sentence should probably be removed for not being notable enough for a high-level overview article of the UK.}} ===Elections=== {{Main|Elections in the United Kingdom}} [[File:Houses of Parliament in 2022 (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Large sand-coloured building of Gothic design beside brown river. The building has several large towers, including large clock tower.|The [[Palace of Westminster]] in London is the seat of both houses of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.]] For [[General elections in the United Kingdom|general elections]] (elections to the House of Commons), the United Kingdom is divided into 650 [[United Kingdom constituencies|constituencies]], each of which is represented by one [[Member of Parliament (United Kingdom)|member of Parliament]] (MP) elected by the [[First-past-the-post voting|first-past-the-post]] system.{{Cite web |title=General elections |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/how/elections-and-voting/general |access-date=19 July 2021 |website=[[parliament.uk]]}} MPs hold office for up to five years and must then stand for re-election if they wish to continue to be an MP. The [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]], colloquially known as the Tory Party or the Tories, and the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] have been the dominant political parties in the country since the 1920s, leading to the UK being described as a [[two-party system]]. However, since the 1920s other [[List of political parties in the United Kingdom|political parties]] have won seats in the House of Commons, although never more than the Conservatives or Labour.{{Cite web |last=Raymond |first=C |date=2016 |title=Why British Politics is Not a Two-Party System |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/107735631/The_United_Kingdom_is_Not_a_Two_Party_System.pdf |website=Queen's University Belfast |access-date=3 July 2023 |archive-date=9 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709172832/https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/107735631/The_United_Kingdom_is_Not_a_Two_Party_System.pdf |url-status=live}} The 2020s marked the erosion of the two-party system and the growth of a multi-party system.{{Cite web |date=2026-05-08 |title=Sir John Curtice: Election results show politics in the UK has fragmented |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ce8p4yn448vo |access-date=2026-05-09 |website=[[BBC News]] |language=en-GB}} === Administrative divisions === {{Main|Countries of the United Kingdom|Administrative geography of the United Kingdom|List of counties in the United Kingdom}} [[File:United Kingdom labelled map7 vector.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|The four countries of the United Kingdom]] The geographical division of the United Kingdom into counties or [[shire]]s began in England and Scotland in the [[early Middle Ages]], and was completed throughout Great Britain and Ireland by the [[early modern period]].Hackwood Frederick William: ''The Story of the Shire, Being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions'' (1851) Modern [[local government]] by elected councils, partly based on the ancient counties, was established by separate Acts of Parliament: in England and Wales [[Local Government Act 1888|in 1888]], Scotland [[Local Government (Scotland) Act 1889|in 1889]] and Ireland [[Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898|in 1898]], meaning there is no consistent system of administrative or geographic demarcation across the UK,{{Cite web |last=United Nations Economic and Social Council |author-link=United Nations Economic and Social Council |date=August 2007 |title=Ninth UN Conference on the standardization of Geographical Names |url=http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/UNGEGN/docs/9th-uncsgn-docs/report%20of%209th%20uncsgn%20n0750902%20en.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211213055/http://unstats.un.org/unsd/geoinfo/9th-UNCSGN-Docs/E-CONF-98-48-Add1.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2009 |access-date=21 October 2008 |publisher=UN Statistics Division}} and [[English law|England and Wales]], [[Scots law|Scotland]] and [[Law of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] each have their own distinct jurisdictions.{{Cite book |last1=Dewart |first1=Megan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |title=The Scottish Legal System |date=2019 |publisher=[[Bloomsbury Academic]] |isbn=978-1-5265-0633-7 |location=London |page=57 |quote=The laws and legal institutions of Scotland and of England and Wales were not merged by the Union of 1707. Thus, they remain separate 'law areas', with separate court systems (as does Northern Ireland), and it is necessary to distinguish Scots law and English law (and Northern Irish law). |access-date=4 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230704040048/https://books.google.com/books?id=XW_EtwEACAAJ |archive-date=4 July 2023 |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=The justice system and the constitution |url=https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/#:~:text=The%20United%20Kingdom%20has%20three,of%20Union%201707%20and%201800. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230521180341/https://www.judiciary.uk/about-the-judiciary/our-justice-system/jud-acc-ind/justice-sys-and-constitution/ |archive-date=21 May 2023 |access-date=13 June 2023 |publisher=Courts and Tribunals Judiciary |quote=The United Kingdom has three separate legal systems; one each for England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland. This reflects its historical origins and the fact that both Scotland and Ireland, and later Northern Ireland, retained their own legal systems and traditions under the Acts of Union 1707 and 1800.}} Until the 19th century there was little change to those arrangements, but there has since been a constant evolution of role and function.{{Cite book |last=Barlow |first=I.M. |title=Metropolitan Government |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-415-02099-2 |location=London}} [[Local government in England]] is complex, with the distribution of functions varying according to local arrangements. The upper-tier [[subdivisions of England]] are the nine [[Regions of England|regions]], used primarily for statistical purposes.{{Cite web |title=Welcome to the national site of the Government Office Network |url=http://www.gos.gov.uk/national |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090606073647/http://www.gos.gov.uk/national |archive-date=6 June 2009 |access-date=3 July 2008 |publisher=Government Offices}} One of the regions, [[Greater London Authority|Greater London]], has had a directly elected assembly and mayor since 2000 following popular support for the proposal in a [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|1998 referendum]].{{Cite web |title=A short history of London government |url=http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080421023053/http://www.london.gov.uk/london-life/city-government/history.jsp |archive-date=21 April 2008 |access-date=4 October 2008 |publisher=Greater London Authority}} [[Local government in Scotland]] is divided into [[subdivisions of Scotland|32 council areas]] with a wide variation in size and population. The cities of [[Glasgow]], Edinburgh, [[Aberdeen]] and [[Dundee]] are separate council areas, as is the [[Politics of the Highland council area|Highland Council]], which includes a third of Scotland's area but only just over 200,000 people. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223.{{Cite web |title=STV in Scotland: Local Government Elections 2007 |url=http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222124635/http://www.psa.ac.uk/2007/pps/Bennie.pdf |archive-date=22 February 2011 |access-date=2 August 2008 |publisher=Political Studies Association}} [[Local government in Wales]] consists of 22 [[Unitary authority|unitary authorities]], each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. These include the cities of Cardiff, [[Swansea]] and [[Newport, Wales|Newport]], which are unitary authorities in their own right.{{Cite web |year=2014 |title=Unitary authorities |url=http://gov.wales/topics/localgovernment/local-authorities/?lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150310210146/http://gov.wales/topics/localgovernment/local-authorities/?lang=en |archive-date=10 March 2015 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Welsh Government}} Elections are held every four years under the first-past-the-post system. [[Local government in Northern Ireland]] since 2015 has been organised into 11 district councils, each elected by single transferable vote. Their powers are limited to services such as waste collection, dog control, and maintaining parks and cemeteries.{{Cite news |last=Devenport |first=Mark |date=18 November 2005 |title=NI local government set for shake-up |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4449092.stm |access-date=15 November 2008 |archive-date=12 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212221731/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/4449092.stm |url-status=live}} This system was introduced after a 2008 decision by the executive to replace the previous structure of 26 districts which had been in place since 1973.{{Cite press release |title=Foster announces the future shape of local government |date=13 March 2008 |publisher=Northern Ireland Executive |url=http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm |access-date=20 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725002254/http://www.northernireland.gov.uk/news/news-doe/news-doe-130308-foster-announces-the.htm |archive-date=25 July 2008}} === Devolution === {{Main|Devolution in the United Kingdom}} {{further|Devolved, reserved and excepted matters}} [[File:Council of Nations and Regions (54059219744) (cropped).jpg|thumb|right|Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets with the first ministers of Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales during the [[Council of Nations and Regions]] summit.]] In the United Kingdom a process of devolution has transferred various powers from the UK Government to three of the four UK countries—Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales—as well as to the regions of England, which since 1999 have their own governments and parliaments that control various devolved matters.{{Cite web |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130718065448/https://www.gov.uk/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland#devolved-administrations |archive-date=18 July 2013 |access-date=17 April 2013 |publisher=United Kingdom Government |quote=In a similar way to how the government is formed from members from the two Houses of Parliament, members of the devolved legislatures nominate ministers from amongst themselves to comprise executives, known as the devolved administrations...}}; {{Cite web |title=Country Overviews: United Kingdom |url=http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100404062853/http://www.transport-research.info/web/countryprofiles/uk.cfm |archive-date=4 April 2010 |access-date=28 March 2010 |url-status=usurped |publisher=Transport Research Knowledge Centre}} These powers vary and have been moved to the [[Scottish Government]], the [[Welsh Government]], the [[Northern Ireland Executive]] and (in England) to [[strategic authorities]]: the [[Greater London Authority]], [[Combined authorities and combined county authorities|combined authorities, and combined county authorities]].{{cite book |last1=Le Sueur |first1=Andrew |last2=Sunkin |first2=Maurice |last3=Murkens |first3=Jo Eric Khushal |title=Public Law: Text, Cases, and Materials |year=2023 |edition=5th |isbn=978-0-19-287061-2 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=147 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6sLDEAAAQBAJ&dq=Le+sueur+Public+Law%C2%A0fifth+edition&pg=PR3 |access-date=13 April 2024 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002213048/https://books.google.com/books?id=6sLDEAAAQBAJ&dq=Le+sueur+Public+Law%C2%A0fifth+edition&pg=PR3#v=onepage&q=Le%20sueur%20Public%20Law%C2%A0fifth%20edition&f=false |url-status=live}} Amongst the devolved parliaments across the United Kingdom, the [[Scottish Parliament]] has the most extensive responsibilities for [[Devolved, reserved and excepted matters|devolved powers]], and has been described as "one of the most powerful devolved parliaments in the world".{{cite web |title=The progress of devolution - Erskine May - UK Parliament |url=https://erskinemay.parliament.uk/section/4537/the-progress-of-devolution |website=erskinemay.parliament.uk |access-date=1 March 2025}}{{cite web |title=David Mundell speech: 20 years of Scottish devolution |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/david-mundell-speech-20-years-of-scottish-devolution |website=GOV.UK |access-date=1 March 2025}} The United Kingdom has an [[uncodified constitution]] and constitutional matters are not amongst the powers that have been devolved. Under the doctrine of [[Parliamentary sovereignty in the United Kingdom|parliamentary sovereignty]], the UK Parliament could, in theory, therefore, abolish the Scottish Parliament, Senedd or Northern Ireland Assembly.{{Cite journal |last=Burrows |first=N. |year=1999 |title=Unfinished Business: The Scotland Act 1998 |journal=The Modern Law Review |volume=62 |issue=2 |pages=241–260 [p. 249] |doi=10.1111/1468-2230.00203 |quote=The UK Parliament is sovereign and the Scottish Parliament is subordinate. The White Paper had indicated that this was to be the approach taken in the legislation. The Scottish Parliament is not to be seen as a reflection of the settled will of the people of Scotland or of popular sovereignty but as a reflection of its subordination to a higher legal authority. Following the logic of this argument, the power of the Scottish Parliament to legislate can be withdrawn or overridden...}}; {{Cite journal |last=Elliot |first=M. |year=2004 |title=United Kingdom: Parliamentary sovereignty under pressure |journal=International Journal of Constitutional Law |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=545–627, 553–554 |doi=10.1093/icon/2.3.545 |quote=Notwithstanding substantial differences among the schemes, an important common factor is that the UK Parliament has not renounced legislative sovereignty in relation to the three nations concerned. For example, the Scottish Parliament is empowered to enact primary legislation on all matters, save those in relation to which competence is explicitly denied ... but this power to legislate on what may be termed "devolved matters" is concurrent with the Westminster Parliament's general power to legislate for Scotland on any matter at all, including devolved matters ... In theory, therefore, Westminster may legislate on Scottish devolved matters whenever it chooses... |doi-access=free}} Though in the [[Scotland Act 2016]] and the [[Wales Act 2017]] it states that the Scottish Government and the Welsh Government "are a permanent part of the United Kingdom's constitutional arrangements".{{cite web |title=Scotland Act 2016 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/part/1/crossheading/the-scottish-parliament-and-the-scottish-government#:~:text=(1)The%20Scottish%20Parliament%20and,the%20United%20Kingdom's%20constitutional%20arrangements. |website=Gov.uk |access-date=28 June 2024 |archive-date=28 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240628211304/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2016/11/part/1/crossheading/the-scottish-parliament-and-the-scottish-government#:~:text=(1)The%20Scottish%20Parliament%20and,the%20United%20Kingdom's%20constitutional%20arrangements. |url-status=live}}{{cite web |title=Wales Act 2017 |url=https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/4/section/1/enacted |access-date=13 July 2024 |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002212916/https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/2017/4/section/1/enacted |url-status=live}} In practice it would be politically difficult for the UK Parliament to abolish devolution to the Scottish Parliament and the Senedd because these institutions were created by referendums.{{Cite journal |last=Gamble |first=A. |year=2006 |title=The Constitutional Revolution in the United Kingdom |journal=Publius |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=19–35 [p. 29] |doi=10.1093/publius/pjj011 |quote=The British parliament has the power to abolish the Scottish parliament and the Welsh assembly by a simple majority vote in both houses, but since both were sanctioned by referenda, it would be politically difficult to abolish them without the sanction of a further vote by the people. In this way, several of the constitutional measures introduced by the Blair government appear to be entrenched and not subject to a simple exercise of parliamentary sovereignty at Westminster.}} The political constraints placed upon the UK Parliament's power to interfere with devolution in Northern Ireland are greater still, because devolution in Northern Ireland rests upon an international agreement with the [[Government of Ireland]].{{Cite journal |last=Meehan |first=E. |year=1999 |title=The Belfast Agreement – Its Distinctiveness and Points of Cross-Fertilization in the UK's Devolution Programme |journal=Parliamentary Affairs |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 [p. 23] |doi=10.1093/pa/52.1.19 |quote=[T]he distinctive involvement of two governments in the Northern Irish problem means that Northern Ireland's new arrangements rest upon an intergovernmental agreement. If this can be equated with a treaty, it could be argued that the forthcoming distribution of power between Westminster and Belfast has similarities with divisions specified in the written constitutions of federal states...Although the Agreement makes the general proviso that Westminster's 'powers to make legislation for Northern Ireland' remains 'unaffected', without an explicit categorical reference to reserved matters, it may be more difficult than in Scotland or Wales for devolved powers to be repatriated. The retraction of devolved powers would not merely entail consultation in Northern Ireland backed implicitly by the absolute power of parliamentary sovereignty but also the renegotiation of an intergovernmental agreement. |doi-access=free}} The UK Parliament restricts the three devolved parliaments' legislative powers in economic policy matters through [[United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020|an act]] passed in 2020. ==== England ==== Unlike Scotland, Northern Ireland and Wales, England does not have a separate devolved government or national parliament,{{cite web |title=English devolution |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution#:~:text=After%201997%20Labour%20governments%20devolved,assembly%20were%20created%20in%202000. |publisher=Institute for Government |access-date=30 August 2024 |date=21 June 2024 |archive-date=30 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830150949/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution#:~:text=After%201997%20Labour%20governments%20devolved,assembly%20were%20created%20in%202000. |url-status=live}} rather a process of devolution of powers from the central government to local authorities has taken place, first in 1998.{{cite web |title=Devolution explained |url=https://www.local.gov.uk/topics/devolution/devolution-hub/devolution-explained |publisher=Local Government Association |access-date=30 August 2024 |archive-date=30 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240830152450/https://www.local.gov.uk/topics/devolution/devolution-hub/devolution-explained |url-status=live}} The [[Greater London Authority]] was set up following a [[1998 Greater London Authority referendum|referendum in 1998]]. Colloquially known as City Hall, it is the devolved regional government body for Greater London. It consists of two political branches: a directly elected [[Mayor of London]] and the [[London Assembly]], which serves as a check and balance on the Mayor. A [[Combined authorities and combined county authorities|combined authority]] is a type of local government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the [[Local Democracy, Economic Development and Construction Act 2009]]. CAs allow a group of local authorities to pool appropriate responsibility and receive certain devolved functions from central government in order to deliver transport and economic policy more effectively over a wider area.{{Cite web |date=6 March 2023 |title=English devolution |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution |access-date=4 February 2024 |publisher=Institute for Government |archive-date=2 October 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241002212917/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/english-devolution |url-status=live}} A combined county authority is a similar type of local-government institution introduced in England outside Greater London by the [[Levelling-up and Regeneration Act 2023]], but may only be formed by upper-tier authorities: [[county council]]s and [[Unitary authority|unitary authorities]].{{Cite web |date=6 April 2023 |title=Combined County Authorities – key differences to Combined Authorities |url=https://www.localgovernmentlawyer.co.uk/governance/314-governance-a-risk-articles/53464-combined-county-authorities-key-differences-to-combined-authorities |access-date=4 February 2024 |website=Local Government Lawyer |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204170903/https://www.localgovernmentlawyer.co.uk/governance/314-governance-a-risk-articles/53464-combined-county-authorities-key-differences-to-combined-authorities |url-status=live}} ==== Scotland ==== {{main|Responsibilities of the Scottish Government}} [[File:First Minister meets Prime Minister (53840421342).jpg|thumb|Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets with [[First Minister of Scotland]] [[John Swinney]], the head of the [[Scottish Government]], at [[Bute House]], Edinburgh.]] Since 1999 Scotland has had a devolved national government and parliament with wide-ranging powers over any matter that has not been specifically [[Reserved and excepted matters|reserved]] to the UK Parliament.{{cite web |title=Devolved and Reserved Powers |url=https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works/devolved-and-reserved-powers |website=parliament.scot |publisher=Scottish Parliament |access-date=28 December 2023 |archive-date=20 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920053732/https://www.parliament.scot/about/how-parliament-works/devolved-and-reserved-powers |url-status=live}}{{Cite news |date=8 April 1999 |title=Scotland's Parliament – powers and structures |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/scotland_99/the_scottish_parliament/310036.stm |access-date=21 October 2008 |archive-date=18 February 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070218234816/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/scotland_99/the_scottish_parliament/310036.stm |url-status=live}} Scotland has the most devolved powers of any of the three devolved parliaments in the United Kingdom, with full legislative control over [[Education in Scotland|education]], [[Scots law|law and order]], [[Economy of Scotland|the economy]], [[Health in Scotland|healthcare]], [[Elections in Scotland|elections]], [[Crown Estate Scotland]], the [[Planning system in Scotland|planning system]] and [[Housing in Scotland|housing]].{{cite web |title=Devolved and Reserved Matters - Visit & Learn Scottish Parliament |url=http://www.parliament.scot/visitandlearn/Education/18642.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170722092046/http://www.parliament.scot/visitandlearn/Education/18642.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=22 July 2017 |access-date=1 March 2025 |date=22 July 2017}} Additional powers were transferred to the Scottish Parliament via the [[Scotland Act 2012]] and the [[Scotland Act 2016]], such as [[Taxation in Scotland|some taxation powers]], including full control of [[Income tax in Scotland|income tax]] on income earned through employment, [[Land and Buildings Transaction Tax]], [[Scottish Landfill Tax|Landfill Tax]], Aggregates Levy, [[Air Departure Tax]] and [[Revenue Scotland]], as well as aspects of the [[Energy in Scotland|energy network]], including [[Renewable energy in Scotland|renewable energy]], energy efficiency and onshore [[Oil industry in Scotland|oil and gas licensing]].{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.scot/about/what-the-government-does/ |title=What the Scottish Government does |publisher=Scottish Government |access-date=8 August 2019 |archive-date=8 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708045359/https://www.gov.scot/about/what-the-government-does/ |url-status=live}} Their power over economic issues is significantly constrained by an [[United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020|act of the UK Parliament]] passed in 2020.{{refn|name=UKIM|{{Cite journal |last=Keating |first=Michael |date=2 February 2021 |title=Taking back control? Brexit and the territorial constitution of the United Kingdom |journal=[[Journal of European Public Policy]] |location=Abingdon |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=6–7 |doi=10.1080/13501763.2021.1876156 |quote=The UK Internal Market Act gives ministers sweeping powers to enforce mutual recognition and non-discrimination across the four jurisdictions. Existing differences and some social and health matters are exempted but these are much less extensive than the exemptions permitted under the EU Internal Market provisions. Only after an amendment in the House of Lords, the Bill was amended to provide a weak and non-binding consent mechanism for amendments (equivalent to the Sewel Convention) to the list of exemptions. The result is that, while the devolved governments retain regulatory competences, these are undermined by the fact that goods and services originating in, or imported into, England can be marketed anywhere. |hdl-access=free |hdl=1814/70296 |s2cid=234066376}}{{Cite journal |last1=Kenny |first1=Michael |author-link=Michael Kenny (political scientist) |last2=McEwen |first2=Nicola |author-link2=Nicola McEwen |date=1 March 2021 |title=Intergovernmental Relations and the Crisis of the Union |journal=Political Insight |publisher=[[SAGE Publishing]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=12–15 |doi=10.1177/20419058211000996 |quote=That phase of joint working was significantly damaged by the UK Internal Market Act, pushed through by the Johnson government in December 2020...the Act diminishes the authority of the devolved institutions, and was vehemently opposed by them. |doi-access=free |s2cid=232050477}}{{Cite journal |last=Wolffe |first=W James |author-link=James Wolffe |date=7 April 2021 |title=Devolution and the Statute Book |url=https://academic.oup.com/slr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/slr/hmab003/6213886 |journal=[[Statute Law Review]] |location=Oxford |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |doi=10.1093/slr/hmab003 |access-date=18 April 2021 |quote=the Internal Market Bill—a Bill that contains provisions which, if enacted, would significantly constrain, both legally and as a matter of practicality, the exercise by the devolved legislatures of their legislative competence; provisions that would be significantly more restrictive of the powers of the Scottish Parliament than either EU law or Articles 4 and 6 of the Acts of the Union...The UK Parliament passed the European Union (Withdrawal Agreement) Act 2020 and the Internal Market Act 2020 notwithstanding that, in each case, all three of the devolved legislatures had withheld consent. |archive-date=21 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421145355/https://academic.oup.com/slr/advance-article/doi/10.1093/slr/hmab003/6213886 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription}}{{Cite journal |last1=Wincott |first1=Daniel |author-link=Daniel Wincott |last2=Murray |first2=C. R. G. |last3=Davies |first3=Gregory |date=17 May 2021 |title=The Anglo-British imaginary and the rebuilding of the UK's territorial constitution after Brexit: unitary state or union state? |journal=Territory, Politics, Governance |location=Abingdon/Brighton |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]; [[Regional Studies Association]] |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=696–713 |doi=10.1080/21622671.2021.1921613 |quote=Taken as a whole, the Internal Market Act imposes greater restrictions upon the competences of the devolved institutions than the provisions of the EU Single Market which it replaced, in spite of pledges to use common frameworks to address these issues. [[David Hope, Baron Hope of Craighead|Lord Hope]], responsible for many of the leading judgments relating to the first two decades of devolution, regarded the legislation's terms as deliberately confrontational: 'this Parliament can do what it likes, but a different approach is essential if the union is to hold together'. |doi-access=free}}{{Cite report |url=https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/publications/uk-and-internal-market-devolution-and-union |title=UK and the Internal Market, Devolution and the Union |last1=Dougan |first1=Michael |last2=Hayward |first2=Katy |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Edinburgh]]; [[University of Aberdeen]] |pages=2–3 |last3=Hunt |first3=Jo |last4=McEwen |first4=Nicola |last5=McHarg |first5=Aileen |last6=Wincott |first6=Daniel |author-link=Michael Dougan |author-link2=Katy Hayward |access-date=16 October 2020 |author-link4=Nicola McEwen |author-link6=Daniel Wincott |department=Centre on Constitutional Change |archive-date=18 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201018185830/https://www.centreonconstitutionalchange.ac.uk/publications/uk-and-internal-market-devolution-and-union |url-status=live}}{{Cite report |url=https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/law/2-research/eull/UKIM,Briefing,Paper,-,Prof,Michael,Dougan,15,September,2020.pdf |title=Briefing Paper. United Kingdom Internal Market Bill: Implications for Devolution |last=Dougan |first=Michael |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Liverpool]] |location=Liverpool |pages=4–5 |author-link=Michael Dougan |access-date=15 October 2020 |archive-date=26 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201026161836/https://www.liverpool.ac.uk/media/livacuk/law/2-research/eull/UKIM,Briefing,Paper,-,Prof,Michael,Dougan,15,September,2020.pdf |url-status=live}}{{cite journal |last1=Dougan |first1=Michael |last2=Hunt |first2=Jo |last3=McEwen |first3=Nicola |last4=McHarg |first4=Aileen |author-link1=Michael Dougan |author-link3=Nicola McEwen |title=Sleeping with an Elephant: Devolution and the United Kingdom Internal Market Act 2020 |journal=[[Law Quarterly Review]] |date=2022 |url=https://dro.dur.ac.uk/35167/ |location=London |publisher=[[Sweet & Maxwell]] |ssrn=4018581 |via=[[Durham University|Durham Research Online]] |access-date=4 March 2022 |quote=The Act has restrictive – and potentially damaging – consequences for the regulatory capacity of the devolved legislatures...This was not the first time since the Brexit referendum that the Convention had been set aside, but it was especially notable given that the primary purpose of the legislation was to constrain the capacity of the devolved institutions to use their regulatory autonomy...in practice, it constrains the ability of the devolved institutions to make effective regulatory choices for their territories in ways that do not apply to the choices made by the UK government and parliament for the English market. |issn=0023-933X |archive-date=2 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802185022/https://dro.dur.ac.uk/35167/ |url-status=live}}}} The [[Scottish Government]] is a [[Scottish National Party]] (SNP) [[minority government]],{{cite web |title=Humza Yousaf's precarious position puts the SNP – and Scotland – at a crossroads |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/comment/humza-yousaf-snp-scotland-crossroads |website=Institute for Government |access-date=26 April 2024 |date=26 April 2024 |archive-date=26 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240426221203/https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/comment/humza-yousaf-snp-scotland-crossroads |url-status=live}} led by the [[First Minister of Scotland|first minister]], currently [[John Swinney]], the [[leader of the SNP]]. In 2014 the [[2014 Scottish independence referendum|Scottish independence referendum]] was held, with 55.3 per cent voting against independence from the United Kingdom and 44.7 per cent voting in favour, resulting in Scotland staying within the United Kingdom. [[Local government in Scotland]] is divided into [[subdivisions of Scotland|32 council areas]] with a wide variation in size and population. Local councils are made up of elected councillors, of whom there are 1,223. The Scottish Parliament is separate from the Scottish Government. It is made up of 129 elected [[members of the Scottish Parliament]] (MSPs). It is the law-making body of Scotland, and thus it scrutinises the work of the incumbent Scottish Government and considers any piece of proposed legislation through parliamentary debates, committees and parliamentary questions. ==== Wales ==== Since 1999 Wales has had a devolved national government and legislature, known as the [[Senedd]]. Elections to the Senedd used the [[additional member system]] until 2026 when the voting system was changed to [[closed list]] proportional representation. The number of elected members also increased from 60 to 96, representing 16 [[Senedd constituencies|six-member constituencies]]. The Senedd has more limited powers than those devolved to Scotland.{{Cite news |date=9 April 1999 |title=Structure and powers of the Assembly |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/wales_99/the_welsh_assembly/309033.stm |access-date=21 October 2008 |archive-date=7 February 2004 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040207162926/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/wales_99/the_welsh_assembly/309033.stm |url-status=live}} It can legislate on any matter not specifically reserved to the UK Parliament by [[Acts of Senedd Cymru]]. The [[Welsh Government]] is currently a [[Plaid Cymru]] minority government led by the [[First Minister of Wales|first minister]], [[Rhun ap Iorwerth]]. [[Local government in Wales]] consists of 22 unitary authorities, each led by a leader and cabinet elected by the council itself. ==== Northern Ireland ==== The devolved form of government in Northern Ireland is based on the 1998 [[Good Friday Agreement]], which brought to an end a 30-year period of [[Unionism in Ireland|unionist]]-[[Irish nationalism|nationalist]] communal conflict known as [[the Troubles]]. The Agreement was [[1998 Northern Ireland Good Friday Agreement referendum|confirmed by referendum]] and implemented later that year. It established [[power sharing]] arrangements for a devolved government and legislature, referred to as the [[Northern Ireland Executive]] and the [[Northern Ireland Assembly]] respectively.{{cite web |title=Good Friday Agreement: What is it? |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-61968177 |website=BBC News |date=3 April 2023 |access-date=11 April 2024 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515131233/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-61968177 |url-status=live}} Elections to the Assembly use the [[single transferable vote]] system. The Executive and Assembly have powers similar to those devolved to Scotland.{{Cite web |date=8 May 2019 |title=Devolution of powers to Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland |url=https://www.gov.uk/guidance/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland |access-date=11 June 2024 |website=GOV.UK |archive-date=7 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230307093336/https://www.gov.uk/guidance/devolution-of-powers-to-scotland-wales-and-northern-ireland |url-status=live}} The Executive is led by a [[diarchy]] representing [[Designated Unionist|unionist]] and [[Designated Nationalist|nationalist]] members of the Assembly.{{Cite web |date=25 September 2015 |title=Your Executive |url=https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive |publisher=Northern Ireland Executive |access-date=14 August 2016 |archive-date=21 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160821135048/https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive |url-status=live}} The [[First Minister and Deputy First Minister of Northern Ireland|first minister and deputy first minister of Northern Ireland]] are the joint heads of government of Northern Ireland.{{Cite news |title=Stormont: Why were NI leaders given unequal job titles? |work=BBC News |date=15 May 2022 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-northern-ireland-61393736 |access-date=2 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202190001/https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-61393736 |archive-date=2 February 2024}}{{Cite web |title=Northern Ireland Executive: Ministerial Code |date=28 September 2015 |url=https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive/ministerial-code |access-date=2 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240202191115/https://www.northernireland.gov.uk/topics/your-executive/ministerial-code |archive-date=2 February 2024}} [[Local government in Northern Ireland]] since 2015 has been divided between 11 councils with limited responsibilities. === Foreign relations === {{Main|Foreign relations of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Trump-Starmer bilateral 2025-02-27-16-07.jpg|thumb|right|UK prime minister Keir Starmer and US president [[Donald Trump]] shaking hands in a joint press conference in 2025. The UK and the US share a "[[Special Relationship]]".]] The United Kingdom is [[Big Five (United Nations)|a permanent member]] of the [[United Nations Security Council]] and a member of [[NATO]], [[AUKUS]], the Commonwealth of Nations, the [[G7]], the [[G-20 major economies|G20]], the [[Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|OECD]], the [[World Trade Organization|WTO]], the [[Council of Europe]] and the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]].{{Cite web |last=May |first=Theresa |author-link=Theresa May |date=29 March 2017 |title=Prime Minister's letter to Donald Tusk triggering Article 50 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50 |via=Gov.uk |access-date=19 June 2017 |archive-date=5 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170605184239/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50/prime-ministers-letter-to-donald-tusk-triggering-article-50 |url-status=live}} It maintains the [[British Council]], an organisation specialising in international cultural and educational opportunities in over 100 countries. The UK remains a [[great power]] with considerable political, cultural, economic and military influence.{{cite book |last1=Paul |first1=T.V. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9jy28vBqscQC&pg=PA59 |title=Balance of Power: Theory and Practice in the 21st century |last2=Wirtz |first2=James |last3=Fortmann |first3=Michel |date=2004 |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-5017-2 |page=59}}{{Cite news |date=10 May 2012 |title=United Kingdom country profile |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18023389 |access-date=6 July 2025 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB |archive-date=3 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230103160059/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-18023389 |url-status=live }} The United Kingdom is said to have a "[[Special Relationship]]" with the United States and a close partnership with France – the "[[Entente cordiale]]" – and shares nuclear weapons technology with both countries;{{Cite web |last=Swaine |first=Jon |date=13 January 2009 |title=Barack Obama presidency will strengthen special relationship, says Gordon Brown |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/4226246/Barack-Obama-presidency-will-strengthen-special-relationship-says-Gordon-Brown.html |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 May 2011 |website=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |publication-place=[[London]] |archive-date=4 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200704192159/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/barackobama/4226246/Barack-Obama-presidency-will-strengthen-special-relationship-says-Gordon-Brown.html |url-status=live}}{{Cite book |last1=Kirchner |first1=Emil Joseph |title=Global Security Governance: Competing Perceptions of Security in the 21st century |last2=Sperling |first2=James |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-39162-7 |edition=illustrated |location=London |page=100}} the [[Anglo-Portuguese Alliance]] is considered to be the oldest binding military alliance in the world. The UK is also closely linked with the Republic of Ireland; the two countries share a [[Common Travel Area]] and co-operate through the [[British-Irish Intergovernmental Conference]] and the [[British-Irish Council]]. Britain's global presence and influence is further amplified through its trading relations, foreign investments, [[official development assistance]] and military engagements.{{Cite web |last=The Committee Office, House of Commons |date=19 February 2009 |title=DFID's expenditure on development assistance |url=http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmintdev/220/22007.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130112222226/http://www.parliament.the-stationery-office.co.uk/pa/cm200809/cmselect/cmintdev/220/22007.htm |archive-date=12 January 2013 |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=UK Parliament}} === Military === {{Main|British Armed Forces|Military history of the United Kingdom}} [[File:United Kingdom overseas military installations and operations.png|thumb|upright=1.4| {{Legend|#0000FF|Overseas military installations of the United Kingdom, and locally raised units of the [[British Overseas Territories]]}} {{Legend|#F0002B|Military interventions since 2000: [[British military intervention in the Sierra Leone Civil War|Palliser]] (Sierra Leone); [[Operation Herrick|Herrick]] (Afghanistan); [[Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa|Enduring Freedom]] (Horn of Africa); [[Operation Telic|Telic]] (Iraq); [[Operation Ellamy|Ellamy]] (Libya); and [[Operation Shader|Shader]] (Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant).}}]] The British Armed Forces consist of three professional service branches: the [[Royal Navy]] and [[Royal Marines]] (forming the [[Naval Service (United Kingdom)|Naval Service]]), the [[British Army]] and the [[Royal Air Force]].{{Cite web |title=Ministry of Defence |url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Home |access-date=21 February 2012 |publisher=Ministry of Defence |archive-date=19 February 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120219194140/http://mod.uk/DefenceInternet/Home/ |url-status=live}} The armed forces of the United Kingdom are managed by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] and controlled by the [[Defence Council of the United Kingdom|Defence Council]], chaired by the [[Secretary of State for Defence]]. The [[Commander-in-Chief]] is the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|British monarch]], to whom members of the forces swear an oath of allegiance.{{Cite web |date=30 March 2012 |title=Speaker addresses Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II |url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2012/march/speaker-addresses-hm-the-queen |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=UK Parliament |archive-date=1 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501221305/http://www.parliament.uk/business/news/2012/march/speaker-addresses-hm-the-queen/ |url-status=live}} The armed forces are charged with protecting the United Kingdom and its overseas territories, promoting the UK's global security interests and supporting international peacekeeping efforts. They are active and regular participants in [[NATO]] (including the [[Allied Rapid Reaction Corps]]), the [[Five Power Defence Arrangements]], [[RIMPAC]] and other worldwide coalition operations. [[Overseas military bases of the United Kingdom|Overseas garrisons]] and facilities are maintained in [[RAF Ascension Island|Ascension Island]], [[Mina Salman|Bahrain]], [[Military of Belize|Belize]], [[Military Forces based in Brunei|Brunei]], [[British Army Training Unit Suffield|Canada]], [[British Forces Cyprus|Cyprus]], [[Diego Garcia]], the [[Military of the Falkland Islands|Falkland Islands]], [[British Forces Germany|Germany]], [[British Forces Gibraltar|Gibraltar]], [[British Army Training Unit Kenya|Kenya]], [[Oman]], [[Al Udeid Air Base|Qatar]] and [[Singapore]].{{Cite web |title=House of Commons Hansard |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=/pa/cm200405/cmhansrd/vo050221/text/50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090309114107/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/cgi-bin/newhtml_hl?DB=semukparl&STEMMER=en&WORDS=raf%20diego%20garcia&ALL=RAF&ANY=&PHRASE=%22Diego%20Garcia%20%22&CATEGORIES=&SIMPLE=&SPEAKER=&COLOUR=red&STYLE=s&ANCHOR=50221w33.html_spnew0&URL=%2Fpa%2Fcm200405%2Fcmhansrd%2Fvo050221%2Ftext%2F50221w33.htm#50221w33.html_spnew0 |archive-date=9 March 2009 |access-date=23 October 2008 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite web |title=House of Commons Hansard Written Answers for 17 Jun 2013 (pt 0002) |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130617/text/130617w0002.htm#13061746000236 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150214025754/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm201314/cmhansrd/cm130617/text/130617w0002.htm#13061746000236 |archive-date=14 February 2015 |access-date=4 March 2015 |publisher=Publications.parliament.uk}} According to the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]{{Cite web |date=April 2026|title=Trends in Military Expenditure 2025|url=https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2026-04/2604_milex_2025.pdf#page=2|access-date=31 May 2026|publisher=[[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]]}} and the [[International Institute for Strategic Studies]],{{Cite web |title=The Military Balance 2026: Global defence spending|url=https://www.iiss.org/publications/the-military-balance/2026/the-military-balance-2026/global-defence-spending/|access-date=2026-05-31|website=IISS|language=en}} the UK had the world's [[List of countries by military expenditures|sixth- or fifth-highest military expenditures]] in 2025. Total defence spending in 2024 was estimated at 2.3 per cent of [[gross domestic product]].{{Cite web |title=Rishi Sunak vows to boost UK defence spending to 2.5% of GDP by 2030 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-68880171 |access-date=24 April 2024 |publisher=BBC News |date=24 April 2024 |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423233438/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-politics-68880171 |url-status=live}} Following the end of the [[Cold War]], defence policy has a stated assumption that "the most demanding operations" will be undertaken as part of a coalition.''UK 2005: The Official Yearbook of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland''. Office for National Statistics. p. 89. === Law and criminal justice === {{Main|Law of the United Kingdom|Crime in the United Kingdom}} {{Further|English law|Northern Ireland law|Scots law}} [[File:Middlesex Guildhall (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom|Supreme Court]] is the final court of appeal for England, Wales and Northern Ireland, and for Scottish civil cases.]] The United Kingdom does not have a single legal system as the [[Treaty of Union|1706 Treaty of Union]] provided for the continuation of Scotland's separate legal system. The UK has three distinct [[Legal systems of the world|systems of law]]: English law, Northern Ireland law and Scots law. A new [[Supreme Court of the United Kingdom]] came into being in October 2009 to replace the [[judicial functions of the House of Lords|Appellate Committee of the House of Lords]].{{Cite news |date=1 October 2009 |title=UK Supreme Court judges sworn in |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8283939.stm |access-date=6 October 2009 |archive-date=7 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200207160453/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/8283939.stm |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |date=July 2003 |title=Constitutional reform: A Supreme Court for the United Kingdom |url=http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20090117132005/http://www.dca.gov.uk/consult/supremecourt/supreme.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2009 |access-date=13 May 2013 |publisher=Department for Constitutional Affairs}} The [[Judicial Committee of the Privy Council]], including the same members as the Supreme Court, is the highest court of appeal for several independent Commonwealth countries, the [[British Overseas Territories]] and the [[Crown Dependencies]].{{Cite web |title=Role of the JCPC |url=http://www.jcpc.uk/about/role-of-the-jcpc.html |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=Judicial Committee of the Privy Council |archive-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114165910/http://www.jcpc.uk/about/role-of-the-jcpc.html |url-status=live}} Both English law, which applies in England and Wales, and Northern Ireland law are based on [[common law]] (or [[case law]]) principles.{{Cite book |last=Bainham |first=Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AF303DEl0MkC&pg=PA298 |title=The international survey of family law: 1996 |publisher=Martinus Nijhoff |year=1998 |isbn=978-90-411-0573-8 |location=The Hague |page=298 |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328141743/https://books.google.com/books?id=AF303DEl0MkC&pg=PA298#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live}} It originated in England in the [[Middle Ages]] and is the basis for many legal systems around the world.{{Cite web |title=Common Law |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/common-law |access-date=27 May 2024 |publisher=Britannica |date=19 May 2024 |archive-date=6 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506134920/https://www.britannica.com/topic/common-law |url-status=live}} The [[courts of England and Wales]] are headed by the [[Senior Courts of England and Wales]], consisting of the [[Court of Appeal of England and Wales|Court of Appeal]], the [[High Court of Justice]] for civil cases and the [[Crown Court]] for criminal cases.{{Cite web |title=The Australian courts and comparative law |url=http://www.alpn.edu.au/node/66 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414202207/http://alpn.edu.au/node/66 |archive-date=14 April 2013 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Australian Law Postgraduate Network}} Scots law is a hybrid system based on common-law and [[Civil law (legal system)|civil-law]] principles. The chief courts are the [[Court of Session]], for civil cases,{{Cite web |title=Court of Session – Introduction |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080731094308/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/session/index.asp |archive-date=31 July 2008 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=Scottish Courts}} and the [[High Court of Justiciary]], for criminal cases.{{Cite web |title=High Court of Justiciary – Introduction |url=http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080912204821/http://www.scotcourts.gov.uk/justiciary/index.asp |archive-date=12 September 2008 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Scottish Courts}} The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom serves as the highest court of appeal for civil cases under Scots law.{{Cite web |title=House of Lords – Practice Directions and Standing Orders Applicable to Civil Appeals |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131206120915/http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld199697/ldinfo/ld08judg/bluebook/bluebk03.htm |archive-date=6 December 2013 |access-date=8 March 2015 |publisher=UK Parliament}} The criminal justice system has been characterised by low [[conviction rate]]s and [[Justice delayed is justice denied|court delays]] for some crime types.{{cite journal | last1=Lovett | first1=Jo | last2=Hales | first2=Gavin | last3=Kelly | first3=Liz | last4=Khan | first4=Aneela | last5=Hardiman | first5=Margaret | last6=Trott | first6=Louise | title=What can We Learn from Police Data About Timeliness in Rape and Serious Sexual Offence Investigations in England and Wales? | journal=International Criminology | volume=2 | issue=3 | date=2022 | issn=2662-9976 | doi=10.1007/s43576-022-00069-8 | pages=286–298| pmc=9527390 }} Crime in England and Wales increased between 1981 and 1995. Since that peak there has been an overall fall of 66% in recorded crime from 1995 to 2015,{{Cite web |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_419450.pdf |title=Crime in England and Wales, Year Ending June 2015 |publisher=Office for National Statistics |website=UK Government Web Archive |access-date=16 March 2023 |archive-date=16 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230316221317/https://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ukgwa/20160105160709/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/dcp171778_419450.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown}} according to [[Crime statistics in the United Kingdom|UK crime statistics]]. [[United Kingdom labour law|UK labour laws]] establish employment rights including [[National Minimum Wage Act 1998|a minimum wage]], a minimum of 28 days annual holiday, parental leave, statutory sick pay and [[Pensions Act 2008|a pension]]. [[Same-sex marriage]] has been legal in England, Scotland, and Wales since 2014, and in [[Northern Ireland]] since 2020.{{cite web |last1=Wratten |first1=Marcus |title=Tom Allen to host vital new BBC show marking 10th anniversary of same-sex marriage |url=https://www.thepinknews.com/2023/07/03/tom-allen-bbc-my-big-gay-wedding-same-sex-marriage/ |website=PinkNews |date=3 July 2023 |access-date=2 September 2023 |archive-date=2 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230902195143/https://www.thepinknews.com/2023/07/03/tom-allen-bbc-my-big-gay-wedding-same-sex-marriage/ |url-status=live}} [[LGBT rights in the United Kingdom|LGBT equality]] in the United Kingdom is considered advanced by modern standards.{{Cite web |date=5 June 2023 |title=The 203 Worst (& Safest) Countries for LGBTQ+ Travel in 2023 |url=https://www.asherfergusson.com/lgbtq-travel-safety/ |access-date=20 August 2023 |website=Asher & Lyric |archive-date=10 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910063408/https://www.asherfergusson.com/lgbtq-travel-safety/ |url-status=live}}{{cite web |last1=R. Flores |first1=Andrew |title=Social Acceptance of LGBTI People in 175 Countries and Locations |url=https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/global-acceptance-index-lgbt/ |website=Williams Institute |access-date=11 September 2023 |archive-date=13 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230913091254/https://williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu/publications/global-acceptance-index-lgbt/ |url-status=live}} Since leaving the [[European Union|EU]] most disputes under UK-EU agreements are addressed through consultation between the parties. If consultation fails to resolve the issue, either party can request [[arbitration]], typically at the [[Permanent Court of Arbitration|PCA]] in [[Peace Palace|The Hague]].{{Cite web |title=Disputes under the Trade and Cooperation Agreement |date=November 2021 |url=https://www.instituteforgovernment.org.uk/explainer/disputes-trade-and-cooperation-agreement |access-date=26 January 2025 |publisher=Institute for Government}}{{Cite web |title=Sandeel fishing ban to remain in place |date=2 May 2025 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/articles/ckgrwxxzxkjo |website=BBC |access-date=4 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250504203005/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/ckgrwxxzxkjo |archive-date=4 May 2025}} The [[EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement]] states that the UK and EU have to cooperate and negotiate with each other with 'full mutual respect and good faith', as defined by international law.{{Cite web |title=Good Faith in Public Law |date=20 January 2022 |url=https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-01-20-good-faith-public-law |website=ox.ac.uk |access-date=13 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250513165454/https://www.law.ox.ac.uk/news/2022-01-20-good-faith-public-law |archive-date=13 May 2025}} Under the [[Windsor Framework]], [[Northern Ireland]] matters requiring interpretation of EU law go to the [[European Court of Justice|ECJ]], though the [[Stormont Brake]] can prevent new EU rules from taking effect. == Economy == {{Main|Economy of the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Economy of England|Economy of Scotland|Economy of Northern Ireland|Economy of Wales}} [[File:Bank junction - 2020-09-20 (2).jpg|thumb|[[City of London]] skyline from at [[Bank Junction]]. [[London]] is Europe's largest financial centre.{{Cite web |last=Yanatma |first=Servet |date=16 March 2024 |title=Europe's top financial centres: Where's best to do business? |url=https://www.euronews.com/business/2024/03/16/europes-top-financial-centres-wheres-best-to-do-business |access-date=16 August 2025 |publisher=[[Euronews]] |quote=While the US dominates the upper end of the list, with New York taking the number one spot, London continues to lead in Europe.}}]] The United Kingdom has a highly developed [[social market economy]].{{Cite journal |last1=Thane |first1=Pat |year=2019 |title=The Origins of the British Welfare State |journal=The Journal of Interdisciplinary History |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=427–433 |doi=10.1162/jinh_a_01448 |s2cid=208223636 |doi-access=free}}{{cite web |last1=Griffiths |first1=Alan |last2=Wall |first2=Stuart |date=16 July 2011 |title=Applied Economics |url=http://www.ftms.edu.my/pdf/Download/UndergraduateStudent/BusinessEconomics/BC215001S%20-%20BE%20Key%20Text%20-%20Applied%20Economics.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620120524/http://www.ftms.edu.my/pdf/Download/UndergraduateStudent/BusinessEconomics/BC215001S%20-%20BE%20Key%20Text%20-%20Applied%20Economics.pdf |archive-date=20 June 2013 |access-date=25 September 2014}} With an estimated nominal [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) of £2.819 trillion in 2025, it is the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|fifth-largest national economy]] in the world and the [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)|second-largest]] in Europe. Its currency, the [[pound sterling]], is the [[Foreign exchange market#Most traded currencies by value|fourth-most-traded currency]] in the [[foreign exchange market]] and the world's fourth-largest [[reserve currency]], after the [[United States dollar]], the [[euro]] and the [[yen]].{{Cite web |title=World Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves |url=https://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=41175 |access-date=10 October 2021 |website=IMF Data |archive-date=12 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160512202858/https://data.imf.org/regular.aspx?key=41175 |url-status=live}} The pound sterling maintains its high nominal value through both its long history of stability and by never undergoing formal [[redenomination]]. Since 2022 the UK has been both the world's [[List of countries by exports|fourth-largest exporter]]{{Cite web |title=Exports of goods and services (BoP, current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.GSR.GNFS.CD?end=2024&most_recent_value_desc=true |access-date=22 September 2025 |website=[[World Bank]]}} and [[List of countries by imports|fourth-largest importer]]{{Cite web |title=Imports of goods and services (current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true |access-date=22 September 2025 |website=[[World Bank]] |archive-date=13 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250913065521/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.IMP.GNFS.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true |url-status=live }} of goods and services. Despite having one of the highest levels of [[Income inequality in the United Kingdom|income inequality]] in the [[OECD]],{{Cite web |last1=Francis-Devine |first1=Brigid |title=House of Commons Research Briefing on Income inequality in the UK. |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7484/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210104536/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7484/ |archive-date=10 February 2022 |access-date=1 July 2023 |website=UK Parliament}}{{Cite web |title=Inequality – Income inequality – OECD Data |url=http://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629183322/https://data.oecd.org/inequality/income-inequality.htm |archive-date=29 June 2023 |access-date=3 July 2023 |website=theOECD}} the UK has a very high [[Human Development Index|HDI]] ranking, including when [[List of countries by inequality-adjusted Human Development Index|adjusted for inequality]]. As of 2025 the [[Unemployment in the United Kingdom|UK unemployment rate]] is 4.7%{{Cite web |last1=Labiak |first1=Mitchell |last2=Smith |first2=Oliver |date=17 July 2025 |title=UK jobs market weakens as unemployment rate rises |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg754negn75o |access-date=25 September 2025 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB |archive-date=15 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250915184829/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg754negn75o |url-status=live }} and the annual [[List of countries by real GDP per capita growth|real GDP per head growth]] was 1.1%.{{cite web | title=GDP quarterly national accounts, UK | website=Office for National Statistics | date=2026 | url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/grossdomesticproductgdp/bulletins/quarterlynationalaccounts/octobertodecember2025 | access-date=2026-04-24}} [[HM Treasury]], led by the [[Chancellor of the Exchequer]], is responsible for developing and executing the government's [[public finance]] and [[economic policy]]. The [[Department for Business and Trade]] is responsible for business, international trade, and enterprise. The [[Bank of England]] is the UK's [[central bank]] and responsible for issuing notes and coins in the pound sterling. Banks in Scotland and Northern Ireland retain the right to issue their own notes, subject to retaining enough Bank of England notes in reserve to cover their issue. === Industries and services === [[File:Bank-of-England.jpg|thumb|The [[Bank of England]] is the [[central bank]] of the United Kingdom and the model on which most modern central banks have been based.]] [[File:British Airways Concorde G-BOAC 03.jpg|thumb|[[Concorde]] was a [[Supersonic speed|supersonic]] airliner that reduced transatlantic flight time from 8 hours to 3.5 hours.{{Cite web |title=Celebrating Concorde |url=https://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317103939/https://www.britishairways.com/en-gb/information/about-ba/history-and-heritage/celebrating-concorde |archive-date=17 March 2023 |access-date=30 March 2023}}]] The [[Tertiary sector of the economy|service sector]] made up around 80 per cent of the UK's [[Gross value added|GVA]] in 2023.{{Cite web |last=Hutton |first=Georgina |date=3 October 2024 |title=Industries in the UK |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8353/ |access-date=19 May 2025 |website=UK Parliament: House of Commons Library |archive-date=7 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211007134640/https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-8353/ |url-status=live }} As of 2023 it is the world's [[List of countries by service exports|second-largest exporter of services]]{{Cite web |title=Service exports (BoP, current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.GSR.NFSV.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_high_desc=false |access-date=19 May 2025 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=17 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317140633/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.GSR.NFSV.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true&year_high_desc=false |url-status=live }} and in 2024 was the world's largest net exporter of [[Financial services in the United Kingdom|financial services]].{{Cite web |date=15 January 2025 |title=UK leads world in financial services trade surplus |url=https://www.thecityuk.com/news/uk-leads-world-in-financial-services-trade-surplus/ |access-date=2 June 2025 |website=TheCityUK |language=en}} [[London]] is the world capital for foreign exchange trading, with a market share of 37.8 per cent in 2022 of the global turnover.{{Cite web |date=30 September 2025 |title=BIS Triennial Survey of Foreign Exchange and Over-The-Counter Interest Rate Derivatives Markets in April 2025 – UK Data |url=https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/news/2025/september/bis-triennial-survey-of-foreign-exchange-and-over-the-counter-interest-rate-derivatives-markets |access-date=7 December 2025 |publisher=Bank of England}} It is the largest urban economy in Europe{{Cite web |last=Florida |first=Richard |date=16 March 2017 |title=The Economic Power of Cities Compared to Nations |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-16/top-metros-have-more-economic-power-than-most-nations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308074221/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-03-16/top-metros-have-more-economic-power-than-most-nations |archive-date=8 March 2024 |access-date=22 February 2024 |website=Bloomberg}} and, alongside [[New York City|New York]], the city in the world most integrated with the [[World economy|global economy]].{{Cite web |title=World Cities 2024 |url=https://gawc.lboro.ac.uk/gawc-worlds/the-world-according-to-gawc/world-cities-2024/ |access-date=21 September 2025 |website=GaWC |language=en-US |archive-date=3 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250703071437/https://gawc.lboro.ac.uk/gawc-worlds/the-world-according-to-gawc/world-cities-2024/ |url-status=live }} London is also one of the world's leading financial centres, ranking second in the 2025 [[Global Financial Centres Index]].{{Cite web |title=GFCI 36 Rank - Long Finance |url=https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-36-explore-the-data/gfci-36-rank/ |access-date=19 May 2025 |website=www.longfinance.net |archive-date=25 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240925155927/https://www.longfinance.net/programmes/financial-centre-futures/global-financial-centres-index/gfci-36-explore-the-data/gfci-36-rank/ |url-status=live }} [[Edinburgh]], the UK's second-largest financial centre, ranks 29th in the world in the same index. The [[Manufacturing in the United Kingdom|UK's manufacturing sector]] in 2024 was the world's [[List of countries by manufacturing output|10th-largest]] and Europe's fourth-largest by value output.{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true |access-date=5 August 2025 |website=World Bank Open Data |archive-date=7 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107135049/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.IND.MANF.CD?most_recent_value_desc=true |url-status=live }} At the end of 2024 manufacturing in the United Kingdom accounted for 8 per cent of the workforce and 8.6 per cent of national economic output.{{Cite web |date=22 May 2025 |title=Manufacturing industries: Economic indicators |url=https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/sn05206/ |access-date=1 June 2025 |website=House of Commons Library}} As reported in 2017 the [[East Midlands Manufacturing|East Midlands]] and [[West Midlands Manufacturing|West Midlands]] (at 12.6 and 11.8 per cent respectively) were the regions with the highest proportion of employees in manufacturing. [[London manufacturing|London's manufacturing sector]] had the lowest at 2.8 per cent.Hennik Research. [http://www.themanufacturer.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Annual-Manufacturing-Report-2017-Final-Version.pdf ''Annual Manufacturing Report: 2017'' (Dec. 2016)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170131192050/http://www.themanufacturer.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/Annual-Manufacturing-Report-2017-Final-Version.pdf|date=31 January 2017}} The [[Tourism in the United Kingdom|country's tourism sector]] is important to the British economy;{{Cite web |last1=Chan |first1=Kelvin |date=25 April 2023 |title=King Charles' coronation is bringing millions of tourists and a cash infusion to London but it probably won't save the British economy |url=https://fortune.com/2023/04/25/king-charles-coronation-tourists-money-london-british-economy/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230502144950/https://fortune.com/2023/04/25/king-charles-coronation-tourists-money-london-british-economy/ |archive-date=2 May 2023 |access-date=9 May 2023 |website=[[fortune.com]] |agency=The Associated Press}} The [[creative industries]] accounted for 5.9 per cent of the UK's GVA in 2019,{{Cite web |title=DCMS Economic Estimates 2019 (provisional): Gross Value Added |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-gross-value-added/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-provisional-gross-value-added |access-date=31 January 2023 |website=gov.uk |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131001226/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-gross-value-added/dcms-economic-estimates-2019-provisional-gross-value-added |url-status=live}} and contributed £111 billion to the UK economy in 2018.{{Cite web |year=2020 |title=UK's Creative Industries contributes almost £13 million to the UK economy every hour |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uks-creative-industries-contributes-almost-13-million-to-the-uk-economy-every-hour |access-date=21 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government |archive-date=21 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230221131518/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uks-creative-industries-contributes-almost-13-million-to-the-uk-economy-every-hour |url-status=live}} [[Lloyd's of London]], located in London, is the world's largest [[insurance]] and [[reinsurance]] market.{{Cite web |title=Lloyd's of London – value proposition |url=https://www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/value-proposition-coverholder |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230227100951/https://www.lloyds.com/about-lloyds/value-proposition-coverholder |archive-date=27 February 2023 |website=Lloyd's of London}} [[WPP plc]] is one of the world's biggest advertising companies and also based in London.{{Cite web |title=Rankings 2025 - Creative 100 |url=https://www.warc.com/creative/rankings/creative-100 |website=WARC |access-date=12 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250612162216/https://www.warc.com/creative/rankings/creative-100 |archive-date=12 June 2025}} The UK is one of Europe's leading retail markets and its largest [[e-commerce]] market.{{Cite web |url=https://www.great.gov.uk/international/content/investment/sectors/retail/ |access-date=18 January 2024 |title=Retail |publisher=great.gov.uk |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118084416/https://www.great.gov.uk/international/content/investment/sectors/retail/ |url-status=live}} With [[Consumer spending|consumption expenditures]] of over US$2 trillion in 2023, it has the [[List of largest consumer markets|second-largest consumer market]] in Europe.{{Cite web |title=Households and NPISHs Final consumption expenditure (current US$) |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?year_high_desc=true |access-date=17 August 2024 |website=World Bank Group |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143614/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NE.CON.PRVT.CD?year_high_desc=true |url-status=live}} [[John Lewis Partnership|John Lewis]] is the UK's largest employee-owned business.{{Cite web |url=https://employeeownership.co.uk/resources/what-the-evidence-tells-us/ |access-date=18 January 2024 |title=Employee owned businesses - What the evidence tells us |archive-date=2 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231202155249/https://employeeownership.co.uk/resources/what-the-evidence-tells-us/ |url-status=live}} The [[Automotive industry in the United Kingdom|British automotive industry]] generates £47 billion of exports (12 per cent of the UK's total exports of goods). In 2024 the UK produced 779,584 passenger vehicles and 125,649 commercial vehicles; 8 out of 10 cars produced in the UK are exported overseas.{{Cite web |date=15 May 2025 |title=SMMT Motor Industry Facts 2025 |url=https://www.smmt.co.uk/smmt-motor-industry-facts-2025/ |access-date=26 May 2025 |website=SMMT |archive-date=26 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250526074751/https://www.smmt.co.uk/smmt-motor-industry-facts-2025/ |url-status=live}} Britain is known for iconic cars like [[Mini Hatch|Mini]] and [[Jaguar Cars|Jaguar]],{{Cite web |date=19 November 2020 |title=Best British cars: Top 50 all-time greatest British-built cars revealed - page 2 |url=https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/best-cars-vans/351729/best-british-cars-top-50-all-time-greatest-british-built-cars-revealed/page-2 |access-date=9 March 2024 |website=Auto Express |archive-date=16 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316184015/https://www.autoexpress.co.uk/best-cars-vans/351729/best-british-cars-top-50-all-time-greatest-british-built-cars-revealed/page-2 |url-status=live}} as well as luxury cars such as [[Rolls-Royce Motor Cars|Rolls-Royce]], [[Bentley]] and [[Range Rover]]. The UK is a major centre for engine manufacturing: 1.59 million engines were produced in 2024. It was the world's [[List of countries by engine exports|third-largest exporter of engines]] by value in 2023.{{Cite web |title=Combustion Engines |url=https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/combustion-engines |access-date=26 May 2025 |website=OEC - The Observatory of Economic Complexity |archive-date=26 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250526073421/https://oec.world/en/profile/hs/combustion-engines |url-status=live}} The [[Motorsport in the United Kingdom|UK motorsport]] industry has an annual turnover of around £10 billion.{{Cite web |year=2020 |title=UK motorsport industry in pole position for F1's 70th anniversary |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-motorsport-industry-in-pole-position-for-f1s-70th-anniversary |access-date=19 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government |archive-date=19 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230219100712/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-motorsport-industry-in-pole-position-for-f1s-70th-anniversary |url-status=live}} Seven of the eleven [[Formula One]] teams are based in the UK, with their technology being used in supercars and hypercars from [[McLaren Automotive|McLaren]], [[Aston Martin]] and [[Lotus Cars|Lotus]].{{Efn|Car brands here are classed as British based on several of the following criteria: historical heritage, cultural significance, design and engineering base, manufacturing location, headquarters location, UK registered company (even with overseas investors).}} The [[Aerospace industry in the United Kingdom|aerospace industry of the UK]] is the second-largest in the world{{cite web |title=United Kingdom - Country Commercial Guide: Aerospace and Defense |url=https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/united-kingdom-aerospace-and-defense |website=[[International Trade Administration]] |date=3 November 2023 |access-date=17 December 2024 |archive-date=12 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612142750/https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/united-kingdom-aerospace-and-defense |url-status=live }} and has an annual turnover of around £30 billion.{{Cite news |last=Tovey |first=Alan |date=29 June 2016 |title=Britain's aerospace sector soars amid fears Brexit could clip its wings |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/06/29/britains-aerospace-sector-soars-amid-fears-brexit-could-clip-its |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}} The [[British space programme|UK space industry]] was worth £17.5 billion in 2020/21 and employed around 48,800 people.{{cite web |title=UK space sector income reaches £17.5 billion as jobs and services grow |url=https://www.ukspace.org/uk-space-sector-income-reaches-17-5-billion-as-jobs-and-services-grow/ |website=UKspace |date=27 March 2023}}{{cite web |title=UK space sector income reaches £17.5 billion as jobs and services grow |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-space-sector-income-reaches-175-billion-as-jobs-and-services-grow |website=gov.uk |date=29 March 2023 |access-date=10 August 2025}} The [[UK Space Agency]] has stated in 2023 that it is investing £1.6 billion in space-related projects.{{Cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-to-support-space-exploration-using-moon-resources-and-nuclear-power |title=New funding to support space exploration using Moon resources and nuclear power |access-date=11 March 2023 |archive-date=11 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230311195622/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-funding-to-support-space-exploration-using-moon-resources-and-nuclear-power}} The [[Agriculture in the United Kingdom|British agriculture industry]] is intensive, highly mechanised and efficient by European standards, producing approximately 60 per cent of the country's overall food requirements and 73 per cent of its indigenous food needs, utilising around 0.9 per cent of the labour force (292,000 workers).{{Cite web |title=UK Food Security Index 2024 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-food-security-index-2024/uk-food-security-index-2024 |access-date=19 May 2024 |publisher=Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs |archive-date=18 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518072412/https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/uk-food-security-index-2024/uk-food-security-index-2024 |url-status=live}};{{Cite web |title=Agricultural workforce in England at 1 June 2023 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june-2023 |access-date=19 May 2024 |publisher=Department for the Environment Food & Rural Affairs |archive-date=19 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240519211112/https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june/agricultural-workforce-in-england-at-1-june-2023 |url-status=live}} Around two-thirds of production is devoted to [[livestock]] and one-third to [[arable crops]]. The UK retains a significant though much reduced fishing industry, with at least 49 per cent of UK fish sustainably caught in 2020.{{Cite web |url=https://jncc.gov.uk/our-work/ukbi-b2-sustainable-fisheries |title=Sustainable fisheries: fish stocks harvested within safe limits |website=JNCC |access-date=14 December 2024}} The UK marine natural capital assets were estimated to have a value of £211 billion in 2021.{{Cite web |title=Marine accounts, natural capital, UK: 2021 |date=6 April 2021 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/bulletins/marineaccountsnaturalcapitaluk/2021 |website=ONS |access-date=21 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250521071820/https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/bulletins/marineaccountsnaturalcapitaluk/2021 |archive-date=21 May 2025}} It is rich in a variety of other natural resources including coal, [[petroleum]], [[natural gas]], tin, limestone, iron ore, salt, clay, chalk, [[gypsum]], lead, and silica and has an abundance of arable land.{{Cite web |url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/mineralsuk/mines/coal/home.html |title=Coal |website=BGS Minerals UK |access-date=7 July 2015 |archive-date=26 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090426141109/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/ |url-status=live}} === Science and technology === {{Main|Science and technology in the United Kingdom|Telecommunications in the United Kingdom}} [[File:Cambridge Science Park Napp.jpg|thumb|The [[Cambridge Cluster]] is the most intensive research cluster for science and technology in the world.{{Cite book |last=WIPO |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2022, 15th Edition |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |year=2022 |isbn=978-92-805-3432-0 |doi=10.34667/tind.46596 |access-date=16 November 2022 |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203061259/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2022/index.html |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2021 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021 |access-date=5 March 2022 |website=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |publisher=[[United Nations]] |archive-date=5 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220305010458/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2021/ |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation? |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |archive-date=3 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603121259/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=Global Innovation Index 2019 |url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=World Intellectual Property Organization |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101818/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html |url-status=live}}; {{Cite web |title=RTD – Item |url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898 |access-date=2 September 2021 |website=ec.europa.eu |archive-date=2 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902140715/https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898 |url-status=live}}]] England and Scotland were leading centres of the [[Scientific Revolution]] from the 17th century.Gascoin, J. "A reappraisal of the role of the universities in the Scientific Revolution", in Lindberg, David C. and Westman, Robert S., eds (1990), ''Reappraisals of the Scientific Revolution''. Cambridge University Press. p. 248. {{ISBN|978-0-521-34804-1}}. The United Kingdom led the [[Industrial Revolution]] from the 18th century, and has continued to produce scientists and [[List of British engineers|engineers]] credited with [[List of British innovations and discoveries|important advances]].Reynolds, E.E.; Brasher, N.H. (1966). ''Britain in the Twentieth Century, 1900–1964''. Cambridge University Press. p. 336. {{OCLC|474197910}} Major theorists from the 17th and 18th centuries include [[Isaac Newton]], whose [[Newton's laws of motion|laws of motion]] and illumination of [[gravitation|gravity]] have been seen as a keystone of modern science;Burtt, E.A. (2003) 1924.[https://books.google.com/books?id=G9WBMa1Rz_kC&pg=PA207 ''The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=G9WBMa1Rz_kC&pg=PA207 |date=26 March 2023 }}. Mineola, NY: Courier Dover. p. 207. {{ISBN|978-0-486-42551-1}}. from the 19th century [[Charles Darwin]], whose theory of [[evolution]] by [[natural selection]] was fundamental to the development of modern biology, and [[James Clerk Maxwell]], who formulated classical [[electromagnetic theory]]; and more recently [[Stephen Hawking]], who advanced major theories in the fields of [[cosmology]], [[quantum gravity]] and the investigation of [[black holes]].Hatt, C. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC ''Scientists and Their Discoveries''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=BVBvehqrAPQC |date=26 March 2023 }}. London: Evans Brothers. pp. 16, 30 and 46. {{ISBN|978-0-237-53195-9}}. The [[Department for Science, Innovation and Technology]] (DSIT) is responsible for helping to develop and manage the UK's scientific, research, and technological outputs. Scientific research and development remains important in [[Universities in the United Kingdom|British universities]], with many establishing [[science park]]s to facilitate production and co-operation with industry.Castells, M.; Hall, P.; Hall, P.G. (2004). ''Technopoles of the World: the Making of Twenty-First-Century Industrial Complexes''. London: Routledge. pp. 98–100. {{ISBN|978-0-415-10015-1}}. In 2022, the UK produced [[List of countries by number of scientific and technical journal articles|6.0 per cent of the world's scientific research papers]] and had an 8.8 per cent share of scientific citations, the fourth and third highest among G7 countries and Brazil, China, India, Russia, and South Korea. The UK ranked 1st among these countries for Field-Weighted Citation Impact.{{Cite web |title=International comparison of the UK research base, 2025 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/international-comparison-of-the-uk-research-base-2025/international-comparison-of-the-uk-research-base-2025 |access-date=2025-12-07 |website=GOV.UK |language=en}} Scientific journals produced in the UK include publications by the [[Royal Society]], ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'', the ''[[BMJ|British Medical Journal]]'' and ''[[The Lancet]]''.{{Cite journal |last=McCook, Alison |year=2006 |title=Is peer review broken? |url=http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |journal=The Scientist |volume=20 |issue=2 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110816230933/http://gaia.pge.utexas.edu/Good/Materials/scientist_02_28_2006.htm |archive-date=16 August 2011 |access-date=22 June 2011}} By 2024 the UK tech sector reached a value of US$1.2 trillion surpassing the combined values of the French and German sectors.{{Cite web |last=Greenberg |first=Elizabeth |date=2025-01-14 |title=UK Innovation Economy Worth a Combined $1.2 trillion |url=https://www.digit.fyi/uk-innovation-economy-worth-a-combined-1-2-trillion/ |access-date=2026-05-26 |publisher=Digit News |language=en |quote=Valued at $1.2 trillion collectively, the UK innovation ecosystem is worth more than the French and German ecosystems combined.}} Cambridge was named the number one university in the world for producing successful technology founders.{{Cite web |title=UK tech sector retains #1 spot in Europe and #3 in world as sector resilience brings continued growth |date=21 December 2022 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-tech-sector-retains-1-spot-in-europe-and-3-in-world-as-sector-resilience-brings-continued-growth |website=gov.uk |access-date=27 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250527173044/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/uk-tech-sector-retains-1-spot-in-europe-and-3-in-world-as-sector-resilience-brings-continued-growth |archive-date=27 May 2025}} The [[Artificial intelligence industry in the United Kingdom|UK's artificial intelligence industry]] is the largest in Europe by value{{Cite web |date=11 June 2024 |title=UK AI sector most valuable in Europe, new report reveals |url=https://www.holyrood.com/news/view,uk-ai-sector-most-valuable-in-europe-new-report-reveals |access-date=20 July 2025 |website=[[Holyrood (magazine)|Holyrood]] |language=en}} and the country ranked fifth globally in a 2026 report on artificial intelligence development by [[Stanford University]].{{Cite web |title=Which countries are leading in AI? {{!}} Stanford HAI |url=https://hai.stanford.edu/ai-index/global-vibrancy-tool |access-date=2026-05-09 |website=hai.stanford.edu |language=en}} The UK ranked 6th in the 2025 [[Global Innovation Index]].{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/united-kingdom |access-date=16 October 2025 |website=WIPO}}{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=17 October 2025}} === Transport === {{Main|Transport in the United Kingdom}} {{further|Transport in England|Transport in Scotland|Transport in Wales|Transport in Northern Ireland}} [[File:An LNER Azuma train on the East Coast Railway Line, geograph 6275180 by Walter Baxter.jpg|thumb|A high-speed [[East Coast Main Line]] train in [[Northumberland]], England]] [[File:London City Airport Sunset.jpg|thumb|A plane taking off from [[London City Airport]]. [[Airports of London|London's airports]] make it the city with the [[List of busiest city airport systems by passenger traffic|busiest airport system]] in the world.]] In the UK, all traffic [[Left- and right-hand traffic|drives on the left]], with distance and speed being measured in miles, yards and miles per hour (mph). All vehicles manufactured for use in the UK have the steering wheel situated on the right side of the vehicle. A radial road network totals {{Convert|29145|mi|km}} of main roads, {{Convert|2173|mi|km}} of motorways and {{Convert|213750|mi|km}} of paved roads. The [[M25 motorway|M25]], encircling London, is the largest and busiest bypass in the world.{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Joe |url=https://archive.org/details/readingeveryday00mora |title=Reading the Everyday |date=16 November 2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-134-37216-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/readingeveryday00mora/page/n107 95] |url-access=limited}} In 2024 there were 41.7 million licensed vehicles in the UK.{{cite web |title=General facts and figures about roads and road use |url=https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/mobility |access-date=31 May 2025 |archive-date=18 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250518191035/https://www.racfoundation.org/motoring-faqs/mobility}} The UK has an extensive railway network of {{Convert|10072|mi|0|abbr=out}}. In Great Britain, the [[British Rail]] network [[privatisation of British Rail|was privatised]] between 1994 and 1997, followed by a rapid rise in passengers. [[Great British Railways]] is a planned state-owned public body that will oversee [[rail transport in Great Britain]]. The UK was ranked eighth amongst national European rail systems in the 2017 European Railway Performance Index assessing intensity of use, quality of service and safety.{{Cite web |last1=Sylvain Duranton |last2=Agnès Audier |last3=Joël Hazan |last4=Mads Peter Langhorn |last5=Vincent Gauche |date=18 April 2017 |title=The 2017 European Railway Performance Index |url=https://www.bcg.com/en-ch/publications/2017/transportation-travel-tourism-2017-european-railway-performance-index.aspx |publisher=Boston Consulting Group |access-date=4 February 2019 |archive-date=31 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200531104458/https://www.bcg.com/en-ch/publications/2017/transportation-travel-tourism-2017-european-railway-performance-index.aspx |url-status=live}} A train runs directly from London to [[Paris]].{{Cite web |title=London to Paris Trains |url=https://www.eurostar.com/uk-en/train/london-to-paris |access-date=11 May 2024 |publisher=Eurostar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240511114452/https://www.eurostar.com/uk-en/train/london-to-paris |archive-date=11 May 2024}} Called the [[Eurostar]], it travels through the [[Channel Tunnel]] under the [[English Channel]]. At 23.5 miles long, it is the world's longest undersea tunnel.{{Cite web |title=Channel Tunnel, Tunnel, Europe |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Channel-Tunnel |access-date=11 May 2024 |publisher=Britannica |date=10 May 2024}} There is also a car service through the tunnel to France called [[LeShuttle]]. The [[Elizabeth line]], a rail link running between [[East London|East]] and [[West London]], was named in honour of [[Queen Elizabeth II]] in 2016 and opened in 2022.{{Cite news |date=2 January 2012 |title=Crossrail's giant tunnelling machines unveiled |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-16289051 |access-date=20 June 2018 |archive-date=10 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160410034914/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-16289051 |url-status=live}}; {{Cite news |last=Leftly |first=Mark |date=29 August 2010 |title=Crossrail delayed to save £1bn |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/crossrail-delayed-to-save-1631bn-2064629.html |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116062835/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/business/news/crossrail-delayed-to-save-1631bn-2064629.html |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=Crossrail to become the Elizabeth line in honour of Her Majesty the Queen |url=https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/february/crossrail-to-become-the-elizabeth-line-in-honour-of-her-majesty-the-queen |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230225110413/https://tfl.gov.uk/info-for/media/press-releases/2016/february/crossrail-to-become-the-elizabeth-line-in-honour-of-her-majesty-the-queen |archive-date=25 February 2023 |website=Transport for London}} Another major infrastructure project is [[High Speed 2]] (HS2), a high-speed railway under construction since 2019. It will link London with [[Birmingham]], with the potential to extend further north and capable of speeds of up to 225 mph.{{Cite web |title=What is HS2 |url=https://www.hs2.org.uk/what-is-hs2 |website=HS2 |access-date=22 June 2022 |archive-date=21 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220621190841/https://www.hs2.org.uk/what-is-hs2/ |url-status=live}}{{Cite web |title=HS2 Trains |url=https://www.hs2.org.uk/building-hs2/trains/ |website=HS2 |access-date=24 February 2023 |archive-date=24 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230224183953/https://www.hs2.org.uk/building-hs2/trains/ |url-status=live}} In 2023 there were 4 billion bus journeys in the UK, 1.8 billion of which were in London.{{Cite web |title=Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2023 Domestic Travel |date=19 December 2024 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/transport-statistics-great-britain-2024/transport-statistics-great-britain-2023-domestic-travel |website=gov.uk |access-date=14 March 2025}} The red [[Double-decker bus|double-decker]] bus has entered popular culture as an internationally recognised icon of London and England.{{Cite web |title=Our Collection |url=http://www.icons.org.uk/theicons/index.html |access-date=16 August 2014 |publisher=icons.org.uk}} The [[London Buses|London bus network]] is extensive, with over 6,800 scheduled services every weekday carrying about 6 million passengers on over 700 different routes, making it one of the most extensive bus systems in the world and the largest in Europe.[http://www.tfl.gov.uk/corporate/modesoftransport/1548.aspx London Buses], Transport for London. Accessed 10 May 2007. During 2024 [[List of airports in the United Kingdom and the British Crown Dependencies|British airports]] handled nearly 292.5 million passengers.{{Cite web |title=Size of Reporting Airports 2024 |url=https://www.caa.co.uk/Documents/Download/11910/4d230d1f-dab6-4c1a-992a-431b9cca89a2/16918 |access-date=17 January 2025 |publisher=Civil Aviation Authority}} In that period the three largest airports were [[London Heathrow Airport]] (83.9 million passengers), [[Gatwick Airport]] (43.2 million passengers) and [[Manchester Airport]] (30.8 million passengers). London Heathrow Airport, located {{Convert|15|mi|km|}} west of the capital, is the world's [[List of busiest airports by passenger traffic|second-busiest airport by international passenger traffic]] and has the most international passenger traffic of any airport in the world;{{Cite news |date=25 June 2008 |title=Heathrow 'needs a third runway' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7472432.stm |access-date=17 October 2008}}; {{Cite press release |title=Statistics: Top 30 World airports |date=July 2008 |publisher=Airports Council International |url=http://www.aci.aero/aci/aci/file/Press%20Releases/2008/TOP30_International%20Passengers_2007.pdf |access-date=15 October 2008}} it is the hub for the UK flag carrier [[British Airways]], as well as [[Virgin Atlantic]].{{Cite news |date=29 October 2008 |title=BMI being taken over by Lufthansa |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7697261.stm |access-date=23 December 2009}} During 2023, 18.3 million passengers travelled internationally by rail and 18.1 million by sea.{{Cite web |title=Transport Statistics Great Britain: 2023 International Travel |date=19 December 2024 |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/transport-statistics-great-britain-2024/transport-statistics-great-britain-2023-international-travel |website=gov.uk |access-date=4 March 2025}} === Energy === {{Main|Energy in the United Kingdom}} {{further|Energy in England|Energy in Scotland|Energy in Wales|Energy in Northern Ireland}} In 2021 the UK was the world's [[List of countries by energy consumption and production|14th-largest consumer and 22nd-largest producer of energy]].{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom Energy Profile |url=https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/GBR |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228165225/https://www.eia.gov/international/overview/country/GBR |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=U.S. Energy Information Administration}} It is home to [[Big Six energy suppliers|many large energy companies]], including two of the six major oil and gas companies{{snd}}[[BP]] and [[Shell plc|Shell]].{{Cite news |last=Mason |first=Rowena |date=24 October 2009 |title=Let the battle begin over black gold |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=26 November 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/energy/6424030/Let-the-battle-begin-over-black-gold.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}; {{Cite news |last=Heath |first=Michael |date=26 November 2010 |title=RBA Says Currency Containing Prices, Rate Level 'Appropriate' in Near Term |work=Bloomberg |location=New York |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2010-11-25/rba-s-stevens-says-inflation-unlikely-to-fall-much-further.html |access-date=26 November 2010}} [[File:Ardrossan's fan club. - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Wind turbines overlooking [[Ardrossan]] in Scotland. The UK is [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|a major producer of wind energy]] in Europe.{{Cite web |date=13 September 2023 |title='Success story': Which European countries are leading the way on wind? |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2023/09/13/winds-of-change-which-european-countries-are-generating-the-most-energy-from-wind |access-date=15 August 2025 |website=[[Euronews]] |language=en}}]] Renewable electricity sources provided 51 per cent of the electricity generated in the UK in 2024. [[Wind power in the United Kingdom|Wind power]] was the largest source of electricity in 2024, generating 30 per cent of the UK's total electricity.{{Cite report |title=Britain's Electricity Explained: 2024 Review |url=https://www.neso.energy/news/britains-electricity-explained-2024-review |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250126085830/https://www.neso.energy/news/britains-electricity-explained-2024-review |archive-date=26 January 2025 |access-date=26 January 2025 |publisher=NESO}} The UK has the largest offshore wind farm in the world, which is located off the coast of [[Yorkshire]].{{Cite report |date=14 June 2021 |title=Wind energy in the UK: June 2021 |work=UK Government |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/economy/environmentalaccounts/articles/windenergyintheuk/june2021 |access-date=8 May 2023}} In 2023 the UK had nine nuclear reactors generating about 15 per cent of the UK's electricity.{{Cite web |title=Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom |url=https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228175735/https://world-nuclear.org/information-library/country-profiles/countries-t-z/united-kingdom.aspx |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}} There are two reactors under construction and more planned.{{Cite web |date=April 2013 |title=Nuclear Power in the United Kingdom |url=http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214061431/http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf84.html |archive-date=14 February 2013 |access-date=9 April 2013 |publisher=World Nuclear Association}}{{Cite news |title=Nuclear energy: What you need to know |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/nuclear-energy-what-you-need-to-know |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230228181113/https://www.gov.uk/government/news/nuclear-energy-what-you-need-to-know |archive-date=28 February 2023 |access-date=28 February 2023 |publisher=UK Government}} In the late 1990s [[Nuclear power plants in the United Kingdom|nuclear power plants]] contributed around 25 per cent of the total annual electricity generation in the UK, but this has gradually declined as old plants have been shut down. The UK government is investing in [[small modular reactors]] that operate via [[nuclear fission]], as well as in research and development towards commercial [[fusion reactors]]. To that end the government entered into a partnership with the US in late 2023 to collaborate on fusion technology, with "a commercial grid-ready fusion reactor by 2040" stated as a goal.{{Cite news |title=UKAEA implementing the UK's fusion energy strategy |work=Open Access Government |date=7 March 2024 |url=https://www.openaccessgovernment.org/ukaea-implementing-the-uks-fusion-energy-strategy/174384/ |access-date=27 May 2024 |last1=Belderbos |first1=Harriet}};{{Cite magazine |title=UK nuclear fusion reactor sets new world record for energy output |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2415909-uk-nuclear-fusion-reactor-sets-new-world-record-for-energy-output/ |magazine=New Scientist |access-date=27 May 2024}} At the end of 2023 it was estimated that there were 1.1 billion [[barrels of oil equivalent]] of "proven" and "probable" [[Oil and gas reserves and resource quantification|gas reserves]] and 2.3 billion boe of "proven" and "probable" [[North Sea oil|oil reserves]] offshore, reducing reliance on imports for energy security and transitioning to renewables.{{Cite report |title=UK Oil and Gas Reserves and Resources |url=https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/media/vtjkyqnf/uk-reserves-and-resources-report-as-at-end-2023.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250113172052/https://www.nstauthority.co.uk/media/vtjkyqnf/uk-reserves-and-resources-report-as-at-end-2023.pdf |archive-date=13 January 2025 |access-date=1 February 2025 |publisher=North Sea Transition Authority}} Emissions from UK gas production are roughly four times lower than imported [[liquefied natural gas]] (LNG), according to the [[North Sea Transition Authority|UK's oil and gas regulator]].{{Cite news |title=North Sea oil and gas claims fact-checked |work=BBC |date=22 January 2024 |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-67945281 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201182137/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-67945281 |archive-date=1 February 2025 |access-date=1 February 2025}} In September 2024 the last coal power station was closed, making [[coal]] no longer a power source in the UK. The UK currently has no [[fracking]] (hydraulic fracturing) for [[shale gas]] despite a large supply, due to environmental concerns.{{Cite news |title=UK's last fracking wells to be filled with cement despite dwindling gas stocks |date=29 January 2025 |url=https://www.cityam.com/uks-last-fracking-wells-to-be-filled-with-cement-despite-dwindling-gas-stocks/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250201182917/https://www.cityam.com/uks-last-fracking-wells-to-be-filled-with-cement-despite-dwindling-gas-stocks/ |archive-date=1 February 2025 |access-date=1 February 2025 |work=City AM}} === Water supply and sanitation === {{Main|Water supply and sanitation in the United Kingdom}} Access to improved water supply and sanitation in the UK is universal. It was estimated that 96 per cent of households were connected to the sewer network in 2022.{{Cite web |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69582/pb6655-uk-sewage-treatment-020424.pdf |title=Sewage Treatment in the UK |publisher=DEFRA |website=assets.publishing.service.gov.uk |date=March 2022 |page=3 |id=PB 6655 |access-date=8 April 2023}} According to the [[Environment Agency]], total water abstraction for public water supply in the UK was 16,406 [[megalitre]]s per day in 2007.{{Cite web |title=Environment Agency |url=http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/data/112185.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091125040346/http://www.environment-agency.gov.uk/research/library/data/112185.aspx |archive-date=25 November 2009}} In England and Wales, water and sewerage services are provided by 10 private regional water and sewerage companies and 13 mostly smaller private "water only" companies. In Scotland, said services are provided by a single public company, [[Scottish Water]]. In Northern Ireland, they are also provided by a single public entity, [[Northern Ireland Water]].{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=https://www.niwater.com/about |access-date=29 August 2020 |publisher=niwater.com}} == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of the United Kingdom|British people}} {{Further|Ceremonial counties of England|Subdivisions of Scotland|Subdivisions of Wales|Counties of Northern Ireland}} [[File:Elderly British Couple.jpg|thumb|261x261px|An elderly British Couple. Approximately 24% of people in England and Wales are aged 60 years and over.{{Cite web |date=2023-03-31 |title=Age groups |url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/uk-population-by-ethnicity/demographics/age-groups/latest/#main-facts-and-figures |access-date=2026-08-16 |website=www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk |language=en}}]] Whereas the censuses of England and Wales and of Northern Ireland went ahead as planned in 2021, the census in Scotland was delayed until 2022 due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The Office for National Statistics has estimated that the total population of the United Kingdom recorded in the census would have been 66,912,637 had it been conducted in all parts of the UK on 21 March 2021. The UK population is the [[List of European countries by population|fourth-largest]] in Europe and the [[List of countries by population|22nd-largest]] in the world. In 2012 and 2013 births contributed the most to population growth, while in 2014 and 2015 net international migration contributed more.{{Cite web |date=23 June 2016 |title=Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland, Mid-2015 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/latest |publisher=Office for National Statistics}} Between 2001 and 2011 the population increased at an average annual rate of 0.7 per cent.{{Cite web |date=21 December 2022 |title=Population estimates for the UK, England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland: mid-2021 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/bulletins/annualmidyearpopulationestimates/mid2021 |access-date=16 April 2025 |publisher=Office for National Statistics}} The [[2011 United Kingdom census|2011 census]] also showed that, over the previous 100 years, the proportion of the population aged 0–14 fell from 31 to 18 per cent, and the proportion of people aged 65 and over rose from 5 to 16 per cent. In 2018 the [[median age]] of the UK population was 41.7 years. The 2021 census put Scotland's population at 5.48 million, Wales's at 3.1 million and Northern Ireland's at 1.9 million. {{UK population table}} England's population in 2021 was 56 million, representing some 84 per cent of the UK total. England is one of the [[List of countries and dependencies by population density|most-densely-populated countries]] in the world, with 434 people per square kilometre in mid-2021, with a particular concentration in London, the capital,{{Cite news |date=2012-05-10 |title=United Kingdom country profile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18023389 |access-date=2026-07-24 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |title=United Kingdom - Country Profile {{!}} OpenFactBook World Factbook |url=https://openfactbook.org/countries/united-kingdom/ |access-date=2026-07-24 |website=openfactbook.org |language=en}} and the south-east.{{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Urmee |date=16 September 2008 |title=England is most crowded country in Europe |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918221002/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/politics/2967374/England-is-most-crowded-country-in-Europe.html |archive-date=18 September 2008 |access-date=5 September 2009 |work=The Telegraph |location=London}} [[London metropolitan area|London's wider metropolitan area]] is the largest in [[Western Europe]], with a population of 14.9 million in 2024.{{Cite web |title=Major Agglomerations |url=http://citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231004094531/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/world/agglomerations/ |archive-date=4 October 2023 |access-date=16 October 2023}} {| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:right;" |+ Population of England by region ({{UK subdivision statistics year}}) |- ! Rowspan=2 | Region ! Colspan=2 | Land area ! Colspan=2 | Population ! Rowspan=2 | Density
(/km2) |- ! (km2) ! (%) ! People ! (%) |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[North East England|North East]] | 8,581 | 6% | 2,683,040 | 5% | 313 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[North West England|North West]] | 14,108 | 11% | 7,516,113 | 13% | 533 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[Yorkshire and the Humber]] | 15,404 | 12% | 5,541,262 | 10% | 360 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[East Midlands]] | 15,624 | 12% | 4,934,939 | 9% | 316 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] | 12,998 | 10% | 6,021,653 | 11% | 463 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[East of England]] | 19,116 | 15% | 6,398,497 | 11% | 335 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[Greater London]] | 1,572 | 1% | 8,866,180 | 15% | 5,640 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[South East England|South East]] | 19,072 | 15% | 9,379,833 | 16% | 492 |- | style="text-align:left;" | [[South West England|South West]] | 23,836 | 18% | 5,764,881 | 10% | 242 |- ! style="text-align:left;" | England ! style="text-align:right;" | 130,310 ! style="text-align:right;" | 100% ! style="text-align:right;" | 57,106,398 ! style="text-align:right;" | 100% ! style="text-align:right;" | 438 |} In 2021 the [[total fertility rate]] across the UK was 1.53 children born per woman,{{Cite web |title=Vital statistics: population and health reference tables |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/vitalstatisticspopulationandhealthreferencetables |access-date=6 March 2018 |website=Office for National Statistics}} which remains considerably below the [[Mid-20th century baby boom|baby boom]] peak of 2.95 children per woman in 1964,{{Cite news |last=Boseley |first=Sarah |date=14 July 2008 |title=The question: What's behind the baby boom? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2008/jul/14/familyandrelationships.women |access-date=28 August 2009 |work=The Guardian |location=London |page=3}} or the high of 6.02 children born per woman in 1815{{Citation |last=Roser |first=Max |title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries |date=2014 |work=[[Our World in Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]] |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GBR |access-date=10 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190705121623/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=GBR |archive-date=5 July 2019}} and below the replacement rate of 2.1. In 2011, 47.3 per cent of births in the UK were to unmarried women.[http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/tgm/table.do?tab=table&plugin=0&language=en&pcode=tps00018 Tables, Graphs and Maps Interface (TGM) table]. Eurostat (26 February 2013). Retrieved 12 July 2013. The [[Office for National Statistics]] reported in 2015 that amongst the UK population aged 16 and over, 1.7 per cent identify as gay, lesbian, or bisexual (2.0 per cent of males and 1.5 per cent of females); 4.5 per cent of respondents responded with "other", "I don't know", or did not respond.{{Cite web |date=5 October 2016 |title=Sexual identity, UK: 2015 – Experimental Official Statistics on sexual identity in the UK in 2015 by region, sex, age, marital status, ethnicity and NS-SEC |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/sexuality/bulletins/sexualidentityuk/2015 |access-date=19 January 2017 |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]]}} The number of [[transgender]] people in the UK was estimated to be between 65,000 and 300,000 by research between 2001 and 2008.{{Cite web |title=Research report 27: Trans research review |url=http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/about-us/our-work/key-projects/trans-inequalities-reviewed/introduction-to-the-review |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150706020643/http://www.equalityhumanrights.com/about-us/our-work/key-projects/trans-inequalities-reviewed/introduction-to-the-review |archive-date=6 July 2015 |access-date=26 November 2021 |website=equalityhumanrights.com |page=v}} {{Largest Urban Areas of the United Kingdom}} === Ethnicity === {{Main|Ethnic groups in the United Kingdom}} Historically, indigenous British people were thought to be [[Genetic history of the British Isles|descended from ethnic groups]] that settled there before the 12th century: the [[Celts]], Romans, Anglo-Saxons, Norse and the [[Normans]]. [[Welsh people]] could be the oldest ethnic group in the UK.{{Cite news |date=19 June 2012 |title=Welsh people could be most ancient in UK, DNA suggests |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-wales-18489735 |access-date=28 April 2013 |work=BBC News}} The UK has a history of non-white immigration with [[Liverpool]] having the oldest black population in the country dating from at least the 1730s,{{Cite book |last=Winder |first=Robert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7ORcaQIgdcEC&q=combed&pg=PT94 |title=Bloody Foreigners: The Story of Immigration to Britain |date=2010 |publisher=Little, Brown Book |isbn=978-0-7481-2396-4}}; {{Cite book |last=Costello |first=Ray |title=Black Liverpool: The Early History of Britain's Oldest Black Community 1730–1918 |date=2001 |publisher=Picton Press |isbn=978-1-873245-07-1 |location=Liverpool}} in addition to having the oldest [[British Chinese|Chinese]] community in Europe dating from the 19th century.{{Cite web |title=Culture and Ethnicity Differences in Liverpool – Chinese Community |url=http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090724204513/http://www.mersey-gateway.org/server.php?show=ConWebDoc.1369 |archive-date=24 July 2009 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Chambré Hardman Trust}} In 2021, 83.1 per cent of the UK population was classified as white, 8.6 per cent as Asian or Asian British, 3.7 per cent as Black or Black British, 2.7 per cent as mixed ethnicity, and 2.0 per cent other. Ethnic diversity varies significantly across the UK. In 2021, 46.2 per cent of London's population was from a non-white ethnic minority,{{cite news|url=https://www.ethnicity-facts-figures.service.gov.uk/uk-population-by-ethnicity/national-and-regional-populations/regional-ethnic-diversity/latest/|title=Regional ethnic diversity|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=22 December 2022|access-date=28 March 2026}} compared less than 10 per cent in the South West and North East of England, Wales, Scotland{{cite news|url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/census-results/at-a-glance/ethnicity/|title=Ethnicity|publisher=National Records of Scotland|date=4 February 2025|access-date=28 March 2026}} and Northern Ireland.{{cite web|url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b01.xlsx|title=MS-B01: Ethnic group|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|date=30 November 2023|access-date=28 March 2026}} === Language === {{Main|Languages of the United Kingdom}} The [[English language]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' official and most widely spoken language in the United Kingdom.{{Cite web |title=English language – Government, citizens and rights |url=http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20121015000000/http://www.direct.gov.uk/en/Governmentcitizensandrights/LivingintheUK/DG_10012519 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |access-date=23 August 2011 |website=[[Directgov]]}}{{Cite journal |last=Mac Sithigh |first=Daithí |date=17 May 2018 |title=Official status of languages in the UK and Ireland |url=https://pureadmin.qub.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/141540053/Status_OA_Feb_2018.pdf |journal=Common Law World Review |publisher=Queen's University, Belfast |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=77–102 |doi=10.1177/1473779518773642 |s2cid=219987922}} The UK promotes the language globally to build connections, understanding and trust between people in the UK and countries worldwide.British Council {{Cite web |title=British Council | the UK's international culture and education organisation |url=https://www.britishcouncil.org/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230201181104/https://www.britishcouncil.org/ |archive-date=1 February 2023 |access-date=5 December 2018}} (last checked 6 February 2023){{Cite web |title=About BBC Learning English |url=https://www.bbc.com/learningenglish/english/hygiene |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230204204233/https://www.bbc.com/learningenglish/english/hygiene |archive-date=4 February 2023 |access-date=9 February 2023 |website=BBC}} In the UK, the English language is spoken with distinctive characteristics that collectively form what is known as [[British English]]. The variety of dialects and accents is often noted, with nearby regions frequently having highly distinct variations. [[Received Pronunciation]] is traditionally associated with educated speakers in southern England.{{Cite web |title=British English Pronunciations |url=https://www.oed.com/information/understanding-entries/pronunciation/british-english-pronunciations/?tl=true |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250605075115/https://www.oed.com/information/understanding-entries/pronunciation/british-english-pronunciations/?tl=true |archive-date=5 June 2025 |access-date=5 June 2025 |website=OED}} The main national dialects are [[Scottish English]], [[Welsh English]] and [[Northern Irish English]]. Distinctive regional varieties include [[Brummie dialect|Brummie]], [[Cockney]], [[Geordie]], [[Manchester dialect|Mancunian]], [[Scouse]], [[West Country English|West Country]], [[Yorkshire dialect|Yorkshire]] and [[Multicultural London English|MLE]] (Multicultural London English).{{Cite web |title=10 British dialects you need to know |url=https://www.ef.com/wwen/blog/language/british-dialects-you-need-to-know/ |website=EF |access-date=5 June 2025}} [[File:Bilingual welcome sign Newry.jpg|thumb|[[Bilingual sign]] ([[Irish language|Irish]] and [[English language|English]]) in [[Newry]], Northern Ireland]]Three indigenous [[Celtic languages]] are spoken in the UK: [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Irish language|Irish]] and [[Scottish Gaelic]]. [[Cornish language|Cornish]], which became extinct as a first language in the late-18th century, is being revived and has a small group of second-language speakers.{{Cite book |last1=Track |first1=Robert Lawrence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oLx9AgAAQBAJ&q=%E2%80%9Cthese+people+speak+the+dead+language+as+a+second+language%E2%80%9D&pg=PA63 |title=Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts |last2=Stockwell, Peter |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-41358-9 |page=63 |publisher=Routledge |access-date=4 August 2019}}; {{Cite web |title=Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities, Strasbourg, 1.II.1995 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/157.htm |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Council of Europe |archive-date=22 February 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050222193410/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/treaties/Html/157.htm |url-status=dead}}; {{Cite web |title=European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages, Strasbourg, 5.XI.1992 |url=http://conventions.coe.int/treaty/en/Treaties/Html/148.htm |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Council of Europe |archive-date=26 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110226052008/http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/HTML/148.htm |url-status=dead}} In the [[2021 United Kingdom census|2021 census]] the [[Welsh-speaking population]] of Wales aged three or older was 538,300 (17.8 per cent).{{Cite web |date=6 December 2022 |title=Welsh language in Wales (Census 2021) |url=https://gov.wales/welsh-language-wales-census-2021-html |access-date=6 December 2022 |website=gov.wales}} In addition it is estimated that about 200,000 Welsh-speakers live in England.{{Cite web |last=Wynn Thomas |first=Peter |date=March 2007 |title=Welsh today |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/voices/multilingual/welsh.shtml |access-date=5 July 2011 |website=Voices |publisher=BBC}} In the 2021 census in Northern Ireland 12.4 per cent of people had some [[Irish language in Northern Ireland|Irish language]] ability and 10.4 per cent had some facility in the [[Ulster Scots dialect|Ulster-Scots]] language.{{Cite web |title=Census 2021: Main statistics for Northern Ireland |url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-main-statistics-for-northern-ireland-phase-1-statistical-bulletin-language.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240210110853/https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-main-statistics-for-northern-ireland-phase-1-statistical-bulletin-language.pdf |archive-date=10 February 2024 |access-date=10 February 2024}} In 2001, over 92,000 people in Scotland, just under 2 per cent of the population, had some Gaelic language ability, including 72 per cent of those living in the [[Outer Hebrides]].{{Cite web |title=Scotland's Census 2001 – Gaelic Report |url=http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/press/news2005/scotlands-census-2001-gaelic-report.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130522110328/http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/press/news2005/scotlands-census-2001-gaelic-report.html |archive-date=22 May 2013 |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=General Register Office for Scotland}} The number of children being taught either Welsh or Scottish Gaelic is increasing.{{Cite news |date=12 February 2009 |title=Local UK languages 'taking off' |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7885493.stm |work=BBC News}} [[Scots language|Scots]], a language descended from early northern [[Middle English]], has limited [[European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages|recognition]] alongside its regional variant, [[Ulster Scots dialects|Ulster Scots]] in Northern Ireland, without specific commitments to protection and promotion.{{Cite web |title=Language Data – Scots |url=http://www.eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070623185445/http://eurolang.net/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=2449&Itemid=52&lang=en |archive-date=23 June 2007 |access-date=2 November 2008 |publisher=European Bureau for Lesser-Used Languages}} As of April 2020 there are around 151,000 users of [[British Sign Language]] (BSL), a [[sign language]] used by deaf people, in the UK.{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Hannah |date=23 April 2020 |title='People are dying because of this': Calls for UK Gov to follow Scotland with sign language interpreter at Covid-19 briefing |url=https://www.scotsman.com/news/politics/people-are-dying-because-calls-uk-gov-follow-scotland-sign-language-interpreter-covid-19-briefing-2547989 |access-date=19 December 2021 |work=The Scotsman}} In 2013, it was estimated that 95 per cent of the UK's population were [[monolingual]] English speakers.{{Cite web |title=Languages across Europe: United Kingdom |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/languages/european_languages/countries/uk.shtml |access-date=4 February 2013 |website=BBC}} In 2013, over 5 per cent of the population were estimated to speak languages brought to the UK as a result of immigration. [[South Asian languages]] are the largest group, which includes [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Urdu]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Sylheti language|Sylheti]], [[Hindi]], [[Pahari-Pothwari]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]] and [[Gujarati language|Gujarati]].Carl Skutsch (2013). ''Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities''. pp.1261. Routledge. Retrieved 3 December 2020. In the 2011 census [[Polish language|Polish]] was the second-largest language spoken in England, with 546,000 speakers.{{Cite news |last=Booth |first=Robert |date=30 January 2013 |title=Polish becomes England's second language |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2013/jan/30/polish-becomes-englands-second-language |access-date=4 February 2012 |work=The Guardian |location=London}} In 2019 some three-quarters of a million people spoke little or no English.{{Cite news |date=23 April 2019 |title=The teenagers who translate for their parents |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/uk-47982494 |access-date=23 April 2019 |work=BBC News}} === Religion === {{Main|Religion in the United Kingdom|Freedom of religion in the United Kingdom}} [[File:Westminster_Abbey_St_Peter.jpg|thumb|The [[Westminster Abbey]] in [[London]]. This was the [[Coronation of the British monarch|coronation]] site of 40 monarchs, 18 royal burials, and at least 16 royal weddings since 1100.]] [[Christianity]] has dominated religious life in the United Kingdom for [[History of Christianity in Britain|more than 1,400 years]].Cannon, John, ed. (2nd edn., 2009). [https://books.google.com/books?id=TYnfhTq2M7EC&pg=PA144 ''A Dictionary of British History'']. Oxford University Press. p. 144. {{ISBN|978-0-19-955037-1}}. Although a majority of citizens still identify with Christianity in surveys, regular church attendance has fallen dramatically since the middle of the 20th century,Field, Clive D. (November 2009). [http://www.brin.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/development-of-religious-statistics.pdf "British religion in numbers"]. BRIN Discussion Series on Religious Statistics, Discussion Paper 001. Retrieved 7 March 2015. while immigration and demographic change have contributed to the growth of Islam and other faiths.Yilmaz, Ihsan (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ryrD2YODzxUC&pg=PA291 ''Muslim Laws, Politics and Society in Modern Nation States: Dynamic Legal Pluralisms in England, Turkey, and Pakistan'']. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing. pp. 55–56. {{ISBN|978-0-7546-4389-0}}. This has led some commentators to describe the UK as a multi-faith,Brown, Callum G. (2006). [https://books.google.com/books?id=ryrD2YODzxUC&pg=PA291 ''Religion and Society in Twentieth-Century Britain'']. Harlow: Pearson Education. p. 291. {{ISBN|978-0-582-47289-1}}. [[secularised]],Norris, Pippa; Inglehart, Ronald (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=dto-P2YfWJIC&pg=PA84 ''Sacred and Secular: Religion and Politics Worldwide'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 84. {{ISBN|978-0-521-83984-6}}. or [[post-Christian]] society.Fergusson, David (2004). [https://books.google.com/books?id=Owz4aBSEINgC&pg=PA94 ''Church, State and Civil Society'']. Cambridge University Press. p. 94. {{ISBN|978-0-521-52959-4}}. In the 2021 census of England and Wales, 46.2 per cent of respondents reported that they were Christians, with the next largest faiths being [[Islam in the United Kingdom|Islam]] (6.5 per cent), [[Hinduism in the United Kingdom|Hinduism]] (1.7 per cent), [[Sikhism in the United Kingdom|Sikhism]] (0.9 per cent), [[Buddhism in the United Kingdom|Buddhism]] (0.5 per cent), [[Judaism in the United Kingdom|Judaism]] (0.5 per cent), and all other religions (0.6 per cent). Of the respondents, 37.2 per cent stated that they had [[Irreligion in the United Kingdom|no religion]] and a further 6.0 per cent did not answer the optional question.{{cite news|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/culturalidentity/religion/bulletins/religionenglandandwales/census2021|title=Religion, England and Wales: Census 2021|publisher=Office for National Statistics|first=Michael|last=Roskams|date=29 November 2022|access-date=28 March 2026}} In the census of Northern Ireland, 42.3 per cent of the population was recorded as Catholic, 37.7% as Protestant or other Christian, 1.3 per cent as belonging to other religions, 17.4 per cent as having no religion and 1.6 per cent did not state a religion.{{cite web|url=https://www.nisra.gov.uk/system/files/statistics/census-2021-ms-b19.xlsx|title=MS-B19: Religion|publisher=Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency|date=30 November 2023}} In Scotland's 2022 census, 51.1 per cent of the population stated that they had no religion, 20.4 per cent were recorded as Church of Scotland, 13.3 per cent as Catholic, 5.1 per cent as other Christian, 2.2 per cent as Muslim and 0.6 per cent as Hindu, with 1.2 per cent belonging to other religions and 6.2 per cent not stating a religion.{{cite web|url=https://www.scotlandscensus.gov.uk/2022-reports/scotland-s-census-2022-ethnic-group-national-identity-language-and-religion/|title=Scotland's Census 2022 - Ethnic group, national identity, language and religion|publisher=National Records of Scotland|date=21 May 2024|access-date=28 March 2026}} A [[Tearfund]] survey in 2007 showed that one Briton in ten attends church weekly.{{Cite web |date=4 April 2007 |title=United Kingdom: New Report Finds Only One in 10 Attend Church |url=http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111213155625/http://news.adventist.org/2007/04/uite-kigom-ew-report-fis-oly-oe-i-10-atte-church.html |archive-date=13 December 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |website=News.adventist.org}} Between the 2001 and 2011 censuses there was a 12 per cent decrease in those who identified as Christian, while the percentage reporting no religious affiliation doubled. This contrasted with growth in the other main religious group categories, with the number of [[Muslims]] increasing the most to about 5 per cent.{{Cite news |last=Philby |first=Charlotte |date=12 December 2012 |title=Less religious and more ethnically diverse: Census reveals a picture of Britain today |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/home-news/less-religious-and-more-ethnically-diverse-census-reveals-a-picture-of-britain-today-8406506.html |work=[[The Independent|Independent]] |location=London}} The [[Church of England]] is the [[State religion|established church]] in England.{{Cite web |date=2004 |title=The History of the Church of England |url=http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100221212004/http://www.cofe.anglican.org/about/history |archive-date=21 February 2010 |access-date=23 November 2008 |website=The Church of England}} It retains [[Lords Spiritual|representation]] in the UK Parliament, and the British monarch is its [[Supreme Governor of the Church of England|Supreme Governor]].{{Cite web |title=Queen and Church of England |url=http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061008203611/http://www.royalinsight.gov.uk/output/Page4708.asp |archive-date=8 October 2006 |access-date=5 June 2010 |publisher=British Monarchy Media Centre}} In [[religion in Scotland|Scotland]] the [[Church of Scotland]] is the [[national church]]. It is not subject to state control, and the British monarch is an ordinary member, required to swear an oath to "maintain and preserve the Protestant Religion and [[Presbyterian polity|Presbyterian Church Government]]" upon his or her accession.{{Cite web |title=Queen and the Church |url=http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandChurch/History.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605025533/http://www.royal.gov.uk/MonarchUK/QueenandChurch/History.aspx |archive-date=5 June 2011 |publisher=The British Monarchy (Official Website)}}{{Cite web |date=22 February 2010 |title=Our structure |url=https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-structure |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125192732/https://www.churchofscotland.org.uk/about-us/our-structure |archive-date=25 January 2020 |website=churchofscotland.org.uk}} The [[Church in Wales]] was disestablished in 1920 and, because the [[Church of Ireland]] was disestablished in 1870 before the [[partition of Ireland]], there is no established church in Northern Ireland.Weller, Paul (2005). [https://books.google.com/books?id=tHc88PzAPLMC&pg=PA80 ''Time for a Change: Reconfiguring Religion, State, and Society'']. London: Continuum. pp. 79–80. {{ISBN|978-0-567-08487-3}}. Although there are no UK-wide data in the 2001 census on adherence to individual Christian denominations, it has been estimated that 62 per cent of Christians are Anglican, 13.5 per cent Catholic, 6 per cent Presbyterian, and 3.4 per cent Methodist, with smaller numbers of other denominations.Peach, Ceri, [https://books.google.com/books?id=i6ER_z8gcD4C "United Kingdom, a major transformation of the religious landscape"], in H. Knippenberg. ed. (2005). ''The Changing Religious Landscape of Europe''. Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. pp. 44–58. {{ISBN|978-90-5589-248-8}}. === Migration === {{Main|Historical immigration to Great Britain|Modern immigration to the United Kingdom}} {{See also|Foreign-born population of the United Kingdom}} [[File:United Kingdom foreign born population by country of birth.png|thumb|upright=1.35|Estimated foreign-born population by country of birth from April 2007 to March 2008]] [[File:British expats countrymap.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Estimated number of British citizens living overseas by country in 2006: {{legend|#002255|Greater than or equal to 1,000,000}} {{legend|#003380|500,000 - 999,999}} {{legend|#0044aa|100,000 - 499,999}} {{legend|#0055d4|50,000 - 99,999}} {{legend|#0066ff|10,000 - 49,999}} {{legend|#2a7fff|5,000 - 9,999}} {{legend|#5599ff|1,000 - 4,999}} {{legend|#80b3ff|100 - 999}} {{legend|#afc6e9|Less than 100 or no data}} {{legend|#000000|UK}} ]] Immigration is contributing to a rising population in the United Kingdom,{{Cite news |date=21 August 2008 |title=Immigration and births to non-British mothers pushes British population to record high |url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/immigration-and-births-to-nonbritish-mothers-pushes-british-population-to-record-high-6816318.html |work=London Evening Standard}}{{cite news |title=Migration: How many people come to the UK and how are the salary rules changing? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48785695 |work=BBC News |date=23 May 2024}} with arrivals and UK-born children of migrants accounting for about half of the population increase between 1991 and 2001. According to statistics released in 2015, 27 per cent of UK live births in 2014 were to mothers born outside the UK.{{Cite web |date=15 July 2015 |title=Births in England and Wales: 2014 |url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/vsob1/birth-summary-tables--england-and-wales/2014/index.html |website=Office for National Statistics }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} In 2013 approximately 208,000 foreign nationals were naturalised as British citizens, the highest number since 1962. This figure fell to around 125,800 in 2014. Between 2009 and 2013 the average number of British citizenships granted annually was 195,800. The most common origins of those naturalised in 2024 were Pakistani, Indian, [[Nigeria]]n, [[Philippines|Filipino]], [[Bangladesh]]i, Italian, Turkish, Romanian and Iranian. The number of grants of settlement, which confer [[Permanent residency|permanent residence]] in the UK but not [[British citizenship|citizenship]],{{Cite web |last=Blinder |first=Scott |date=11 June 2014 |title=Settlement in the UK |url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/settlement-uk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906232123/http://migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/briefings/settlement-uk |archive-date=6 September 2015 |access-date=1 August 2015 |publisher=The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford}} was approximately 154,700 in 2013, higher than the previous two years.{{Cite web |last=Blinder |first=Scott |date=27 March 2015 |title=Naturalisation as a British Citizen: Concepts and Trends |url=http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Naturalisation%20as%20a%20British%20Citizen%20-%20Concepts%20and%20Trends_0.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150916052200/http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/sites/files/migobs/Briefing%20-%20Naturalisation%20as%20a%20British%20Citizen%20-%20Concepts%20and%20Trends_0.pdf |archive-date=16 September 2015 |access-date=1 August 2015 |publisher=The Migration Observatory, University of Oxford}} Long-term net migration (the number of people immigrating minus the number emigrating) reached a record of 860,000 in 2023, with immigration at 1.326 million and emigration at 466,000. In comparison, in 2024 net migration was estimated to be 431,000 with immigration at 948,000 and emigration at 517,000.{{Cite web |title=Long-term international migration, provisional: year ending December 2024 |date=22 May 2025 |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/internationalmigration/bulletins/longterminternationalmigrationprovisional/yearendingdecember2024 |website=gov.uk |access-date=22 May 2025}} [[British diaspora|Emigration]] was an important feature of British society in the 19th century. Between 1815 and 1930, around 11.4 million people emigrated from Britain and 7.3 million from Ireland.{{Cite book |last=Hammar |first=Tomas |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/european-immigration-policy/10B639425685B0C101619FA11522C409 |title=European Immigration Policy: A Comparative Study |date=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-12437-9 |series=Comparative Ethnic and Race Relations |location=Cambridge}}{{Cite book |last=Richards |first=Eric |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvnb7rj2 |title=The genesis of international mass migration: The British case, 1750-1900 |date=2018 |publisher=Manchester University Press |edition=1 |jstor=j.ctvnb7rj2}} Estimates show that by the end of the 20th century, some 300 million people of British and Irish descent were permanently settled around the globe. In 2006 at least 5.5 million UK-born people lived abroad,{{Cite web |last1=Sriskandarajah |first1=Dhananjayan |last2=Drew |first2=Catherine |date=11 December 2006 |title=Brits Abroad: Mapping the scale and nature of British emigration |url=http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070828011816/http://www.ippr.org/publicationsandreports/publication.asp?id=509 |archive-date=28 August 2007 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Institute for Public Policy Research}}{{Cite news |title=Brits Abroad: world overview |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/in_depth/brits_abroad/html/default.stm |access-date=20 April 2007 |publisher=BBC}}; {{Cite news |last=Casciani |first=Dominic |date=11 December 2006 |title=5.5 m Britons 'opt to live abroad' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6210358.stm |access-date=20 April 2007}} mainly in Australia, Spain, the United States and Canada.{{Cite news |date=11 December 2006 |title=Brits Abroad: Country-by-country |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm |work=BBC News}} === Education === {{Main|Education in the United Kingdom|Universities in the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Education in England|Education in Scotland|Education in Wales|Education in Northern Ireland}} Education in the United Kingdom is a [[Devolution|devolved]] matter, with each country having a separate education system. About 38 per cent of the United Kingdom population has a university or [[college degree]], the highest percentage in Europe and one of the highest in the world.{{Cite web |date=24 September 2012 |title=The Most Educated Countries in the World |url=https://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html;_ylt=AlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG;_ylu=X3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--;_ylg=X3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--;_ylv=3?page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160204213400/http://finance.yahoo.com/news/the-most-educated-countries-in-the-world.html%3B_ylt%3DAlaWy8IcyeBaviKi7_.WJyhE6odG%3B_ylu%3DX3oDMTJrY2d2NGZyBG1pdANDeFMgRmluYW5jaWFsbHkgRml0IEFydGljbGUgQXJ0aWNsZSBCb2R5IFByb2QEcG9zAzMEc2VjA01lZGlhQXJ0aWNsZUJvZHlBc3NlbWJseQ--%3B_ylg%3DX3oDMTNjdGVoaXJqBGludGwDdXMEbGFuZwNlbi11cwRwc3RhaWQDY2IyOTRhMGEtYmY2OS0zYTdlLThlYTUtZWFlNTU3YWI1ZTc3BHBzdGNhdANleGNsdXNpdmVzfGZpbmFuY2lhbGx5Zml0BHB0A3N0b3J5cGFnZQ--%3B_ylv%3D3?page=1 |archive-date=4 February 2016 |access-date=20 April 2016 |website=Yahoo Finance }}; {{Cite magazine |date=27 September 2012 |title=And the World's Most Educated Country Is... |url=https://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/ |magazine=Time |location=New York |access-date=20 April 2016 |archive-date=30 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180430040213/http://newsfeed.time.com/2012/09/27/and-the-worlds-most-educated-country-is/ |url-status=dead }} The UK is home to [[List of universities in the United Kingdom|many universities]], including the [[University of Oxford]] and [[University of Cambridge]], which often achieve first place on global rankings.{{Cite web |title=The Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2024 |date=25 September 2023 |url=https://www.timeshighereducation.com/world-university-rankings/2024/world-ranking |access-date=17 April 2024}}{{Cite web |title=QS World University Rankings 2024 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2024 |access-date=17 April 2024}} University education has varied [[Student loans and grants in the United Kingdom|tuition fees]] in different regions of the UK. England and Wales have a fixed maximum annual fee for all UK citizens, contingent on attaining a certain level of income. Only those who reach a certain salary threshold pay this fee through [[Taxation in the United Kingdom|general taxation]].{{Cite web |title=Repaying your student loan |url=https://www.gov.uk/repaying-your-student-loan/what-you-pay |website=gov.uk |access-date=21 June 2025}} Northern Ireland and Scotland have a reduced maximum fee or no fee for citizens where it is their home region. Some NHS courses have bursaries which pay the fee and in 2017 it was stated that each doctor gets subsidised by £230,000 during their training.{{Cite web |date=20 October 2014 |title=Undergraduate Tuition Fess and Student Loans |url=https://www.ucas.com/money-and-student-life/money/student-finance/undergraduate-tuition-fees-and-student-loans |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=UCAS}}{{Cite web |title=More undergraduate medical education places |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/more-undergraduate-medical-education-places |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=gov.uk}} In 2022 the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA) ranked the overall knowledge and skills of British 15-year-olds as 14th in the world in reading, mathematics and science. The average British student scored 494, above the [[OECD]] average of 478.{{Cite web |title=PISA 2022 UK Results |url=https://www.oecd.org/publication/pisa-2022-results/country-notes/united-kingdom-9c15db47#chapter-d1e11 |access-date=24 February 2024 |website=OECD |date=4 December 2023}} === Health === {{Main|Health in the United Kingdom|Healthcare in the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Healthcare in England|Healthcare in Scotland|Healthcare in Wales|Healthcare in Northern Ireland}} [[File:QEUH.jpg|thumb|[[NHS Scotland]]'s [[Queen Elizabeth University Hospital]] in Glasgow, the largest hospital campus in Europe]] The modern system of [[Universal service|universal]] [[Publicly funded health care|publicly funded healthcare]] in the United Kingdom has its origins in the establishment of the [[National Health Service]] (NHS), which began operating in 1948 as the primary healthcare provider in the United Kingdom.{{cite web |title=The foundation of the NHS |url=https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/explore-the-collection/stories/the-foundation-of-the-nhs/ |access-date=6 July 2026 |publisher=The National Archives}} The widespread popularity of the NHS has led to it being described as a "national religion".{{Cite news |last=Gill |first=Martha |date=9 July 2023 |title=To those who claim the NHS has turned into a British religion, I say: keep the faith |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2023/jul/09/nhs-british-religion-keep-faith-nhs-at-75 |access-date=16 July 2023 |work=The Observer}}{{Cite web |date=14 April 2020 |title=Is the NHS our new national religion? – Religion Media Centre |url=https://religionmediacentre.org.uk/news/is-the-nhs-our-new-national-religion/ |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=religionmediacentre.org.uk}} Healthcare in the United Kingdom is a [[Devolution|devolved matter]] and each country has its own system of universal publicly funded healthcare ([[NHS England]], [[NHS Scotland]], [[Health and Social Care (Northern Ireland)]] and [[NHS Wales]]), although private healthcare is also available. Public healthcare is provided to all [[British nationality law|UK permanent residents]] and is mostly free at the point of need, being paid for from [[Taxation in the United Kingdom|general taxation]]. The [[World Health Organization]], in 2000, ranked the provision of healthcare in the United Kingdom as fifteenth-best in Europe and eighteenth in the world.{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/worldhealthrepor00worl |title=The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance |publisher=World Health Organization |date=2000 |isbn=978-92-4-156198-3 |editor-last=Haden |editor-first=Angela |location=Geneva |access-date=5 July 2011 |editor-last2=Campanini |editor-first2=Barbara}}; {{Cite web |last=World Health Organization |author-link=World Health Organization |title=Measuring overall health system performance for 191 countries |url=http://pages.stern.nyu.edu/~wgreene/Statistics/WHO-COMP-Study-30.pdf |access-date=5 July 2011 |publisher=New York University}} Since 1979 expenditure on healthcare has increased significantly.{{Cite journal |last=Fisher |first=Peter |title=The NHS from Thatcher to Blair |url=http://www.healthp.org/node/71 |journal=NHS Consultants Association |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120124807/http://www.healthp.org/node/71 |archive-date=20 November 2018 |access-date=19 December 2018 |quote=The Budget ... was even more generous to the NHS than had been expected amounting to an annual rise of 7.4 per cent above the rate of inflation for the next five years. This would take us to 9.4 per cent of GDP spent on health ie around EU average.}} The 2018 [[OECD]] data, which incorporates in health a chunk of what in the UK is classified as social care, has the UK spending £3,121 per person.{{Cite news |date=24 September 2019 |title=Swindells: They aren't 'your' patients |url=https://www.hsj.co.uk/policy-and-regulation/swindells-they-arent-your-patients/7025988.article? |access-date=19 November 2019 |publisher=Health Service Journal}} In 2017 the UK spent £2,989 per person on healthcare, near the median for members of the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.{{Cite news |date=29 August 2019 |title=How does UK healthcare spending compare with other countries? |url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/healthandsocialcare/healthcaresystem/articles/howdoesukhealthcarespendingcomparewithothercountries/2019-08-29 |access-date=5 October 2019 |publisher=Office of National Statistics}} Regulatory bodies are organised on a UK-wide basis such as the [[General Medical Council]], the [[Nursing and Midwifery Council]] and non-governmental-based, such as the [[Medical royal college|Royal College]]s. Political and operational responsibility for healthcare lies with four national [[governments]]; healthcare in England is the responsibility of the UK Government; healthcare in Northern Ireland is the responsibility of the Northern Ireland Executive; healthcare in Scotland is the responsibility of the Scottish Government; and healthcare in Wales is the responsibility of the Welsh Government.{{Cite news |date=28 August 2008 |title='Huge contrasts' in devolved NHS |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7586147.stm |work=BBC News}}; {{Cite news |last=Triggle |first=Nick |date=2 January 2008 |title=NHS now four different systems |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/health/7149423.stm}} == Culture == {{Main|Culture of the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Culture of England|Culture of Scotland|Culture of Wales|Culture of Northern Ireland}} The culture of the United Kingdom is influenced by the nation's island status, its history, and being a [[political union]] of four countries with each preserving distinctive traditions, customs and symbolism. British influence can be observed in the language, culture and [[Common law|legal systems]] of many of [[List of countries that have gained independence from the United Kingdom|its former colonies]], in particular the United States, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Ireland, a common culture known as the Anglosphere.{{Cite book |last=Julian Go |title=Constitutionalism and political reconstruction |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15174-1 |editor-last=Arjomand |editor-first=Saïd Amir |pages=92–94 |chapter=A Globalizing Constitutionalism?, Views from the Postcolony, 1945–2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYmmnYKEvE0C&pg=PA94}}{{Sfn|Ferguson|2004|p=307}} Most of its former colonies are Commonwealth countries, bonded by a shared British inheritance.{{Cite web |title=The Commonwealth |url=https://www.mfat.govt.nz/en/peace-rights-and-security/the-commonwealth/ |access-date=8 January 2024 |website=[[New Zealand Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade]] |language=en-NZ}}{{Cite web |title=Commonwealth of Nations |url=https://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/parliament-and-empire/contemporary-context/ |access-date=2026-02-22 |publisher=UK Parliament |language=en}}{{Cite book |last1=Mazrui |first1=Ali Al Amin |title=Anglo-African Commonwealth |last2=Taylor |first2=D. |last3=Bradley |first3=Kenneth |date=1967 |publisher=Pergamon |isbn=978-0-08-012253-3 |pages=40–41 |quote=...in the ultimate analysis, what could a New Zealander have in common with a Jamaican or a Zambian, if not the bonds of a shared British-ness?}} A global survey in 2024 ranked the UK third in the 'Most Influential Countries' rankings, behind the US and China.{{Cite web |title=Most Influential Countries |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/most-influential-countries |access-date=22 September 2025 |website=[[U.S. News & World Report]]}} === Literature and drama === {{Main|British literature|Theatre of the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Literature of England|Scottish literature|Welsh literature|Literature of Northern Ireland}} {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 320 | image1 = PG 1063Burns Naysmith.jpg | alt1 = Robert Burns | caption1 = [[Robert Burns]] (1759–1796) | image2 = William Shakespeare by John Taylor, edited.jpg | alt2 = William Shakespeare | caption2 = [[William Shakespeare]] (1564–1616) | footer = Burns and Shakespeare are considered the [[national poet]]s of Scotland and England respectively. }} British literature includes that associated with the United Kingdom, the [[Isle of Man]] and the [[Channel Islands]]. Most British literature is in English. In 2022, 669 million physical books were sold in the UK, the most ever.{{Cite web |title=UK publishing industry reports record-breaking year in 2022 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2023/apr/17/uk-publishing-industry-reports-record-breaking-year-in-2022 |access-date=9 May 2024 |work=[[The Guardian]] |date=17 April 2023}} Britain is renowned for [[Literature for children|children's literature]]; writers include [[Daniel Defoe]], [[Rudyard Kipling]], [[Lewis Carroll]] and [[Beatrix Potter]], who also illustrated her own books. Other writers include [[A. A. Milne]], [[Enid Blyton]], [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], [[Roald Dahl]], [[Terry Pratchett]] and [[J. K. Rowling]], who wrote ''[[Harry Potter]]'', the [[List of best-selling book series|best-selling book series]] of all time.{{Cite web |title=Best-selling Book Series Of All Time |url=https://wordsrated.com/best-selling-book-series-of-all-time-statistics/ |access-date=18 May 2024 |publisher=Wordsrated |date=20 July 2023}} The playwright and poet [[William Shakespeare]] is generally regarded as the greatest dramatist ever and the [[national poet]] of England.{{Cite web |title=William Shakespeare (English author) |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/537853/William-Shakespeare |access-date=26 February 2006 |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=MSN Encarta Encyclopedia article on Shakespeare |url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |access-date=26 February 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060209154055/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761562101/Shakespeare.html |archive-date=9 February 2006}}; {{Cite web |title=William Shakespeare |work=TheFreeDictionary.com |publisher=Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia |url=http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Shakespeare%2c+William |access-date=26 February 2006}} Theatre of United Kingdom plays an important part in British culture and has had a vibrant tradition of [[theatre]] since the Renaissance with roots going back to the Roman occupation. Other important figures in the literature of England are [[Geoffrey Chaucer]], known for ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', the poet [[William Wordsworth]], and other [[Romantic Poetry|Romantic poets]], also the novelists [[Charles Dickens]], [[H. G. Wells]], [[George Orwell]], [[Aldous Huxley]] and [[Ian Fleming]]. The 20th-century English crime writer [[Agatha Christie]] is the [[List of best-selling fiction authors|best-selling novelist]] in history.{{Cite news |date=19 December 2005 |title=Mystery of Christie's success is solved |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=14 November 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1505799/Mystery-of-Christies-success-is-solved.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}} Twelve of the top 25 of 100 novels by British writers chosen by a BBC poll of global critics were written by women; these included works by [[George Eliot]], [[Virginia Woolf]], [[Charlotte Brontë]], [[Emily Brontë]], [[Mary Shelley]], [[Jane Austen]], [[Doris Lessing]] and [[Zadie Smith]].{{Cite news |last=Ciabattari |first=Jane |date=December 2015 |title=The 25 greatest British novels |work=BBC Culture |url=https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20151204-the-25-greatest-british-novels |access-date=29 December 2021}} Scottish literature includes [[Arthur Conan Doyle]] (the creator of [[Sherlock Holmes]]), [[Walter Scott|Sir Walter Scott]], [[J. M. Barrie]], [[Robert Louis Stevenson]] (whose novel ''[[Treasure Island]]'' strongly influenced the portrayal of [[pirates in the arts and popular culture]]), and the poet [[Robert Burns]], who is considered the national poet of Scotland. More recently [[Hugh MacDiarmid]] and [[Neil M. Gunn]] contributed to the [[Scottish Renaissance]], with grimmer works from [[Ian Rankin]] and [[Iain Banks]]. Edinburgh was UNESCO's first worldwide [[City of Literature]].{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=Edinburgh, United Kingdom, UNESCO City of Literature |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/creativity/creative-industries/creative-cities-network/literature/edinburgh |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130528152834/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/culture/themes/creativity/creative-industries/creative-cities-network/literature/edinburgh |archive-date=28 May 2013 |url-status=dead |access-date=9 March 2015 |work=Unesco}} Welsh literature includes Britain's oldest known poem, ''[[Y Gododdin]]'', most likely composed in the late 6th century. It was written in [[Cumbric language|Cumbric]] or [[Old Welsh]] and contains the earliest known reference to [[King Arthur]].{{Cite web |title=Early Welsh poetry |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/history/sites/themes/society/language_poetry.shtml |access-date=29 December 2010 |work=BBC Wales}} The [[Arthurian legend]] was further developed by [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]].{{Cite book |last=Lang, Andrew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dKJiPyyTevgC |title=History of English Literature from Beowulf to Swinburne |publisher=Wildside Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8095-3229-2 |location=Holicong, PA |page=42 |orig-date=1913}} [[Dafydd ap Gwilym]] (''fl.'' 1320–1370) is widely regarded as one of the greatest European poets of his age.{{Cite web |year=2011 |title=Dafydd ap Gwilym |url=http://www.academi.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324034938/http://www.literaturewales.org/dafydd-ap-gwilym-eng |archive-date=24 March 2012 |url-status=dead |access-date=3 January 2011 |website=[[Literature Wales|Academi.org]] |quote=Dafydd ap Gwilym is widely regarded as one of the greatest Welsh poets of all time, and amongst the leading European poets of the Middle Ages.}} [[Daniel Owen]] is credited as the first Welsh-language novelist, publishing ''[[Rhys Lewis (novel)|Rhys Lewis]]'' in 1885. The best-known of the [[Anglo-Welsh poetry|Anglo-Welsh poets]] are [[Dylan Thomas]] and [[R. S. Thomas]], the latter nominated for the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]] in 1996. Leading Welsh novelists of the twentieth century include [[Richard Llewellyn]] and [[Kate Roberts (author)|Kate Roberts]].{{Cite web |url=http://newsalerts.bbc.co.uk/1/low/wales/551486.stm |title=True birthplace of Wales's literary hero |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316173733/http://newscdn.bbc.net.uk/2/hi/uk_news/wales/551486.stm |archive-date=16 March 2020 |url-status=dead |website=BBC News |date=5 December 1999 |access-date=28 April 2012}}{{Cite web |title=Kate Roberts: Biography |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northwest/halloffame/arts/kateroberts.shtml |url-status=dead |access-date=19 February 2017 |website=BBC Wales |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130308000646/https://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/northwest/halloffame/arts/kateroberts.shtml |archive-date=8 March 2013}} Northern Ireland's most popular writer is [[C. S. Lewis]], who was born in Belfast and wrote ''[[The Chronicles of Narnia]]''.{{Cite web |title=The Chronicles of Narnia Book Series Statistics |url=https://wordsrated.com/the-chronicles-of-narnia-book-series-statistics/ |access-date=18 May 2024 |publisher=Wordsrated |date=19 July 2023}} Irish writers, living at a time when all of Ireland was part of the United Kingdom, include [[Oscar Wilde]],{{Cite book |last=Varty |first=Anne |title=A Preface to Oscar Wilde |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-89231-1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=A9YFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA231 231–232]}}; {{Cite encyclopedia |title=Oscar Wilde |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia.com]] |publisher=[[Cengage]] |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/literature-and-arts/english-literature-19th-cent-biographies/oscar-wilde |access-date=10 December 2019}} [[Bram Stoker]] (who wrote ''[[Dracula]]''){{Cite book |last=Moss |first=Joyce |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780787637286 |title=British and Irish Literature and Its Times: The Victorian Era to the Present (1837–) |publisher=Gale Group |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-7876-3729-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780787637286/page/107 107] |url-access=registration}} and [[George Bernard Shaw]].{{Cite book |last=Holroyd |first=Michael |url=https://archive.org/details/bernardshaw00holr/page/384 |title=Bernard Shaw, Volume 2: 1898–1918: The Pursuit of Power |publisher=Chatto & Windus |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-7011-3350-4 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bernardshaw00holr/page/384 384]}}; {{Cite web |title=G B Shaw |url=https://www.bl.uk/people/g-b-shaw |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=Discovering Literature: 20th century |publisher=[[British Library]] |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809155152/https://www.bl.uk/people/g-b-shaw |url-status=dead}} There have been many authors whose origins were from outside the United Kingdom but who moved to the UK, including [[Joseph Conrad]],{{Cite book |last=Middleton |first=Tim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Azd1f8NBpUoC&pg=PA159 |title=Joseph Conrad |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-415-26851-6 |page=159}} [[T. S. Eliot]],{{Cite book |last=Cooper |first=John Xiros |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqmNjQzhwV4C&pg=PA111 |title=The Cambridge Introduction to T. S. Eliot |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-45790-3 |page=111}} [[Kazuo Ishiguro]],{{Cite book |last=Sim |first=Wai-chew |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WcKLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT201 |title=Kazuo Ishiguro |date=2009 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-19867-1 |page=201}} Sir [[Salman Rushdie]]{{Cite web |title=Salman Rushdie |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100433765 |access-date=10 December 2019 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]}} and [[Ezra Pound]].{{Cite news |last=Campbell |first=James |date=17 May 2008 |title=Home from home |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2008/may/17/poetry3 |access-date=10 December 2019}}; {{Cite book |last=Nadel |first=Ira |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECiGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA90 |title=Ezra Pound: A Literary Life |date=2004 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-230-37881-0 |page=90}} === Philosophy === {{Main|British philosophy}} The United Kingdom is famous for "[[British Empiricism]]", a branch of the philosophy that states that only knowledge verified by experience is valid, and 'Scottish Philosophy', sometimes referred to as the '[[Scottish School of Common Sense]]'.{{Cite book |url=http://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |title=A bibliography of Scottish common sense philosophy: Sources and origins |publisher=Thoemmes Press |year=2000 |editor-last=Fieser, James |location=Bristol |access-date=17 December 2010 |archive-date=9 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409171906/https://www.rrbltd.co.uk/bibliographies/scottish_v5_bibliog.pdf |url-status=dead}} The most famous philosophers of British Empiricism are [[John Locke]], [[George Berkeley]]{{Efn|Berkeley is in fact Irish but was called a 'British empiricist' due to the territory of what is now known as the [[Republic of Ireland]] being in the UK at the time.}} and [[David Hume]]; while [[Dugald Stewart]], [[Thomas Reid]] and [[Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet|William Hamilton]] were major exponents of the Scottish "common sense" school. Two Britons are also notable for the ethical theory of [[utilitarianism]], a moral philosophy first used by [[Jeremy Bentham]] and later by [[John Stuart Mill]] in his short work ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]''.{{Cite book |last=Palmer, Michael |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7y5MJOuN30C&pg=PA66 |title=Moral Problems in Medicine: A Practical Coursebook |publisher=Lutterworth Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7188-2978-0 |location=Cambridge |page=66}}; {{Cite book |last=Scarre, Geoffrey |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8A4xLnzfqYwC&pg=PA82 |title=Utilitarianism |publisher=Routledge |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-415-12197-2 |location=London |page=82}} === Media === {{Main|Media of the United Kingdom|Censorship in the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Media of England|Media of Scotland|Media of Wales|Media of Northern Ireland}} The [[BBC]], founded in 1922, is the United Kingdom's publicly funded radio, television and Internet broadcasting corporation, and is the oldest and largest broadcaster in the world.{{Cite web |title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand |url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101005004930/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-date=5 October 2010 |access-date=23 September 2010 |publisher=Media Newsline}}{{Cite web |title=Digital license |url=http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/?p=64654 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111107024637/http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/2009/07/digitallicense |archive-date=7 November 2011 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=Prospect}}{{Cite news |title=About the BBC – What is the BBC |work=BBC Online |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml |access-date=9 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116202334/http://www.bbc.co.uk/info/purpose/what.shtml |archive-date=16 January 2010}} It operates television and radio stations across the UK and abroad and its domestic services are funded by the [[Television licensing in the United Kingdom|television licence]].{{Cite journal |date=13 August 2009 |title=BBC: World's largest broadcaster & Most trusted media brand |url=http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |journal=Media Newsline |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110510090842/http://www.medianewsline.com/news/151/ARTICLE/4930/2009-08-13.html |archive-date=10 May 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011}}; {{Cite web |date=April 2010 |title=TV Licence Fee: facts & figures |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427080539/http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/keyfacts/stories/licencefee.shtml |archive-date=27 April 2011 |publisher=BBC Press Office}} The [[BBC World Service]] is an [[International broadcasting|international broadcaster]] owned and operated by the BBC, and the world's largest.{{Cite web |title=Microsoft Word – The Work of the BBC World Service 2008–09 HC 334 FINAL.doc |url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021001645/https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200910/cmselect/cmfaff/334/334.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2020 |access-date=16 February 2011}} It broadcasts radio news, speech and discussions in more than 40 languages.{{Cite web |title=News in your language – BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ws/languages |website=BBC}}; {{Cite web |title=BBC World Service |url=https://www.facebook.com/pages/category/Media-News-Company/bbcworldservice/about |website=Facebook.com}} Other major players in the UK media include [[ITV plc|ITV]], which operates 11 of the 15 regional television broadcasters that make up the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV Network]],{{Cite web |title=Publications & Policies: The History of ITV |url=http://www.itv.com/aboutitv/publications-policies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110411224117/http://www.itv.com/aboutitv/publications-policies |archive-date=11 April 2011 |website=ITV.com}} and [[Sky UK|Sky]].{{Cite journal |title=Direct Broadcast Satellite Television |url=http://www.newscorp.com/operations/dbst.html |journal=News Corporation |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604095622/http://www.newscorp.com/operations/dbst.html |archive-date=4 June 2011}} Newspapers produced in the United Kingdom include the ''[[Daily Mail]]'', ''[[The Guardian]]'', ''[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]'', ''[[The Times]]'', and the ''[[Financial Times]]''.{{Cite news |date=10 October 2008 |title=ABCs: National daily newspaper circulation September 2008 |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/table/2008/oct/10/abcs-pressandpublishing |access-date=17 October 2008}} Magazines and journals published in the United Kingdom that have achieved worldwide circulation include ''[[The Spectator]]'', ''[[The Economist]]'', ''[[New Statesman]]'' and ''[[Radio Times]]''. [[File:Media City Footbridge and BBC Offices (geograph 2685261).jpg|thumb|[[MediaCityUK]] in [[Salford]], [[Greater Manchester]], is one of the largest media production facilities in Europe.]]London dominates the media sector in the UK: national newspapers and television and radio are largely based there, although [[MediaCityUK]] in Manchester is also a significant national media centre. Edinburgh and Glasgow, and Cardiff, are important centres of newspaper and broadcasting production in Scotland and Wales, respectively.William, D. (2010). [https://books.google.com/books?id=7yg45P35KDMC ''UK Cities: A Look at Life and Major Cities in England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland'']. Eastbourne: Gardners Books. {{ISBN|978-9987-16-021-1}}, pp. 22, 46, 109 and 145. The UK publishing sector, including books, directories and databases, journals, magazines and business media, newspapers and news agencies, has a combined turnover of around £20 billion and employs 167,000 people.{{Cite web |title=Publishing |url=http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110505104322/http://www.culture.gov.uk/what_we_do/creative_industries/3280.aspx |archive-date=5 May 2011 |publisher=Department of Culture, Media and Sport}} In 2015 the UK published 2,710 book titles per million inhabitants, more than any other country, with much of this exported to other [[Anglophone]] countries.{{Cite web |last= |date=2016 |title=Annual Report 2015–2016 |url=https://www.internationalpublishers.org/images/reports/Annual_Report_2016/IPA_Annual_Report_2015-2016_interactive.pdf |access-date=14 January 2021 |website=internationalpublishers.org |publisher=International Publishers Association |page=16 |archive-date=31 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230831205753/https://www.internationalpublishers.org/images/reports/Annual_Report_2016/IPA_Annual_Report_2015-2016_interactive.pdf |url-status=dead}} In 2010, 82.5 per cent of the UK population were Internet users, the [[List of countries by number of Internet users|highest proportion]] amongst the 20 countries with the largest total number of users in that year.{{Cite journal |title=Top 20 countries with the highest number of Internet users |url=http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm |journal=Internet World Stats |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110610104435/http://www.internetworldstats.com/top20.htm |archive-date=10 June 2011 |access-date=19 June 2011}} The [[Video games in the United Kingdom|British video game industry]] is the largest in Europe, and since 2022 the UK has the [[List of video games markets by country|largest video game market]] in Europe by sales, surpassing [[Video games in Germany|Germany]].{{Cite web |last=Dring |first=Christopher |date=12 January 2023 |title=European console and PC game sales fall 7.1% in 2022 |url=https://www.gamesindustry.biz/european-console-and-pc-game-sales-fall-71-over-2021 |access-date=30 September 2023 |website=GamesIndustry.biz}} It is the world's third-largest producer of video games after [[Video games in Japan|Japan]] and the [[Video games in the United States|United States]].{{Cite web |title=About UK Video Games Industry |url=https://tiga.org/about-tiga-and-our-industry/about-uk-video-games-industry |access-date=6 June 2023 |website=TIGA}} === Visual art === {{Main|Art of the United Kingdom|Architecture of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Angel of the North - 6150534524.jpg|thumb|The [[Angel of the North]] sculpture by [[Antony Gormley]] has become a symbol of [[Northern England]].]] Major British artists include the [[Romanticism|Romantic]] artists [[William Blake]], [[John Constable]], [[Samuel Palmer]], and [[J. M. W. Turner]]; the [[portrait]] painters [[Joshua Reynolds|Sir Joshua Reynolds]] and [[Lucian Freud]]; the landscape artists [[Thomas Gainsborough]] and [[L. S. Lowry]]; the pioneer of the [[Arts and Crafts movement]] [[William Morris]]; the figurative painter [[Francis Bacon (artist)|Francis Bacon]]; the [[Pop artist]]s [[Peter Blake (artist)|Peter Blake]], [[Richard Hamilton (artist)|Richard Hamilton]] and [[David Hockney]]; the pioneers of [[conceptual art]] movement [[Art & Language]];{{Cite news |last=Tate |title=Art & Language – Art Term {{!}} Tate |work=Tate |url=https://www.tate.org.uk/art/art-terms/a/art-language |access-date=8 September 2018}} the collaborative duo [[Gilbert and George]]; the [[Abstract art|abstract]] artist [[Howard Hodgkin]]; and the sculptors [[Antony Gormley]], [[Anish Kapoor]] and [[Henry Moore]]. During the late 1980s and 1990s the [[Saatchi Gallery]] in London helped to bring to public attention a group of multi-genre artists who would become known as the "[[Young British Artists]]": [[Damien Hirst]], [[Chris Ofili]], [[Rachel Whiteread]], [[Tracey Emin]], [[Mark Wallinger]], [[Steve McQueen (director)|Steve McQueen]], [[Sam Taylor-Wood]] and the [[Jake and Dinos Chapman|Chapman Brothers]] are amongst the better-known members of this loosely affiliated movement. The [[Royal Academy]] in London is a key organisation for the promotion of the visual arts in the United Kingdom. Major schools of art in the UK include: the six-school [[University of the Arts London]], which includes the [[Central Saint Martins College of Art and Design]] and [[Chelsea College of Art and Design]]; [[Goldsmiths, University of London]]; the [[Slade School of Fine Art]] (part of [[University College London]]); the [[Glasgow School of Art]]; the [[Royal College of Art]]; and [[The Ruskin School of Drawing and Fine Art]] (part of the University of Oxford). The [[Courtauld Institute of Art]] is a leading centre for the teaching of the [[history of art]]. Important art galleries in the United Kingdom include the [[National Gallery]], [[National Portrait Gallery (London)|National Portrait Gallery]], [[Tate Britain]], and [[Tate Modern]] (the most-visited modern art gallery in the world, with around 4.7 million visitors per year).{{Cite news |last=Bayley |first=Stephen |date=24 April 2010 |title=The startling success of Tate Modern |work=[[The Times]] |location=London |url=http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article7105032.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429173928/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/visual_arts/article7105032.ece |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 April 2011 |access-date=19 January 2011}} {{Subscription required}} === Music === {{Main|Music of the United Kingdom}} {{Further|Music of England (disambiguation){{!}}Music of England|Music of Scotland|Music of Wales|Music of Northern Ireland}} [[File:Royal Albert Hall, BBC Proms 2017.jpg|thumb|[[The Proms]] is a classical music festival, most closely associated with [[Henry Wood]] and held at the [[Royal Albert Hall]] in London, which regularly plays music by [[Edward Elgar]] and other British composers.]] Various styles of music have become popular in the UK, including the [[folk music]] of [[Folk music of England|England]], [[Folk music of Scotland|Scotland]], [[Music of Wales#Folk music|Wales]] and [[Folk music of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]. English folk features melodic ballads with strong lyrics and music for country dancing often using accordion and fiddles.{{Cite web |access-date=15 September 2025 |title=Songs of England |url=https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/visit/inspire-me/songs-of-england}} Scottish folk features bagpipes and fiddles playing traditional dance tunes with bouncy tempos.{{Cite web |access-date=15 September 2025 |title=The influence of traditional Scottish Music |url=https://www.visitscotland.com/things-to-do/events/music-festivals/traditional-folk}} Welsh folk has harps and vocal harmonies often sung in Welsh.{{Cite web |access-date=15 September 2025 |title=Celtic connections: the story of folk music in Wales |date=17 February 2020 |url=https://www.wales.com/culture-and-sport/music-and-performance/roots-and-shoots-welsh-folk-music}} Northern Irish folk blends fiddles with flutes merging Scottish and Irish influences.{{Cite web |access-date=15 September 2025 |title=Why you should experience traditional music in Ireland |url=https://www.ireland.com/en-us/magazine/music/traditional-music/}} Historically, there has been [[Renaissance music]] from the [[Tudor period]], with [[Mass (music)|masses]], [[madrigal]]s and [[lute]] music by [[Thomas Tallis]], [[John Taverner]], [[William Byrd]], [[Orlando Gibbons]] and [[John Dowland]]. After the [[Stuart Restoration]], an English tradition of dramatic [[masque]]s, anthems and airs became established, led by [[Henry Purcell]], followed by [[Thomas Arne]] and others. [[George Frideric Handel]] composed the anthem ''[[Zadok the Priest]]'' for the [[coronation of George II]]; it became the traditional ceremonial music for anointing all future monarchs. Handel's many oratorios, such as his famous ''[[Messiah (Handel)|Messiah]]'', were written in English.{{Cite web |date=20 July 2009 |title=British Citizen by Act of Parliament: George Frideric Handel |url=http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326164147/http://www.parliament.uk/parliamentary_publications_and_archives/parliamentary_archives/handel_and_naturalisation.cfm |archive-date=26 March 2010 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=UK Parliament}}; {{Cite news |last=Andrews |first=John |date=14 April 2006 |title=Handel all'inglese |work=Playbill |location=New York |url=http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html |access-date=11 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516210558/http://www.playbillarts.com/features/article/4236.html |archive-date=16 May 2008}} In the second half of the 19th century, [[Arthur Sullivan]] and his librettist [[W. S. Gilbert]] wrote their popular [[Savoy opera]]s, and [[Edward Elgar]] composed a wide range of music. Increasingly, composers became inspired by the English countryside and its [[folk music]], notably [[Gustav Holst]], [[Ralph Vaughan Williams]] and [[Benjamin Britten]], a pioneer of modern British opera. Amongst the many post-war composers, some of the most notable have made their own personal choice of musical identity: [[Peter Maxwell Davies]] (Orkney), [[Harrison Birtwistle]] (mythological), and [[John Tavener]] (religious).{{Cite Grove |title=Great Britain |first1=Nicholas |last1=Iemperley |date=2002 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.O006236 |url-access=subscription}}; {{Cite Grove |title=England (i) |date=2001 |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40044 |url-access=subscription |first1=Stephen |last1=Banfield |first2=Ian |last2=Russell}}; {{Cite Grove |title=Wales |date=2001 |first1=Geraint |last1=Lewis |first2=Lyn |last2=Davies |first3=Phyllis |last3=Kinney |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.41108 |url-access=subscription}}; {{Cite Grove |title=Scotland |first1=Kenneth |last1=Elliott |first2=Francis |last2=Collinson |first3=Peggy |last3=Duesenberry |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.40113 |url-access=subscription |date=2001}}; {{Cite Grove |title=Ireland |first1=Harry |last1=White |first2=Nicholas |last2=Carolan |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.article.13901 |url-access=subscription |date=2011}}; {{Cite web |title=British 20th century composers |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zdjw7p3/revision/1 |access-date=21 April 2022 |website=[[BBC]]}} Recent classical singers include [[Alfie Boe]], [[Bryn Terfel]], [[Katherine Jenkins]], [[Michael Ball]], [[Roderick Williams]], [[Russell Watson]] and [[Sarah Brightman]], while [[Nicola Benedetti]] and [[Nigel Kennedy]] are renowned for their violin ability.{{Cite web |date=21 June 2022 |title=30 of the greatest violinists on record |url=https://www.gramophone.co.uk/features/article/30-of-the-greatest-violinists-on-record |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Gramophone}};{{Cite web |date=1 January 2020 |title=Katherine Jenkins has officially sold the most classical albums this century |url=https://www.classicfm.com/radio/shows-presenters/classic-fm-chart/katherine-jenkins-most-classical-albums/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Classic FM}};{{Cite web |date=6 May 2023 |title=Who is Roderick Williams, the British baritone and composer at the King's coronation? |url=https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/roderick-williams-composer-baritone-singing-roles/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Classic FM}};{{Cite web |date=23 February 2024 |title=Michael Ball |url=https://www.eno.org/artists/michael-ball-2/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=English National Opera}};{{Cite web |title=Alfie Bow |url=https://www.classicfm.com/artists/alfie-boe/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Classic FM}};{{Cite web |date=11 July 2023 |title=Sarah Brightman facts |url=https://www.smoothradio.com/news/music/sarah-brightman-age-husband-songs/ |access-date=4 March 2024 |website=Smooth Radio}} According to ''[[The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians]]'' the term "[[pop music]]" originated in Britain in the mid-1950s to describe [[rock and roll]]'s fusion with the "new youth music".R. Middleton, et al., [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_gmo "Pop"], ''Grove music online'', retrieved 14 March 2010. {{Subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110113160329/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_gmo|date=13 January 2011}} ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music'' states that artists such as [[the Beatles]] and [[the Rolling Stones]] drove pop music to the forefront of popular music in the early 1960s."Pop", [http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t237 ''The Oxford Dictionary of Music''], retrieved 9 March 2010.{{Subscription required}} {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112170116/http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/public/book/omo_t237|date=12 November 2017}} Birmingham became known as the birthplace of [[heavy metal music|heavy metal]], with the band [[Black Sabbath]] starting there in the 1960s.{{Cite news |title=Birmingham, England ... the unlikely birthplace of heavy metal |work=CNN |date=1 July 2011 |first1=Laura |last1=Allsop |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/WORLD/europe/07/01/birmingham.home.of.metal/index.html |access-date=28 February 2022 |postscript=;}} {{Cite web |last=Bentley |first=David |date=4 June 2013 |title=Midlands rocks! How Birmingham's industrial heritage made it the birthplace of heavy metal |url=http://www.birminghampost.co.uk/whats-on/music/birmingham-birthplace-of-heavy-metal-4031445 |access-date=28 February 2022 |website=[[Birmingham Post]]}} In the following years, Britain took part in the development of [[rock music]], with British acts pioneering [[hard rock]],{{Cite web |title=The Rolling Stones {{!}} Biography & History |url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/the-rolling-stones-mn0000894465/biography |access-date=22 July 2020 |website=AllMusic}} [[raga rock]], heavy metal,{{Cite book |last=Tom Larson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vGJ7XmA8rjIC&pg=PA183 |title=History of Rock and Roll |publisher=Kendall/Hunt Pub. |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7872-9969-9 |pages=183–187}} [[space rock]], [[glam rock]],{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Glam Rock |url=http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561509274/glam_rock.html |access-date=21 December 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090828224412/http://encarta.msn.com/dictionary_561509274/glam_rock.html |archive-date=28 August 2009 |encyclopedia=[[Encarta]]}} [[Gothic rock]],{{Cite web |year=2004 |title=NME Originals: Goth |url=https://www.nme.com/originals/4 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080126150121/http://www.nme.com/originals/4 |archive-date=26 January 2008 |access-date=30 September 2013 |website=[[NME]]}} [[psychedelic rock]]{{Cite web |title=Pop/Rock » Psychedelic/Garage |url=https://www.allmusic.com/subgenre/psychedelic-garage-ma0000002800 |access-date=6 August 2020 |publisher=[[AllMusic]]}} and [[punk rock]].{{cite magazine |author1=Charles M. Young |title=Rock is Sick and Living in London |url=https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/a-report-on-the-sex-pistols-119989/ |magazine=Rolling Stone |access-date=23 February 2026 |date=20 October 1977 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250328094721/https://www.rollingstone.com/feature/a-report-on-the-sex-pistols-119989/ |archive-date=28 March 2025}} British acts also developed [[neo soul]] and created [[dubstep]].Henderson, Alex (1 August 2003). [https://web.archive.org/web/20101104165122/http://allmusic.com/explore/essay/british-soul-t2160 British Soul]. Allmusic. Retrieved 6 March 2011.; [http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465 AllMusic – Dubstep] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923151236/http://www.allmusic.com/style/dubstep-ma0000004465|date=23 September 2017}} "Absorbed and transfigured elements of techno, drum'n' bass and dub"; {{Cite news |last=Goldman |first=Vivien |date=31 January 2012 |title=Local Groove Does Good: The Story Of Trip-Hop's Rise From Bristol |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/sections/therecord/2012/01/31/142607358/local-groove-does-good-the-story-of-trip-hops-rise-from-bristol}} The UK has produced some of the most prominent English-speaking [[rappers]] along with the United States, including [[Stormzy]], [[Kano (rapper)|Kano]], [[Yxng Bane]], [[Ramz (rapper)|Ramz]], [[Little Simz]] and [[Skepta]].{{Cite magazine |title=5 U.K. Rappers Primed to Take Over America in 2018 |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/rb-hip-hop/uk-rappers-to-watch-2018-8097878/ |magazine=Billboard |access-date=18 June 2018}} [[File:The SSE Hydro arena - geograph.org.uk - 6725739.jpg|thumb|right|The [[OVO Hydro]] in [[Glasgow]], Scotland, a 14,500-capacity arena consistently ranked within the top ten busiest venues worldwide{{cite web |title=OVO Hydro {{!}} SEC |url=https://www.sec.co.uk/organise-an-event/event-spaces/the-ovo-hydro |website=www.sec.co.uk |access-date=9 February 2026 |language=en}}]] The Beatles have international sales of over 1 billion units and are the [[List of best-selling music artists|biggest-selling band]], in addition to being [[Cultural impact of the Beatles|widely regarded as the most influential band]] in the history of popular music.{{Cite web |title=1960–1969 |url=http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969/# |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140425011032/http://www.emimusic.com/about/history/1960-1969 |archive-date=25 April 2014 |access-date=9 March 2015 |publisher=EMI Group}}{{Cite magazine |date=8 June 1992 |title=Paul At Fifty |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |magazine=Time |location=New York |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090206120350/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,975715-2,00.html |archive-date=6 February 2009}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=rdU1xtIWJz0C Most Successful Group] ''[[The Guinness Book of Records]]'' 1999, p. 230. Retrieved 19 March 2011.{{Cite news |date=25 November 2010 |title=Beatles a big hit with downloads |work=Belfast Telegraph |url=http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/entertainment/music/news/beatles-a-big-hit-with-downloads-15013117.html |access-date=16 May 2011}} Other prominent British contributors to popular music over the last 50 years include the Rolling Stones, [[Pink Floyd]], [[Queen (band)|Queen]], [[Led Zeppelin]], the [[Bee Gees]] and [[Elton John]], all of whom have worldwide record sales of 200 million or more.{{Cite press release |title=British rock legends get their own music title for PlayStation3 and PlayStation2 |date=2 February 2009 |publisher=[[EMI]] |url=http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar®-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe |access-date=9 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140423012539/http://www.emimusic.com/news/2009/singstar%C2%AE-queen-to-be-launched-by-sony-computer-entertainment-europe |archive-date=23 April 2014}}; {{Cite news |last=Khan |first=Urmee |date=17 July 2008 |title=Sir Elton John honoured in Ben and Jerry ice cream |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730164432/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/celebritynews/2305273/Sir-Elton-John-honoured-in-Ben-and-Jerry-ice-cream.html |archive-date=30 July 2008}}; {{Cite news |last=Alleyne |first=Richard |date=19 April 2008 |title=Rock group Led Zeppelin to reunite |work=The Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=31 March 2010 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/1562875/Rock-group-Led-Zeppelin-to-reunite.html |archive-date=10 January 2022}}{{Cbignore}}; {{Cite news |date=11 July 2006 |title=Floyd 'true to Barrett's legacy' |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/5170644.stm}}; {{Cite news |last=Holton |first=Kate |date=17 January 2008 |title=Rolling Stones sign Universal album deal |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/entertainmentNews/idUSL1767761020080117 |access-date=26 October 2008}}; {{Cite news |last=Walker |first=Tim |date=12 May 2008 |title=Jive talkin': Why Robin Gibb wants more respect for the Bee Gees |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |access-date=26 October 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111013215157/http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/jive-talkin-why-robin-gibb-wants-more-respect-for-the-bee-gees-826116.html |archive-date=13 October 2011}} The [[Brit Awards]] are the [[British Phonographic Industry|BPI]]'s annual music awards, and some of the British recipients of the [[Brit Award for Outstanding Contribution to Music|Outstanding Contribution to Music]] award include [[the Who]], [[David Bowie]], [[Eric Clapton]], [[Rod Stewart]], [[the Police]] and [[Fleetwood Mac]] (who are a British-American band).[https://www.theguardian.com/news/datablog/2012/feb/22/brit-awards-winners-list-2012 "Brit awards winners list 2012: every winner since 1977"]. ''The Guardian'' (London). Retrieved 28 February 2012. More recent UK music acts that have had international success include [[George Michael]], [[Oasis (band)|Oasis]], [[Spice Girls]], [[Radiohead]], [[Coldplay]], [[Arctic Monkeys]], [[Robbie Williams]], [[Amy Winehouse]], [[Susan Boyle]], [[Adele]], [[Ed Sheeran]], [[Lewis Capaldi]], [[One Direction]], [[Harry Styles]] and [[Dua Lipa]].{{Cite web |date=12 January 2020 |title=Harry Styles Has Weathered the Post-Boy Band Storm Better Than Most |url=https://consequence.net/2020/01/harry-styles-solo-career/ |access-date=15 September 2020 |website=Consequence of Sound}}; {{Cite magazine |date=16 July 2020 |title=10 Years of One Direction: The Story of the World's Biggest Boy Band, Told With the Fans Who Made It Happen |magazine=Billboard |url=https://www.billboard.com/music/pop/one-direction-ten-year-anniversary-fan-interviews-9419436/ |access-date=15 September 2020}}; {{Cite news |last=Corner, Lewis |date=16 February 2012 |title=Adele, Coldplay biggest-selling UK artists worldwide in 2011 |work=Digital Spy |url=http://www.digitalspy.co.uk/music/news/a366130/adele-coldplay-biggest-selling-uk-artists-worldwide-in-2011.html |access-date=22 March 2012}}; {{Cite web |title=Ed Sheeran's career journey: From street busker to global superstar |url=https://planetradio.co.uk/hits-radio/entertainment/celebrity/ed-sheeran-career-timeline/ |access-date=7 January 2023 |website=PlanetRadio.co.uk |last=Magliola |first=Anna Sky |date=30 November 2022}}; {{Cite web |url=https://open.spotify.com/artist/6M2wZ9GZgrQXHCFfjv46we |title=Dua Lipa, 77.5M Monthly listeners |date=6 May 2024 |publisher=Spotify}} As of 2024 the UK is the world's [[List of largest music markets|third-largest music market]] behind the US and Japan,{{Cite web |last=Paine |first=Andre |date=10 September 2024 |title=IFPI report reveals EU risks falling behind in global market - UK still among top music exporters |url=https://www.musicweek.com/labels/read/ifpi-report-reveals-eu-risks-falling-behind-in-global-market-uk-still-among-top-music-exporters/090424 |access-date=17 November 2025 |website=[[Music Week]] |language=en}} and in 2021 was the second-largest exporter of music behind the US.{{Cite news |last=Savage |first=Mark |date=16 June 2021 |title=British music exports reach a record high |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-57486272 |access-date=17 November 2025 |work=[[BBC]] |language=en-GB}} Many British cities are known for their music. Acts from Liverpool have had 54 UK chart number 1 hit singles, more per capita than any other city worldwide.{{Cite news |last=Hughes |first=Mark |date=14 January 2008 |title=A tale of two cities of culture: Liverpool vs Stavanger |work=Independent |location=London |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS |access-date=2 August 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180618175425/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/this-britain/a-tale-of-two-cities-of-culture-liverpool-vs-stavanger-770076.html?r=RSS |archive-date=18 June 2018}} Glasgow's contribution was recognised in 2008 when it was named a [[City of Music (UNESCO)|City of Music]] by [[UNESCO]].{{Cite news |date=20 August 2008 |title=Glasgow gets city of music honour |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/glasgow_and_west/7570915.stm |access-date=2 August 2009}} Manchester played a role in the spread of dance music such as [[acid house]], and from the mid-1990s, [[Britpop]]. London and Bristol are closely associated with the origins of [[electronic music]] sub-genres such as [[drum and bass]] and [[trip hop]].{{Cite web |title=Out of the melting pot: The origins and evolution of drum'n'bass |url=https://www.redbull.com/gb-en/history-of-drum-and-bass-music |access-date=1 August 2021 |website=Red Bull |date=25 June 2020}} UK dance music traces its roots back to the black British [[Sound system (Jamaican)|Sound System Culture]] and the [[New Age travellers|New Age Traveller]] movement of the 60s and 70s,{{Cite web |date=3 August 2023 |title=Parties, protest and police: the neglected histories of UK dance music |url=https://www.dazeddigital.com/music/article/60511/1/ed-gillet-new-book-party-lines-politics-history-uk-dance-music-clubbing |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=Dazed}} it also has influences from the [[House music|Chicago House]] and [[Detroit techno|Detroit Techno]] scenes. In the late 1980s, dance music exploded with [[Rave]] culture mainly [[Acid House]] tracks which were made mainstream with novelty records (such as Smart E's [[Sesame's Treet]] and the Prodigy's [[Charly (song)|Charly]]){{Cite web |date=20 January 2001 |title=Rave |url=https://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/search?q=rave |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=Oxford Music Online}} and the [[Balearic beat|Balearic sound]] brought back from the Ibiza club scene. This led on to genres such as [[UK Garage]], [[Speed Garage]], [[Drum and bass]], [[Jungle music|Jungle]], [[Trance music|Trance]], and [[Dubstep]]. Influential UK dance acts past and present include [[808 State]], [[Orbital (band)|Orbital]], [[the Prodigy]], [[Underworld (band)|Underworld]], [[Roni Size]], [[Leftfield]], [[Massive Attack]], [[Groove Armada]], [[Fatboy Slim]], [[Faithless]], [[Basement Jaxx]], [[Chemical Brothers]], [[Disclosure (band)|Disclosure]], [[Calvin Harris]], and [[Fred Again]].{{Cite web |title=Mixmag's Greatest Dance Act of all Time Revealed |date=19 January 2012 |url=http://www.mixmag.net/words/news/mixmags-greatest-dance-act-revealed |archive-date=14 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120414045620/http://www.mixmag.net/words/news/mixmags-greatest-dance-act-revealed}};{{Cite web |date=26 February 2024 |title=Fred Again: who is the DJ who has thousands queuing for a 'secret rave' at the Sydney Opera House? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2024/feb/27/fred-again-dj-sydney-opera-house-secret-show-tickets-sell-out-profile-bio-details |access-date=27 February 2024 |website=The Guardian}} Other influential UK DJs include [[Judge Jules]], [[Pete Tong]], [[Carl Cox]], [[Paul Oakenfold]], [[John Digweed]] and [[Sasha (dj)|Sasha]].{{Cite web |title=Top 100 DJs Poll results 2003 |url=http://djmag.com/top100chart.asp |archive-date=7 December 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031207071739/http://djmag.com/top100chart.asp}} === Cinema === {{Main|Cinema of the United Kingdom|Independent cinema in the United Kingdom}} The United Kingdom has had a considerable influence on the history of the cinema. The British directors [[Alfred Hitchcock]], whose film ''[[Vertigo (film)|Vertigo]]'' is considered by some critics as the [[List of films considered the best|best film of all time]],{{Cite news |date=2 August 2012 |title=Vertigo is named 'greatest film of all time' |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-19078948 |access-date=18 August 2012}} and [[David Lean]], who directed ''[[Lawrence of Arabia (film)|Lawrence of Arabia]]'', are amongst the most critically acclaimed directors ever.{{Cite web |title=The Directors' Top Ten Directors |url=http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120517155218/http://www.bfi.org.uk/sightandsound/topten/poll/directors-directors.html |archive-date=17 May 2012 |publisher=British Film Institute}} Recent popular directors include [[Christopher Nolan]], [[Sam Mendes]], [[Steve McQueen (director)|Steve McQueen]], [[Richard Curtis]], [[Danny Boyle]], [[Tony Scott]] and [[Ridley Scott]].{{Cite web |title=The 24 Best British Directors of All Time |date=13 May 2023 |url=https://movieweb.com/best-british-directors-of-all-time/ |access-date=17 February 2024 |publisher=Movieweb}}{{Cite web |title=Top 22 U.K. Film Directors |url=https://www.imdb.com/list/ls062383258/ |access-date=17 February 2024 |publisher=IMDb}}{{Cite web |title=5 of the best ... Richard Curtis films |url=https://www.thetimes.com/culture/tv-radio/article/5-of-the-best-richard-curtis-films-tzxx9fv2h |work=The Times |access-date=4 June 2024 |date=17 April 2024}}{{Cite web |title=The UK's top 50 film directors |date=23 May 2012 |url=https://www.televisual.com/news/the-uk-s-top-50-film-directors_bid-357/ |access-date=17 February 2024 |publisher=Televisual}} Many British actors have achieved international fame and critical success. Some of the most commercially successful films have been produced in the United Kingdom, including two of the [[List of highest-grossing film series|highest-grossing film franchises]] (''[[Harry Potter (film series)|Harry Potter]]'' and ''[[James Bond (film series)|James Bond]]'').{{Cite news |date=11 September 2007 |title=Harry Potter becomes highest-grossing film franchise |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2007/sep/11/jkjoannekathleenrowling |access-date=2 November 2010}} 2019 was a particularly good year for British films which grossed around £10.3 billion globally, accounting for 28.7 per cent of global box office revenue.{{Cite web |title=UK Film Industry Statistics 2023 |date=10 April 2023 |url=https://www.socialfilms.co.uk/blog/uk-film-industry-statistics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217211749/https://www.socialfilms.co.uk/blog/uk-film-industry-statistics |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024}} UK box-office takings totalled £1.25 billion in 2019, with around 176 million admissions.{{Cite web |title=The UK box office in 2019 |url=https://www2.bfi.org.uk/sites/bfi.org.uk/files/downloads/bfi-uk-box-office-2019.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217214846/https://www2.bfi.org.uk/sites/bfi.org.uk/files/downloads/bfi-uk-box-office-2019.pdf |archive-date=17 February 2024 |access-date=17 February 2024}} In 2023 UK film and television studio stage space stood at 6.9 million sq ft, with 1 million sq ft added in the past year with more in development.{{Cite web |title=UK Film and Television Studios Market Report |url=https://content.knightfrank.com/research/2439/documents/en/uk-film-and-television-studios-market-2023-10567.pdf |access-date=17 February 2024 |publisher=Knight Frank}} The annual [[British Academy Film Awards|BAFTA Film Awards]] are hosted by the [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts]].{{Cite news |date=26 February 2001 |title=Baftas fuel Oscars race |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/1190562.stm |access-date=14 February 2011}} === Cuisine === {{Main|British cuisine}} {{Further|English cuisine|Scottish cuisine|Welsh cuisine|Northern Irish cuisine}} [[File:Fish, chips and mushy peas.jpg|thumb|[[Fish and chips]], a traditional British dish, served with lemon, tartar sauce and mushy peas]] British cuisine developed from influences reflective of its land, settlements, [[Immigration to the United Kingdom|arrivals of new settlers and immigrants]], trade and colonialism. The food of England has historically been characterised by simplicity of approach and a reliance on the high quality of natural produce.{{Cite book |last=Else |first=David |title=Inghilterra |publisher=EDT srl |date=2007 |isbn=978-88-6040-136-6 |page=76}} The traditional [[Sunday roast]] is one example, featuring a [[roasting|roast joint]] (usually of beef), lamb, chicken, or pork, often [[free range]] (and generally grass-fed, in the case of beef). Roasts are served with either roasted or boiled vegetables, [[Yorkshire pudding]] and [[gravy]]. Other traditional meals include [[meat pie]]s and [[stew]]s. A poll by [[YouGov]] in 2019 rated classic British food, with more than 80 per cent liking the Sunday roast, Yorkshire pudding, [[fish and chips]], [[crumpet]]s and the [[full English breakfast]].{{Cite web |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/consumer/articles-reports/2019/06/12/classic-british-cuisine-ranked-britons |date=11 June 2019 |title=Classic British cuisine ranked by Britons }}{{Dead link|date=May 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }} The UK is home to a large selection of [[fine dining]]. The nation hosts multiple restaurant guides such as ''[[The Good Food Guide]]'' and ''[[Harden's]]''. In 2025 there were 197 restaurants with a [[Michelin Star]]; [[List of Michelin 3-star restaurants in the United Kingdom|ten of which have received a three-star rating]].{{cite web |url=https://guide.michelin.com/en/gb/restaurants/all-starred |title=United Kingdom |publisher=Michelin Guide |access-date=12 May 2025}} Sweet foods are common within British cuisine, and there is a long list of [[List of British desserts|British desserts]]. Afternoon tea is a light afternoon meal served with tea in tea rooms and hotels around the United Kingdom, with the tradition dating back to around 1840.{{Cite web |title=The tea-rific history of Victorian afternoon tea |work=The British Museum |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/blog/tea-rific-history-victorian-afternoon-tea |access-date=11 April 2023}} A poll from July 2024 revealed that 3 per cent of the UK population follow a [[vegan]] diet, 6 per cent are [[vegetarian]], and 13 per cent identify as [[flexitarian]] (following a mainly vegetarian diet).{{Cite web |title=Dietary choices of Brits (e.g. vegeterian, flexitarian, meat-eater etc) |url=https://yougov.co.uk/topics/society/trackers/dietery-choices-of-brits-eg-vegeterian-flexitarian-meat-eater-etc |access-date=26 November 2024 |date=8 July 2024 |website=YouGov.co.uk}} The British Empire facilitated knowledge of [[Indian cuisine]] with its "strong, penetrating spices and herbs". British cuisine has absorbed the cultural influence of those who have settled in Britain, producing hybrid dishes, such as [[chicken tikka masala]].{{Cite news |date=19 April 2001 |title=Robin Cook's chicken tikka masala speech |work=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/apr/19/race.britishidentity |access-date=7 September 2021}}; {{Cite news |last=BBC E-Cyclopedia |date=20 April 2001 |title=Chicken tikka masala: Spice and easy does it |publisher=BBC |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1999/02/99/e-cyclopedia/1285804.stm |access-date=28 September 2007}} The UK has many [[gastropub]]s and is the birthplace of many alcoholic drinks including several beer styles such as [[pale ale]], [[India pale ale]], [[bitter (beer)|bitter]], [[brown ale]], [[porter (beer)|porter]], and [[stout]]. The number of [[craft beer]]s and microbreweries has expanded rapidly in the last two decades.{{Cite web |title=A guide to British Beer |url=https://www.expatica.com/uk/lifestyle/food-drink/british-beer-469903/ |access-date=25 November 2024 |website=Expatica}} Other popular alcoholic drinks produced in the UK include [[Scotch whisky]], [[Wine from the United Kingdom|English wine]], [[gin]], [[perry]] and [[cider]]. === Sport === {{Main|Sport in the United Kingdom|Great Britain at the Olympics}} {{Further|Sport in England|Sport in Scotland|Sport in Wales|Sport in Northern Ireland}} [[File:City vs United FA Cup final 2023.jpg|thumb|right|The [[2023 FA Cup final]] at [[Wembley Stadium]] between [[Manchester City]] and [[Manchester United]]]] [[File:Old 18th tee lr.jpg|thumb|right|Golf originated from the [[Old Course at St Andrews]] in Scotland.]] [[Association football]], [[tennis]], [[table tennis]], [[badminton]], [[rugby union]], [[rugby league]], [[rugby sevens]], [[golf]], [[boxing]], [[netball]], [[water polo]], [[field hockey]], [[English billiards|billiards]], [[darts]], [[Rowing (sport)|rowing]], [[rounders]] and [[cricket]] originated or were substantially developed in the UK, with the rules and codes of many modern sports invented and codified in the Victorian era.{{efn|In 2012, the president of the IOC, [[Jacques Rogge]], stated, "This great, sports-loving country is widely recognised as the birthplace of modern sport. It was here that the concepts of sportsmanship and fair play were first codified into clear rules and regulations. It was here that sport was included as an educational tool in the school curriculum."{{Cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf |title=Opening Ceremony of the Games of the XXX Olympiad |website=Olympic.org |access-date=30 November 2013 |date=27 July 2012 |archive-date=19 August 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130819135346/http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Games_London_2012/London_2012_Opening_ceremony_Speech_Jacques_Rogge.pdf |url-status=dead}}{{Cite web |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |title=Unparalleled Sporting History |work=Reuters |access-date=30 November 2013 |last=Mehaffey |first=John |location=London |archive-date=25 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525164121/http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-oly-preview-ad-idUKBRE86M0I720120723 |url-status=dead}}}} A poll in 2003 found that football is the most popular sport in the UK.{{Cite web |date=22 December 2003 |title=Rugby Union 'Britain's Second Most Popular Sport' |url=http://www.ipsos-mori.com/researchpublications/researcharchive/928/Rugby-Union-Britains-Second-Most-Popular-Sport.aspx |access-date=28 April 2013 |publisher=Ipsos-Mori}} England is recognised by [[FIFA]] as the birthplace of club football, and the [[Football Association]] is the oldest of its kind, with the [[Laws of the Game (association football)|rules of football]] first drafted in 1863 by [[Ebenezer Cobb Morley]].{{Cite news |last=Rudd |first=Alyson |date=7 April 2008 |title=The father of football deserves much more |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article3694775.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=29 January 2015 |archive-date=4 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604183514/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/sport/football/article3694775.ece |url-status=dead}}; {{Cite web |date=24 October 2007 |title=Sheffield FC: 150 years of history |url=https://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071025033006/http://www.fifa.com/worldfootball/clubfootball/news/newsid=621801.html |archive-date=25 October 2007 |access-date=29 January 2015 |publisher=[[FIFA]]}} Each of the [[Home Nations]] (England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) has its own football association, national team and [[league system]], and each is individually a governing member of the [[International Football Association Board]] alongside FIFA. The English top division, the [[Premier League]], is the most watched football league in the world.{{Cite news |last=Ebner |first=Sarah |date=2 July 2013 |title=History and time are key to power of football, says Premier League chief |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://www.thetimes.co.uk/tto/public/ceo-summit/article3804923.ece |url-access=subscription |access-date=30 November 2013}} The first international football match was contested by [[England national football team|England]] and [[Scotland national football team|Scotland]] on 30 November 1872.{{Cite web |last=Mitchell, Paul |author-link=Paul Mitchell (broadcaster) |date=November 2005 |title=The first international football match |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/scotland/sportscotland/asportingnation/article/0012/index.shtml |access-date=15 December 2013 |publisher=BBC Sport Scotland}} England, Scotland, [[Wales national football team|Wales]] and [[Northern Ireland national football team|Northern Ireland]] usually compete as separate countries in international competitions.{{Cite news |last=Harlow |first=Phil |date=5 August 2008 |title=Why is there no GB Olympics football team? |work=[[BBC Sport]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport1/hi/olympics/football/7529807.stm |access-date=31 December 2010}} In 2003 rugby union was ranked the second-most-popular sport in the UK. The sport was created in [[Rugby School]], Warwickshire, and the [[1871 England versus Scotland rugby union match|first rugby international]] took place on 27 March 1871 between [[England national rugby union team|England]] and [[Scotland national rugby union team|Scotland]].{{Cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-coventry-warwickshire-25946757 |title=Six ways the town of Rugby helped change the world |work=BBC News |access-date=29 January 2015 |date=1 February 2014}}{{Cite book |last1=Godwin |first1=Terry |last2=Rhys |first2=Chris |year=1981 |title=The Guinness Book of Rugby Facts & Feats |page=10 |publisher=Guinness Superlatives |isbn=978-0-85112-214-4}} England, Scotland, [[Wales national rugby union team|Wales]], [[Ireland national rugby union team|Ireland]], [[France national rugby union team|France]] and [[Italy national rugby union team|Italy]] compete in the [[Six Nations Championship]], the premier international rugby union tournament in the northern hemisphere. [[Sports governing bodies]] in [[Rugby union in England|England]], [[Rugby union in Scotland|Scotland]], [[Rugby union in Wales|Wales]] and [[Rugby union in Ireland|Ireland]] organise and regulate the game separately.{{Cite book |last1=Louw, Jaco |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0-IiowvNomMC&pg=PA95 |title=The Girlfriends Guide to Rugby |last2=Nesbit, Derrick |publisher=South Publishers |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-620-39541-0 |location=Johannesburg}} Every four years the Home Nations make a combined team known as the [[British and Irish Lions]] which tours Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The United Kingdom hosted the [[Summer Olympic Games]] in [[1908 Summer Olympics|1908]], [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]] and [[2012 Summer Olympics|2012]], with London acting as the host city on all three occasions. Birmingham hosted the [[2022 Commonwealth Games]], the seventh time a country of the United Kingdom hosted the [[Commonwealth Games]] (England, Scotland and Wales have each hosted the Commonwealth Games at least once).{{Cite news |title=The journey of India in Commonwealth Games in 2022 |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/readersblog/allaboutsports/the-journey-of-india-in-commonwealth-games-in-2022-44477/ |access-date=29 June 2023}} === Symbols === {{Main|Symbols of the United Kingdom, the Channel Islands and the Isle of Man|l1 = Symbols of the United Kingdom}} [[File:Queen Elizabeth II Platinum Jubilee 2022 - Platinum Pageant (52123378222).jpg|thumb|Union Jack flags on [[The Mall, London|The Mall]], London]] The [[flag of the United Kingdom]] is the [[Union Flag]], which is also referred to as the Union Jack.{{Cite web |title=Union Jack or Union Flag? |url=https://www.flaginstitute.org/wp/uk-flags/the-union-jack-or-the-union-flag |access-date=26 September 2022 |website=The Flag Institute}} It was created in 1606 by the superimposition of the [[flag of England]], representing [[Saint George]], on the [[flag of Scotland]], representing [[Saint Andrew]], and was updated in 1801 with the addition of [[Saint Patrick's Flag]].{{Cite web |title=college-of-arms.gov.uk |url=https://www.college-of-arms.gov.uk/resources/union-flag-approved-designs |access-date=14 January 2022 |publisher=The College of Arms}} Wales is not represented in the Union Flag, as Wales had been conquered and [[annexed]] to England prior to the formation of the United Kingdom. The possibility of redesigning the Union Flag to include representation of Wales was discussed in 2007.{{Cite news |date=27 November 2007 |title=Welsh dragon call for Union flag |work=BBC News |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/7114248.stm |access-date=17 October 2008}} The [[national anthem]] of the United Kingdom is "[[God Save the King]]", with "King" replaced with "Queen" in the lyrics whenever the monarch is a woman. [[National symbols of England|England]], [[National symbols of Wales|Wales]] and [[National symbols of Scotland|Scotland]] each have their own national symbols, including their national flags. [[National symbols of Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]] also has symbols, [[National symbols of Ireland, the Republic of Ireland and Northern Ireland|many of which are shared]] with the [[Republic of Ireland]]. Beside [[the Lion and the Unicorn]] and the [[Welsh Dragon]] of heraldry, the [[bulldog]] is also used and commonly represented with the Union Flag.{{Cite book |last=Baker |first=Steve |title=Picturing the Beast |publisher=University of Illinois Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-252-07030-3 |page=52}} Great Britain, rather than the United Kingdom as a whole, also has [[national personification|personifications]] representing it, two of which are [[Britannia]]{{Cite web |title=Britannia on British Coins |url=http://www.24carat.co.uk/britanniaframe.html |access-date=25 June 2006 |publisher=Chard}}{{cite dictionary|url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/britannia|dictionary=Collins Dictionary|title=Britannia|accessdate=14 February 2021}} and [[John Bull]].{{Cite web |last= |title=Who is John Bull |url=https://www.loc.gov/wiseguide/jan04/johnbull.html |access-date=11 January 2022 |publisher=The Library of Congress}} == See also == {{Portal|United Kingdom|England|Northern Ireland|Scotland|Wales}} * [[Outline of the United Kingdom]] ** [[Outline of England]] ** [[Outline of Northern Ireland]] ** [[Outline of Scotland]] ** [[Outline of Wales]] * [[International rankings of the United Kingdom]] * [[Historiography of the United Kingdom]] * [[Historiography of the British Empire]] * [[United Kingdom–Crown Dependencies Customs Union]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} == References == {{Reflist}} == External links == {{Sister project links|auto=yes}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18023389 United Kingdom] from [[BBC News]] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20260118175542/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/united-kingdom/ United Kingdom]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * [https://web.archive.org/web/20090406224510/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/british.htm United Kingdom] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs'' (archived 6 April 2009) * {{Wikiatlas|United Kingdom}} * {{OSM relation|62149}} * [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=GB Key Development Forecasts for the United Kingdom] from [[International Futures]] === Government === * [https://www.gov.uk/ Official website of HM Government] * [https://www.royal.uk/ Official website of the British Monarchy] * [https://www.gov.uk/government/organisations/prime-ministers-office-10-downing-street Official website of the British Prime Minister's Office] === Travel === * [http://www.visitbritain.com/en/ Official tourist guide to Britain] {{United Kingdom topics}} {{Navboxes | list = {{United Kingdom constituents and affiliations}} {{British Isles}} {{Sovereign states of Europe}} {{Commonwealth realms}} {{English official language clickable map}} {{The Commonwealth}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|55|N|3|W|type:country_region:GB|display=title}} [[Category:United Kingdom| ]] [[Category:British Islands]] [[Category:Countries in Europe]] [[Category:Countries and territories where English is an official language]] [[Category:G20 members]] [[Category:Island countries]] [[Category:Member states of NATO]] [[Category:Member states of the Commonwealth of Nations]] [[Category:Member states of the Council of Europe]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:OECD members]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1707]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1801]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1922]]