{{Short description|Country in South Asia}}
{{Redirect|Ceylon}}
{{Redirect|Ilangai}}
{{Pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2022}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Democratic Socialist Republic of
Sri Lanka
| common_name = Sri Lanka
| native_name = {{small|{{Name in various languages
| name = {{nobold|''(in official languages)''}}
| si = {{lang|si|ශ්රී ලංකා ප්රජාතාන්ත්රික සමාජවාදී ජනරජය}}
{{transliteration|si|ISO|Śrī Laṅkā Prajātāntrika Samājavādī Janarajaya}}
| ta = {{lang|ta|இலங்கை சனநாயக சோசலிசக் குடியரசு}}
{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Ilaṅkai Caṉanāyaka Cōcalicak Kuṭiyaracu}}
}}}}
| image_flag = Flag of Sri Lanka.svg
| image_coat = Emblem of Sri Lanka.svg
| coa_size = 70
| symbol_type = Emblem
| national_anthem = "[[Sri Lanka Matha]]"
ශ්රී ලංකා මාතා (Sinhala)
தாயே இலங்கை (Tamil)
({{Langx|en|"Mother Sri Lanka"}})
[[File:Sri Lankan national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga|center]]
| image_map = Sri Lanka (orthographic projection).svg
| capital = {{ubl|[[Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte]] (legislative)[{{cite encyclopedia |title=Sri Jayewardenepura Kotte |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Jayewardenepura-Kotte |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617044803/https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Jayewardenepura-Kotte |url-status=live }}]|[[Colombo]] (executive and judicial)[{{cite encyclopedia |title=Colombo |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombo |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230306022806/https://www.britannica.com/place/Colombo |url-status=live }}]
{{Coord|6|56|N|79|52|E|type:city}}}}
| largest_city = [[Colombo]]
| languages_type = '''Official languages'''
and recognised national languages
| languages = {{hlist|[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]]|[[Tamil language|Tamil]][{{cite web |title=Official Languages Policy |url=http://www.languagesdept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=38&Itemid=163&lang=en |website=languagesdept.gov.lk |publisher=Department of Official Languages |access-date=20 May 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412193905/http://languagesdept.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=38&Itemid=163&lang=en |url-status=dead }}]}}
| languages_sub = yes
| languages2_type = Recognised language
| languages2 = [[Sri Lankan English|English]]
| ethnic_groups = {{ubli|74.1% [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]|12.3% [[Sri Lankan Tamils]]|{{nowrap|10.5% [[Sri Lankan Moors]]}}|2.8% [[Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|Indian Tamils]]|0.3% other}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2024[{{cite web |url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk//Resource/en/Population/CPH_2024/Population_Preliminary_Report.pdf|date=30 October 2025 |publisher=The Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka |access-date=30 October 2025 |title=BASIC POPULATION INFORMATION by Districts and Divisional Secretary Divisions}}]
| religion = {{ubli|{{nowrap|69.8% [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Buddhism]] ([[State religion|official]])}}|12.6% [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Hinduism]]|10.7% [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Islam]]|6.9% [[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]]|0.1% other/none}}
| religion_year = 2024
| demonym = Sri Lankan
| government_type = Unitary [[semi-presidential republic]][{{cite web |title=Constitution of Sri Lanka |url=https://www.parliament.lk/files/pdf/constitution.pdf |website=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] |access-date=24 October 2022 |archive-date=26 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200826023910/http://parliament.lk/files/pdf/constitution.pdf |url-status=live }}]
| leader_title1 = [[President of Sri Lanka|President]]
| leader_name1 = [[Anura Kumara Dissanayake]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Harini Amarasuriya]]
| leader_title3 = [[Speaker of the Parliament of Sri Lanka|Speaker of the Parliament]]
| leader_name3 = [[Jagath Wickramaratne]]
| leader_title4 = [[Chief Justice of Sri Lanka|Chief Justice]]
| leader_name4 = [[Padman Surasena]]
| legislature = [[Parliament of Sri Lanka|Parliament]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Sri Lanka|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Sinhala Kingdom]] established[De Silva, K. M. (1981). A History of Sri Lanka. University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-561655-2}}. A History of Sri Lanka.]
| established_date1 = 543 BCE
| established_event2 = [[Anuradhapura period]]
| established_date2 = 377 BCE – 1017 CE
| established_event3 = [[Polonnaruwa period]]
| established_date3 = 1017–1232
| established_event4 = [[Transitional period of Sri Lanka|Transitional period]]
| established_date4 = 1232–1592
| established_event5 = [[Kandyan period]]
| established_date5 = 1592–1815
| established_event6 = [[British Ceylon period]]
| established_date6 = 1815–1948
| established_event7 = [[Independence Day (Sri Lanka)|Independence]]
| established_date7 = 4 February 1948
| established_event8 = [[Republic]]
| established_date8 = 22 May 1972
| established_event9 = [[Constitution of Sri Lanka|Current constitution]]
| established_date9 = 7 September 1978
| area_km2 = 67,240
[{{cite web|title=Recalculation of Country Extent|author=Survey Department of Sri Lanka|date=2 August 2024|url=https://survey.gov.lk/sdweb/pdf/latestpost/Recalculation%20of%20Country%20Extent_to%20WEB.pdf}}]
| area_rank = 120th
| area_sq_mi = 25,962
| percent_water = 4.4
| population_estimate ={{DecreaseNeutral}} 21,756,000 [{{cite web|url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk/NationalAccounts/StaticalInformation/Reports/2025_Annual_Provisional |title=National Accounts Estimates of the Year 2025 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka |website=statistics.gov.lk |access-date=2026-04-19}}]
| population_census = 21,781,800[{{cite web |title=Basic Population Information by Districts and Divisional Secretary Divisions |url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk/Resource/en/Population/CPH_2024/Population_Preliminary_Report.pdf |website=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=1 November 2025}}]
| population_estimate_year = 2025 (mid-year)
| population_estimate_rank = 60th
| population_census_year = 2024
| population_density_km2 = 337.7
| population_density_rank = 36th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}}$371.27 billion [{{cite web
|title=GDP, PPP (current international $) – Sri Lanka
|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.PP.CD?locations=LK
|work=World Development Indicators
|publisher=World Bank
|access-date=22 July 2026
}}]
| GDP_PPP_year = 2025
| GDP_PPP_rank = 62nd
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $17,065 [{{cite web
|title=GDP per capita, PPP (current international $) - Sri Lanka
|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?locations=LK
|website=World Bank Open Data
|publisher=World Bank
|access-date=22 July 2026
}}]
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 111th
| GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $108.8 billion[{{cite web
|url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk/NationalAccounts/StaticalInformation/Reports/2025_Annual_Provisional
|title=National Accounts Estimates of the Year 2025
|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka
|website=statistics.gov.lk
|access-date=2026-04-06
}}]
| GDP_nominal_year = 2025
| GDP_nominal_rank = 71st
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,003 [{{cite web
|url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk/NationalAccounts/StaticalInformation/Reports/2025_Annual_Provisional
|title=National Accounts Estimates of the Year 2025
|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka
|website=statistics.gov.lk
|access-date=2026-04-06
}}]
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = N/A
| Gini = 39.8
| Gini_year = 2023
| Gini_change = decrease
| Gini_ref = [{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=LK |title=Gini Index |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 May 2018 |archive-date=19 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230519204956/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=LK |url-status=live }}]
| HDI = 0.776
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_change = decrease
| HDI_ref = [{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}]
| HDI_rank = 89th
| currency = [[Sri Lankan rupee]] ([[Sri Lankan rupee|Rs]])
| currency_code = LKR
| time_zone = [[Sri Lanka Standard Time|SLST]]
| utc_offset = +5:30
| drives_on = Left
| calling_code = [[Telephone numbers in Sri Lanka|+94]]
| iso3166code = LK
| cctld = {{hlist|[[.lk]]|[[.ලංකා]]|[[.இலங்கை]]}}
| official_website = {{URL|https://www.gov.lk|gov.lk}}
}}
{{Contains special characters|Sinhalese}}
'''Sri Lanka''',{{efn|[[British English|UK]]: {{IPAc-en|s|r|i|_|ˈ|l|æ|ŋ|k|ə|,_|ʃ|r|iː|_|-}}, [[American English|US]]: {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Sri Lanka.ogg|-|_|ˈ|l|ɑː|ŋ|k|ə}}; {{langx|si|ශ්රී ලංකා|Śrī Laṅkā|translit-std=ISO|engvar=gb}} ({{IPA|si|ʃriː laŋkaː|IPA}}); {{langx|ta|இலங்கை|Ilaṅkai|translit-std=ISO|engvar=gb}} ({{IPA|ta|ilaŋɡaj|IPA}}).}} officially the '''Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka''', formerly known as '''Ceylon''',{{efn|Many names have been used to refer to the island, with Ceylon being used post-independence and still in use in some cases. For other names, see [[Names of Sri Lanka]].}} is an [[island country]] in [[South Asia]]. It is located in the [[Indian Ocean]], southwest of the [[Bay of Bengal]], and is separated from [[India]] by the [[Gulf of Mannar]] and the [[Palk Strait]]. Sri Lanka shares a [[maritime border]] with the [[Maldives]] to the southwest and India to the northwest, and lies across the Bay of Bengal from [[Bangladesh]] and [[Myanmar]] to the northeast and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] of India to the east. Its executive and judicial capital is [[Colombo]], which is also its [[List of cities in Sri Lanka|largest city]] and the political, financial and cultural centre of the country; neighboring [[Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte]] is the legislative capital. Sri Lanka's [[Demographics of Sri Lanka|population is 22 million]]. About 74% of the population are [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]], who speak the [[Sinhala language]], and about 15% are [[Sri Lankan Tamils|Tamils]] who speak the [[Tamil language]]. Other long-established ethnic groups include the [[Sri Lankan Moors|Moors]], [[Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|Indian Tamils]], [[Burgher people|Burghers]], [[Sri Lankan Malays|Malays]], [[Chinese people in Sri Lanka|Chinese]], and [[Vedda]].[{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedda |title=Vedda |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906024458/http://www.britannica.com/topic/Vedda |url-status=live }}]
The island has a documented history of over 3,000 years, with evidence of [[Early human migrations|prehistoric human settlement]] dating back 125,000 years.[{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PD8DseEWyuoC |title=Urbanization and sustainability in Asia: case studies of good practice |author=Roberts, Brian |chapter=Sri Lanka: Introduction |year=2006 |publisher=Asian Development Bank |isbn=978-971-561-607-2}}] Sri Lanka has been given [[Names of Sri Lanka|various names]] throughout its long history, with Ceylon most notably being used prior to its independence in 1948.[{{Cite news |title=Sri Lanka {{!}} History, Map, Flag, Population, Capital, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Lanka |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260329001946/https://www.britannica.com/place/Sri-Lanka |archive-date=29 March 2026 |access-date=2026-04-06 |work=Encyclopedia Britannica |language=en |url-status=live }}] The earliest known [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Buddhist writings in the island]], known collectively as the [[Pali Canon]], date back to [[Fourth Theravāda Council|29 BCE]].[{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=62KQpPX1oVkC&pg=PA69 |title=Essential Buddhism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs and Practices |author=Jack Maguire |date=2001 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |isbn=978-0-671-04188-5 |page=69 |quote=... the Pali canon of Theravada is the earliest known collection of Buddhist writings ...}}][{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd16.htm |title=Religions – Buddhism: Theravada Buddhism |date=2 October 2002 |publisher=BBC |access-date=18 February 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120306115250/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/dharmadata/fdd16.htm |url-status=live }}] Sri Lanka, owing to its strategic geographical location, played a role as a major trading hub, and was well known to explorers across the world as early as the [[Anuradhapura period]]. The [[Portuguese Empire]] established [[Portuguese Ceylon|a colony]] in the sixteenth century, during a period of [[Crisis of the Sixteenth Century|political upheaval]] in the [[Kingdom of Kotte]] where it also faced attacks from neighbouring [[Sinhala kingdom|kingdoms]] of [[Kingdom of Kandy|Kandy]] and [[Kingdom of Sitawaka|Sitawaka]]. Following the [[Sinhalese–Portuguese War]], the [[Dutch colonial empire]] controlled the [[Dutch Ceylon|coastal areas]]. By the early 19th century, the [[British Empire]] established a [[British Ceylon|colony on the island]], which lasted until 1948. The early 20th century saw the rise of nationalist movements and [[Sri Lankan independence movement|increasing calls for independence]]. In 1948, Sri Lanka gained independence as the [[Dominion of Ceylon]], eventually becoming a [[republic]] in 1972. Sri Lanka's recent history has been marred by a [[Sri Lankan civil war|prolonged civil war]] between the Tamil separatist militant organisation of [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] and the [[Sri Lankan Armed Forces]], which lasted from 1983 to 2009, and ended with the [[Eelam War IV|defeat of the separatists]].[[https://www.reuters.com/article/us-srilanka-war-sb-idUSTRE54D1GR20090518 Reuters Sri Lanka wins civil war, says kills rebel leader] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016032645/http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/05/18/us-srilanka-war-sb-idUSTRE54D1GR20090518 |date=16 October 2015 }} [[Reuters]] (18 May 2009). Retrieved 18 November 2012.]
In the 21st century, Sri Lanka has emerged as a [[developing country]], with a strategically important geographical location in the Indian Ocean, with its deep harbours giving it significant geopolitical leverage as a major trading post from the ancient [[Maritime Silk Road]].[{{Cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xmNuAAAAMAAJ |title=Sri Lanka and the silk road of the sea |chapter=Sri Lankan Role in the Maritime Silk Route |page=21 |year=1990 |isbn=978-955-9043-02-7 |author=Bandaranayake, Senake|publisher=Sri Lanka National Commission for Unesco and the Central Cultural Fund }}][British Prime Minister Winston Churchill described the moment a Japanese fleet prepared to invade Sri Lanka as "the most dangerous and distressing moment of the entire conflict". – ''Commonwealth Air Training Program Museum'', [http://www.airmuseum.ca/mag/0410.html The Saviour of Ceylon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071022152654/http://www.airmuseum.ca/mag/0410.html |date=22 October 2007 }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |title=A Brief History of Sri Lanka |website=localhistories.org |access-date=14 August 2017 |archive-date=23 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723124255/http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |url-status=live }}] It has the [[List of countries by Human Development Index|highest level of human development in South Asia]] and the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|second-highest GDP per capita]] in the region. Sri Lanka has a long history of international engagement and cooperation, and is a member of several international organisations—including [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], the [[Group of 77|G77]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]].
== Toponymy ==
{{Main|Names of Sri Lanka}}
In antiquity, Sri Lanka was known to travellers by a variety of names. According to the ''[[Mahāvaṃsa]]'', the legendary [[Prince Vijaya]] named the island [[Kingdom of Tambapanni|Tambapaṇṇĩ]] ("[[Copper (color)|copper-red]] hands" or "copper-red earth"), because his followers' hands were reddened by the [[red soil]] of the area where he landed.[{{cite book |author=Nanda Pethiyagoda Wanasundera |title=Sri Lanka |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1Ts1khhfXm8C&pg=PA26 |year=2002 |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |isbn=978-0-7614-1477-3 |page=26}}][{{cite book |author=John M. Senaveratna |title=The story of the Sinhalese from the most ancient times up to the end of "the Mahavansa" or Great dynasty |publisher=Asian Educational Services |date=1997 |page=11 |isbn=978-81-206-1271-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X9TeEcMi0e0C&pg=PA11+}}] In [[Hindu mythology]], the term [[Lanka|''Lankā'']] ("Island") appears but it is unknown whether it refers to the island. The Tamil term [[Eelam]] ({{Langx|ta|ஈழம்|translit=īḻam|engvar=in}}) was used to designate the whole island in [[Sangam literature]].[{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zS4OAQAAMAAJ |title=Encyclopedia of the world's minorities |last=Skutsch |first=Carl |date=2005 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-57958-470-2 |language=en |access-date=15 September 2017 |archive-date=31 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230331023929/https://books.google.com/books?id=zS4OAQAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=d_anEcoRJIQC&pg=PT105 |title=Autonomy and Ethnic Conflict in South and South-East Asia |last=Ganguly |first=Rajat |date=20 May 2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-31188-8 |language=en}}] The island was known [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura|under Chola rule]] as ''Mummudi Cholamandalam'' ("realm of the [[Three Crowned Kings|three crowned]] Cholas").[{{Cite book |title=Art of the Imperial Cholas |last=Dehejia |first=Vidya |date=18 October 1990 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=978-0-231-51524-5 |pages=51 |language=en}}]
[[Ancient Greek]] geographers called it ''[[Taprobana|Taprobanā]]'' ({{langx|grc|Ταπροβανᾶ}}) or ''Taprobanē'' ({{lang|grc|Ταπροβανῆ}})[{{cite web |url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/slm-taprobane.htm |title=In Search of Taprobane: the Western discovery and mapping of Ceylon |author=Abeydeera, Ananda |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151116/http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/slm-taprobane.htm |url-status=live }}] from the word ''Tambapanni''. The Arabs and Persians referred to it as ''Sarandīb'' (the origin of the word "[[serendipity]]") from [[Sanskrit]] ''Siṃhaladvīpaḥ''.[{{cite web |url=http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.0.hobson.994549 |title=Hobson-Jobson |publisher=Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu |date=1 September 2001 |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-date=27 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190227225430/http://dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/philologic/contextualize.pl?p.0.hobson.994549 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.thefreedictionary.com/serendipity |title=Serendipity – definition of serendipity by The Free Dictionary |publisher=Thefreedictionary.com |date=10 November 2017 |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-date=13 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181013192621/https://www.thefreedictionary.com/serendipity |url-status=live }}] ''Ceilão'', the name given to Sri Lanka by the Portuguese when they arrived in 1505,[{{cite web |last1=Rajasingham |first1=K. T. |title=Sri Lanka: The untold story |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/CH11Df02.html |website=[[Asia Times]] |access-date=25 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010814202127/http://atimes.com/ind-pak/CH11Df02.html |archive-date=14 August 2001 |date=11 August 2001 |url-status=usurped}}] was transliterated into English as ''Ceylon''.[{{cite web |url=http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html |title=Etymologies of Lanka, Serendib, Taprobane and Ceylon |author=Zubair, Lareef |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422115208/http://www.glue.umd.edu/~pkd/sl/facts/name_origin.html |archive-date=22 April 2007}}] As a British [[crown colony]], the island was known as Ceylon; it achieved independence as the [[Dominion of Ceylon]] in 1948.
The country is now known in Sinhala as ''{{transliteration|si|ISO|Śrī Laṅkā}}'' ({{langx|si|ශ්රී ලංකා}}) and in Tamil as ''{{transliteration|ta|ISO|Ilaṅkai}}'' ({{langx|ta|இலங்கை}}, {{IPA|ta|iˈlaŋɡaɪ|IPA}}). In 1972, its formal name was changed to "Free, Sovereign and Independent Republic of Sri Lanka". Later, on 7 September 1978, it was changed to the "Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka".[{{cite web |url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/srilanka/constitutions/1978%20Constitution.pdf |title=The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |publisher=University of Minnesota Human Rights Library |date=7 September 1978 |access-date=24 October 2020 |archive-date=2 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202031113/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/research/srilanka/constitutions/1978%20Constitution.pdf |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |title=Chapter I – The People, The State And Sovereignty |journal=The Constitution of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531083515/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |archive-date=31 May 2014 }}] As the name Ceylon still appears in the names of a number of organisations, the Sri Lankan government announced in 2011 a plan to rename all those over which it has authority.[{{cite news |author=Haviland, Charles |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12099596 |title=Sri Lanka erases colonial name, Ceylon |publisher=[[BBC]] |date=1 January 2011 |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=1 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180201204129/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12099596 |url-status=live }}]
== History ==
{{Main|History of Sri Lanka}}
=== Prehistory ===
{{Main|Prehistory of Sri Lanka}}
The pre-history of Sri Lanka goes back 125,000 years and possibly even as far back as 500,000 years.[{{cite web |author=Deraniyagala, Siran U. |title=Pre and Protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka |series=XIII U. I. S. P. P. Congress Proceedings – Forli, 8–14 September 1996 |work=International Union of Prehistoric and Protohistoric Sciences |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=20 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170820080625/http://lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html |url-status=live }}] The era spans the [[Palaeolithic]], [[Mesolithic]], and early [[Iron Age]]s. Among the Palaeolithic human settlements discovered in Sri Lanka, [[Fa Hien Cave|Pahiyangala]] (37,000 BP), named after the [[Chinese people|Chinese]] traveller [[Bhikkhu|monk]] [[Faxian]];[{{cite web |url=https://www.angelfire.com/in4/visitsl/prehistoric/pahiyagala/pahiyangala.htm |title=Pahiyangala (Fa-Hiengala) Caves |work=[[Angelfire]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=2 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902171134/http://www.angelfire.com/in4/visitsl/prehistoric/pahiyagala/pahiyangala.htm |url-status=live }}] [[Batadombalena]] (28,500 BP);[{{Cite book |author=Kennedy, Kenneth A.R., Disotell, T.W., Roertgen, J., Chiment, J., Sherry, J. |title=Ancient Ceylon 6: Biological anthropology of upper Pleistocene hominids from Sri Lanka: Batadomba Lena and Beli Lena caves |pages=165–265}}] and [[Belilena]] (12,000 BP) are the most important. In these caves, archaeologists have found the remains of [[anatomy|anatomically]] modern [[humans]] which they have named [[Balangoda Man]], and other evidence[{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|pp=6–7}}] suggesting that they may have engaged in [[agriculture]] and kept domestic dogs for driving game.[{{cite book |author=Deraniyagal, Siran |title=The Prehistory of Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Department of Archaeological Survey]] |year=1992 |place=[[Colombo]] | page=454 |isbn=978-955-9159-00-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZihuAAAAMAAJ}}]
The earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka were likely ancestors of the [[Vedda people]],[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |title=Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence |author=Deraniyagala, S.U. |work=lankalibrary.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105134736/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |url-status=live }}] an indigenous people numbering approximately 2,500 living in modern-day Sri Lanka.
During the protohistoric period (1000–500 BCE) Sri Lanka was culturally united with southern India,[{{cite web |url=https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30208096.ece |title=Reading the past in a more inclusive way – Interview with Dr. Sudharshan Seneviratne |work=[[Frontline (magazine)|Frontline]] (2006) |date=26 January 2006 |access-date=18 September 2020 |archive-date=26 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211126024531/https://frontline.thehindu.com/other/article30208096.ece |url-status=live }}] and shared the same megalithic burials, [[Black and red ware culture|pottery]], iron technology, farming techniques and [[megalithic graffiti symbols|megalithic graffiti]].[{{cite book |last=Seneviratne |first=Sudharshan |title=Social base of early Buddhism in south east India and Sri Lanka |date=1984}}][{{cite book |last=Karunaratne |first=Priyantha |title=Secondary state formation during the early iron age on the island of Sri Lanka : the evolution of a periphery |date=2010}}] This cultural complex spread from southern India along with Dravidian clans such as the [[Velir]], prior to the migration of [[Prakrit]] speakers.[Robin Conningham – Anuradhapura – The British-Sri Lankan Excavations at Anuradhapura Salgaha Watta
Volumes 1 and 2 (1999/2006)][{{Cite journal |last=Seneviratne |first=Sudarshan |year=1989 |title=Pre-state chieftains and servants of the state: a case study of Parumaka |url=http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/archive/handle/123456789/2078 |language=en |journal=The Sri Lanka Journal of the Humanities |access-date=19 February 2021 |archive-date=15 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815201049/http://dlib.pdn.ac.lk/archive/handle/123456789/2078 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |author=Keshavadas, Sant |title=Ramayana at a Glance |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1988 |isbn=978-81-208-0545-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3XIatVGyjmQC}}] It is said that Kubera was overthrown by his [[rakshasa]] stepbrother, [[Ravana]].[{{Cite book |author=Parker, H. |title=Ancient Ceylon |publisher=[[Asian Educational Services]] |year=1992 |page=7 |isbn=978-81-206-0208-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Nk8xpkY0bqEC}}]
=== Ancient history ===
{{Main|Pre-Anuradhapura period|Anuradhapura period}}
[[File:Ptolemy's Taprobana.jpg|thumb|left|[[Ptolemy's world map]] of Ceylon, first century CE, in a 1535 publication]]
According to the ''[[Mahāvaṃsa]]'', a [[Pali|Pāḷi]] chronicle written in the 5th century CE, the original inhabitants of Sri Lanka are said to be the [[Yaksha]]s and [[Naga people (Lanka)|Nagas]]. Sinhalese history traditionally starts in 543 BCE with the arrival of [[Prince Vijaya]], a semi-legendary prince who sailed with 700 followers to Sri Lanka, after being expelled from [[Vanga kingdom]] (present-day [[Bengal]]).[{{cite web |url=http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/06-coming-vijaya/ |title=The Coming of Vijaya |work=The Mahavamsa |date=8 October 2011 |access-date=16 October 2015 |archive-date=30 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151030084837/http://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/06-coming-vijaya/ |url-status=live }}] He established the [[Kingdom of Tambapanni]], near modern-day [[Mannar, Sri Lanka|Mannar]]. Vijaya (Singha) is the first of the approximately [[List of Sri Lankan monarchs|189 monarchs of Sri Lanka]] described in chronicles such as the ''[[Dīpavaṃsa]]'', ''Mahāvaṃsa'', ''[[Cūḷavaṃsa]]'', and ''Rājāvaliya''.[{{cite web |url=https://www.worldgenweb.org/lkawgw/gen3000.html |title=Vijaya (Singha) and the Lankan Monarchs – Family #3000 |work=[[Ancestry.com]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=24 February 2026 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20260224050205/https://www.worldgenweb.org/lkawgw/gen3000.html |url-status=live }}]
Once [[Prakrit]] speakers had attained dominance on the island, the ''[[Mahāvaṃsa]]'' further recounts the later migration of royal brides and service castes from the Tamil [[Pandya kingdom]] to the [[Anuradhapura kingdom]] in the early historic period.[{{cite web |url=https://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/07-consecrating-vijaya/ |title=The Consecrating of Vijaya |work=Mahavamsa |date=8 October 2011 |access-date=27 January 2021 |archive-date=20 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620071000/https://mahavamsa.org/mahavamsa/original-version/07-consecrating-vijaya/ |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Buda de Avukana - 01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|The [[Avukana Buddha statue]], a {{convert|12|m|ft|adj=mid|-tall}} standing Buddha statue from the reign of [[Dhatusena of Anuradhapura]], 5th century]]
The [[Anuradhapura period]] (377 BCE{{snd}}1017 CE) began with the establishment of the [[Anuradhapura kingdom]] in 380 BCE during the reign of [[Pandukabhaya]]. Thereafter, Anuradhapura served as the capital city of the country for nearly 1,400 years.[{{cite web |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040107085324/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/sites/anuradhapura.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 January 2004 |title=World Heritage site: Anuradhapura |work=worldheritagesite.org |access-date=15 July 2014 }}] Ancient Sri Lankans excelled at building certain types of [[Ancient constructions of Sri Lanka|structures]] such as [[Sri Lankan irrigation network|tanks]], [[Stupa|dagobas]] and palaces.[{{cite web |url=https://mysrilankaholidays.com/ancient-sinhalese-irrigation.html |title=Waterworld: Ancient Sinhalese Irrigation |work=mysrilankaholidays.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140626105945/http://www.mysrilankaholidays.com/ancient-sinhalese-irrigation.html |url-status=live }}] Society underwent a major transformation during the reign of [[Devanampiya Tissa]], with the arrival of Buddhism from India. In 250 BCE,[{{cite web |url=http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html#preface |title=Buddhism in Sri Lanka: A Short History |author=Perera H. R. |work=accesstoinsight.org |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=22 April 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070422013525/http://www.accesstoinsight.org/lib/authors/perera/wheel100.html#preface |url-status=live }}] [[Mahinda (Buddhist monk)|Mahinda]], a [[bhikkhu]] and the son of the [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan]] Emperor [[Ashoka]] arrived in [[Mihintale]] carrying the message of Buddhism.[{{cite book |author=Holt, John Clifford |contribution=Sri Lanka |year=2004 |title=Macmillan Encyclopedia of Buddhism |editor=Buswell, Robert E. Jr. |pages=795–799 |publisher=Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-8160-5459-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5dxCHAAACAAJ}}] His mission won over the monarch, who embraced the faith and propagated it throughout the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese population]].[{{cite web |url=http://mahavamsa.org/2008/05/king-devanampiya-tissa-306-bc/ |title=King Devanampiya Tissa (306 BC – 266 BC) |work=[[Mahāvaṃsa]] |date=28 May 2008 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=14 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814102643/http://mahavamsa.org/2008/05/king-devanampiya-tissa-306-bc/ |url-status=live }}]
Succeeding kingdoms of Sri Lanka would maintain many [[schools of Buddhism|Buddhist schools]] and monasteries and support the propagation of Buddhism into other countries in Southeast Asia. Sri Lankan Bhikkhus studied in India's famous ancient Buddhist University of [[Nalanda]], which was destroyed by [[Muhammad Bakhtiyar Khalji|Bakhtiyar Khalji]]. It is probable that many of the scriptures from Nalanda are preserved in Sri Lanka's many monasteries and that the written form of the [[Tripiṭaka]], including Sinhalese Buddhist literature, were part of the University of Nalanda.[{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |title=Buddhism in Sri Lanka |work=buddhanet.net |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=21 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221072955/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |url-status=live }}] In 245 BCE, [[bhikkhunī]] [[Sanghamitta]] arrived with the [[Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi]] tree, which is considered to be a sapling from the historical [[Bodhi Tree]] under which [[Gautama Buddha]] became enlightened.[{{Harvnb|Paw|p=6}}] It is considered the oldest human-planted tree (with a continuous historical record) in the world. ([[Bodhivaṃsa]])[{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=Julian |title=Plantation Forestry in the Tropics: Tree Planting for Industrial, Social, Environmental, and Agroforestry Purposes |date=1992 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=9780198542575 |page=26 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h1oF-88qKRsC |access-date=11 May 2022}}]
Sri Lanka experienced the first of many foreign invasions during the reign of [[Suratissa of Anuradhapura|Suratissa]], who was defeated by two horse traders named [[Sena and Guttika]] from South India.[{{cite web |title=The History of Ceylon |work=sltda.gov.lk |url=http://www.sltda.gov.lk/history |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808014733/http://www.sltda.gov.lk/history |archive-date=8 August 2014 }}] Sri Lankan monarchs undertook some remarkable construction projects such as [[Sigiriya]], the so-called "Fortress in the Sky", built during the reign of [[Kashyapa I]], who ruled between 477 and 495. The Sigiriya rock fortress is surrounded by an extensive network of ramparts and moats. Inside this protective enclosure were gardens, ponds, pavilions, palaces and other structures.[{{cite book |last=Ponnamperuma |first=Senani |title=Story of Sigiriya |year=2013 |publisher=Panique Pty Ltd |location=Melbourne |isbn=978-0-9873451-1-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=25zxmgEACAAJ}}][{{cite book |last=Bandaranayake |first=Senake |title=Sigiriya: City, Palace, and Royal Gardens |year=1999 |publisher=Central Cultural Fund, Ministry of Cultural Affairs |location=Colombo |isbn=978-955-613-111-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vw9uAAAAMAAJ}}]
In 993 CE, the invasion of [[Chola dynasty|Chola emperor]] [[Rajaraja I]] forced the then Sinhalese ruler [[Mahinda V]] to flee to the southern part of Sri Lanka. Taking advantage of this situation, [[Rajendra I]], son of Rajaraja I, launched a large invasion in 1017. Mahinda V was captured and taken to India, and the Cholas [[Chola conquest of Anuradhapura|sacked the city of Anuradhapura]] causing the fall of [[Anuradhapura kingdom]]. Subsequently, they moved the capital to [[Polonnaruwa]].[{{cite book |last=Siriweera |first=W. I. |title=A Study of the Economic History of Pre Modern Sri Lanka |publisher=Vikas Publishing House |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-7069-7621-2 |pages=44–45 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OubsAAAAMAAJ |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105344/https://books.google.com/books?id=OubsAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}]
=== Post-classical period ===
{{Main|Polonnaruwa period|Transitional period of Sri Lanka}}
Following a 17-year-long campaign, [[Vijayabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Vijayabahu I]] successfully drove the Chola out of Sri Lanka in 1070, reuniting the country for the first time in over a century.[Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html Ch. 4] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807212106/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap04.html |date=7 August 2016 }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |title=A Brief History of Sri Lanka |author=Lambert, Tim |work=localhistories.org |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=23 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723124255/http://www.localhistories.org/srilanka.html |url-status=live }}] Upon his request, ordained monks were sent from [[Burma]] to Sri Lanka to re-establish Buddhism, which had almost disappeared from the country during the Chola reign.[{{cite journal |title=Relations between Ceylon and Burma in the 11th Century AD |volume=23 |pages=93–95 |author=Bokay, Mon |journal=Artibus Asiae. Supplementum |year=1966 |publisher=Artibus Asiae Publishers |jstor=1522637 |doi=10.2307/1522637 |issn = 1423-0526 }}] During the mediaeval period, Sri Lanka was divided into three sub-territories, namely, [[Principality of Ruhuna|Ruhunu]], Pihiti and [[Maya Rata|Maya]].[{{cite web |url=http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievallanka/1153_1186_parakramabahu~i_Em.html |title=Ancient Irrigation Works |work=lakdiva.org |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102152939/http://lakdiva.org/coins/medievallanka/1153_1186_parakramabahu~i_Em.html |url-status=dead }}]
[[File:Gal Viharaya 02.jpg|thumb|The seated image of [[Gal Vihara]] in [[Polonnaruwa]], 12th century, which depicts the [[List of mudras (yoga)|dhyana mudra]], shows signs of [[Mahayana]] influence.]]
Sri Lanka's [[Sri Lankan irrigation network|irrigation system]] was extensively expanded during the reign of [[Parakramabahu I of Polonnaruwa|Parākramabāhu the Great]] (1153–1186).[{{cite book |title=Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution |author=Herath, R. B. |year=2002 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-55369-793-0 |quote=Parakramabahu 1 further extended the system to the highest resplendent peak of hydraulic civilization of the country's history. |page=19 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |url-status=live }}] This period is considered as a time when Sri Lanka was at the height of its power.[{{cite book |title=Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: Volume 7 |year=1875 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] for the Royal Asiatic Society |place=[[Cambridge]] |quote=... and when at the height of its prosperity, during the long and glorious reign of Parakramabahu the Great ... |page=152 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPo78i8KrlEC |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105344/https://books.google.com/books?id=rPo78i8KrlEC |url-status=live }}][{{cite journal |last=Beveridge |first=H. |year=1894 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA324 |title=The Site of Karna Suvarna |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |volume=62 |quote=His [Parakramabahu's] reign is described by Tumour as having been the most martial, enterprising, and glorious in Singhalese history. |page=324 |via=Google Books |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105344/https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA324#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}] He built 1,470 reservoirs – the highest number by any ruler in Sri Lanka's history – repaired 165 dams, 3,910 canals, 163 major reservoirs, and 2,376 mini-reservoirs.[{{cite web |url=http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-45.html |title=Parakrama Samudra |publisher=International Lake Environment Committee |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110605083015/http://www.ilec.or.jp/database/asi/asi-45.html |archive-date=5 June 2011}}] the largest irrigation project of mediaeval Sri Lanka. Parākramabāhu's reign is memorable for two major campaigns – in the south of India as part of a Pandyan war of succession, and a punitive strike against the kings of Ramanna ([[Myanmar|Burma]]) for various perceived insults to Sri Lanka.[{{cite web |url=http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en |title=ParakramaBahu I: 1153–1186 |work=lakdiva.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140204034638/http://srilankanheritage.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=28&Itemid=32&lang=en |archive-date=4 February 2014}}]
After his demise, Sri Lanka gradually decayed in power. In 1215, [[Kalinga Magha]], an invader with uncertain origins, identified as the founder of the Jaffna kingdom, invaded and captured the [[Kingdom of Polonnaruwa]]. He sailed from [[Kalinga (historical region)|Kalinga]][{{cite book |title=Sri Lankan Ethnic Crisis: Towards a Resolution |author=Herath, R.B. |year=2002 |publisher=Trafford Publishing |isbn=978-1-55369-793-0 |pages=18–21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=jzMCzJxJBpsC |url-status=live }}] 690 nautical miles on 100 large ships with a 24,000 strong army. Unlike previous invaders, he [[Looting|looted]], ransacked and destroyed everything in the ancient [[Anuradhapura kingdom|Anuradhapura]] and Polonnaruwa Kingdoms beyond recovery.[{{cite book |title=Security dilemma of a small state, Part 1 |author=Jayasekera, P.V.J. |year=1992 |publisher=Institute for International Studies [[University of Peradeniya]], Sri Lanka |place=[[Peradeniya]] |isbn=978-81-7003-148-2 |quote=..His invasion in 1215 was more or less a looting expedition.. |page=25 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ |access-date=29 September 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=VRngAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}] His priorities in ruling were to extract as much as possible from the land and overturn as many of the traditions of [[Rajarata]] as possible. His reign saw the massive migration of native [[Sinhalese people]] to the south and west of Sri Lanka, and into the mountainous interior, in a bid to escape his power.[Nadarajan, V ''History of Ceylon Tamils'', p. 72][Indrapala, K ''Early Tamil Settlements in Ceylon'', p. 16]
Sri Lanka never really recovered from the effects of Kalinga Magha's invasion. King Vijayabâhu III, who led the resistance, brought the kingdom to [[Kingdom of Dambadeniya|Dambadeniya]]. The north, in the meanwhile, eventually evolved into the [[Jaffna kingdom]].[{{cite book |author=Gnanaprakasar, Swamy |title=A Critical History of Jaffna |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2003 |place=[[New Delhi]] |page=122 |isbn=978-81-206-1686-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o9H53Sldfv8C |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=o9H53Sldfv8C |url-status=live }}] He ruled the North from 1450 to 1467 CE.[{{cite book |author=Holt, John Clifford |title=Buddha in the Crown: Avalokitesvara in the Buddhist Traditions of Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=1991 |page=304 |isbn=978-0-19-506418-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105345/https://books.google.com/books?id=eDbnCwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}]
The next three centuries starting from 1215 were marked by kaleidoscopically shifting collections of capitals in south and central Sri Lanka, including Dambadeniya, [[Yapahuwa]], [[Gampola]], [[Raigama]], [[Kingdom of Kotte|Kotte]],[Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap06.html Ch. 6] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071210180428/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap06.html |date=10 December 2007 }}] [[Kingdom of Sitawaka|Sitawaka]], and finally, [[Kingdom of Kandy|Kandy]]. In 1247, the Malay kingdom of [[Tambralinga]] which was a vassal of [[Sri Vijaya]] led by their king [[Chandrabhanu]][India's interaction with Southeast Asia, by Govind Chandra Pande p.286] briefly invaded Sri Lanka from [[Insular Southeast Asia]]. They were then expelled by the South Indian Pandyan dynasty.[{{Cite book |author=Craig J. Reynolds |title=Power, Protection and Magic in Thailand: The Cosmos of a Southern Policeman |publisher=ANU Press |year=2019 |pages=74–75}}] However, this temporary invasion reinforced the steady flow of the presence of various [[Austronesian people|Austronesian]] merchant ethnic groups, from [[Sri Lankan Malays|Sumatrans]] (Indonesia) to [[Philippines–Sri Lanka relations|Lucoes]] (Philippines) into Sri Lanka which occurred since 200 BCE.[[https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf "Astronesians Historical and Comparative Perspectives" Page 146] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524202017/https://press-files.anu.edu.au/downloads/press/p69411/pdf/book.pdf |date=24 May 2022 }} "Annual trade between China and India through the Malacca Straits had opened by about 200 BCE. Perhaps by that time Austronesian sailors were regularly carrying cloves and cinnamon to India and Sri Lanka, and perhaps even as far as the coast of Africa in boats with outriggers. Certainly they have left numerous traces in canoe design, rigs, outriggers and fishing techniques, and a mention in Greek literature (Christie 1957)."] Chinese admiral [[Zheng He]] and his naval expeditionary force landed at Galle, Sri Lanka in 1409 and got into [[Ming-Kotte War|battle]] with the local king [[Vira Alakesvara of Gampola]]. Zheng He captured King Vira Alakesvara and later released him.[{{cite web |publisher=Geoff Wade, 2005 |url=http://www.epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1778?hl=%22Zheng+He%22 |title=South East Aisa in Ming Shi-lu |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-date=23 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150623012455/http://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/entry/1778?hl=%22Zheng+He%22 |url-status=dead}}][{{cite magazine |magazine=National Geographic |url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0507/feature2/map.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071218063244/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0507/feature2/map.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 December 2007 |title=Voyages of Zheng He 1405–1433 |access-date=13 April 2015}}][{{cite web |publisher=Columbia University |url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |title=Ming Voyages |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-date=6 March 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100306203037/http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/special/china_1000ce_mingvoyages.htm |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |publisher=aramco world |url=https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.admiral.zheng.he.htm |title=Admiral Zheng He |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141031051234/https://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/200504/the.admiral.zheng.he.htm |archive-date=31 October 2014 |url-status=dead }}] Zheng He erected the [[Galle Trilingual Inscription]], a stone tablet at [[Galle]] written in three [[languages]] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], and [[Persian language|Persian]]), to commemorate his visit.[{{cite web |publisher=lankalibrary forum |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 |title=The trilingual inscription of Admiral Zheng He |access-date=13 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150620165307/http://www.lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=1022 |archive-date=20 June 2015 |url-status=dead}}][{{cite web |publisher=world heritage site |url=http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100412063521/http://www.worldheritagesite.org/tags/tag622.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 April 2010 |title=Zheng He |access-date=13 April 2015 }}] The [[stele]] was discovered by S. H. Thomlin at Galle in 1911 and is now preserved in the [[National Museum of Colombo|Colombo National Museum]].
=== Early modern period ===
{{Main|Kandyan period}}
{{See also|Portuguese Ceylon|Dutch Ceylon|British Ceylon}}
[[File:SpilbergenVimala.jpg|thumb|left|A 17th-century engraving of [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] explorer [[Joris van Spilbergen]] meeting with King Vimaladharmasuriya in 1602]]
[[File:Laor Sri Lanka Map (Cropped).jpg|thumb|left|alt=A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by Dutch cartographer [[Petrus Plancius]]|A 1595 map of Sri Lanka created by [[Dutch colonial empire|Dutch]] cartographer [[Petrus Plancius]]]]
The early modern period of Sri Lanka begins with the arrival of Portuguese soldier and explorer [[Lourenço de Almeida]], the son of [[Francisco de Almeida]], in 1505.[{{cite web |url=http://www.thondaman.org/srilankanhistory.html |title=Sri Lanka History |publisher=Thondaman Foundation |access-date=22 August 2011 |archive-date=11 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111082707/http://www.thondaman.org/srilankanhistory.html |url-status=live }}] In 1517, the Portuguese built a fort at the port city of [[Colombo]] and gradually extended their control over the coastal areas. In 1592, after decades of intermittent warfare with the Portuguese, [[Vimaladharmasuriya I]] moved his kingdom to the inland city of [[Kingdom of Kandy|Kandy]], a location he thought more secure from attack.[{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/2005/08/27/satmag1.html |title=King Wimaladharmasuriya |work=S.B. Karalliyadde – The Island |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126054442/http://www.island.lk/2005/08/27/satmag1.html |url-status=dead }}] In 1619, succumbing to attacks by the [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]], the independent existence of the [[Jaffna kingdom]] came to an end.[{{Cite book |author=Knox, Robert |author-link=Robert Knox (sailor) |year=1681 |title=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon |pages=19–47 |publisher=Reprint. Asian Educational Services |place=London |title-link=An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon}}]
During the reign of the [[Rajasinha II]], Dutch explorers arrived on the island. In 1638, the king signed a [[Kandyan Treaty of 1638|treaty]] with the [[Dutch East India Company]] to get rid of the Portuguese who ruled most of the coastal areas.[{{cite book |title=The Dutch in Ceylon: an account of their early visits to the island, their conquests, and their rule over the maritime regions during a century and a half |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h2mkUharg6AC |author=Anthonisz, Richard Gerald |publisher=Asian Educational Services |year=2003 |isbn=978-81-206-1845-9 |pages=37–43}}] The following [[Dutch–Portuguese War]] resulted in a Dutch victory, with Colombo falling into Dutch hands by 1656. The Dutch remained in the areas they had captured, thereby violating the treaty they had signed in 1638. The [[Burgher people]], a distinct ethnic group, emerged as a result of intermingling between the Dutch and native Sri Lankans in this period.[{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C |title=Being "Dutch" in the Indies: a history of creolisation and empire, 1500–1920 |author=Bosma, U. |publisher=University of Michigan |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-89680-261-2 |chapter=1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105859/https://books.google.com/books?id=47wCTCJX9X4C |url-status=live }}]
The Kingdom of Kandy was the last independent monarchy of Sri Lanka.[{{cite web |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/070304/KandyTimes/514_kt1.html |title=A kingdom is born, a kingdom is lost |work=The Sunday Times |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=24 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140724004438/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/070304/KandyTimes/514_kt1.html |url-status=live }}] In 1595, Vimaladharmasurya brought the sacred [[Relic of the tooth of the Buddha|Tooth Relic]]—the traditional symbol of royal and religious authority amongst the [[Sinhalese people|Sinhalese]]—to Kandy and built the [[Temple of the Tooth]].[{{cite book |title=Language, Religion, and Ethnic Assertiveness: The Growth of Sinhalese Nationalism in Sri Lanka |author=Dharmadasa, K.N.O. |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-472-10288-4 |pages=8–12 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NQrTmjpRcC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105900/https://books.google.com/books?id=x8NQrTmjpRcC |url-status=live }}] The new king was crowned [[Sri Vijaya Rajasinha]] later that year. Kings of the Nayakkar dynasty launched several attacks on Dutch controlled areas, which proved to be unsuccessful.[Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap09.html Ch. 9] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150613031731/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap09.html |date=13 June 2015 }}]
[[File:Sri Vikrama Rajasinha.jpg|thumb|upright=0.7|[[Sri Vikrama Rajasinha]] of Kandy, the last ruling native Sri Lankan monarch]]
During the [[French Revolutionary Wars]], fearing that French control of the Netherlands might deliver Sri Lanka to the French, the [[British Empire]] occupied the coastal areas of the island (which they called the colony of [[British Ceylon]]) with little difficulty in 1796.[{{cite web |url=http://www.colonialvoyage.com/trincomalee-first-british-occupation-definitive-dutch-surrender/|title=The first British occupation and the definitive Dutch surrender |work=colonialvoyage.com |date=18 February 2014 |access-date=11 October 2025 |archive-date=11 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011023258/http://www.colonialvoyage.com/trincomalee-first-british-occupation-definitive-dutch-surrender/ |url-status=live|publisher=Marco Ramerini}}] Two years later, in 1798, [[Sri Rajadhi Rajasinha]], third of the four Nayakkar kings of Sri Lanka, died of a fever. Following his death, a nephew of Rajadhi Rajasinha, eighteen-year-old Kannasamy, was crowned.[{{cite web |url=http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html |title=History of Sri Lanka and significant World events from 1796 AD to 1948 |work=scenicsrilanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055412/http://www.scenicsrilanka.com/history-of-sri-lanka-1948.html |archive-date=2 November 2013}}] The young king, now named [[Sri Vikrama Rajasinha]], faced a British invasion in 1803 but successfully retaliated. The First Kandyan War ended in a stalemate.[Codrington, [http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap11.html Ch. 11] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150621214254/http://lakdiva.org/codrington/chap11.html |date=21 June 2015 }}] The [[Kandyan Convention]] formally ceded the entire country to the British Empire. Attempts by Sri Lankan noblemen to undermine British power in 1818 during the [[Great Rebellion of 1817–1818|Uva Rebellion]] were thwarted by [[governors of British Ceylon|Governor]] [[Robert Brownrigg]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/keppetipola2.htm |title=Keppetipola and the Uva Rebellion |work=lankalibrary.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126125830/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/keppetipola2.htm |url-status=live }}]
The beginning of the modern period of Sri Lanka is marked by the [[Colebrooke–Cameron Commission|Colebrooke–Cameron reforms]] of 1833.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=115}}]
Soon, coffee became the primary commodity export of Sri Lanka. Falling coffee prices as a result of the [[Panic of 1847|depression of 1847]] stalled economic development and prompted the governor to introduce a series of taxes on firearms, dogs, shops, boats, etc., and to reintroduce a form of ''rajakariya'', requiring six days free labour on roads or payment of a cash equivalent.[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/gongalegoda.htm |title=Gongale Goda Banda (1809–1849) : The leader of the 1848 rebellion |work=Wimalaratne, K.D.G. |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126130118/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/gongalegoda.htm |url-status=live }}] A devastating leaf disease, ''[[Hemileia vastatrix]]'', struck the coffee plantations in 1869, destroying the entire industry within fifteen years.[{{cite book |author=Lennox A. Mills |title=Ceylon Under British Rule, 1795–1932 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YyHG9ZKl3bwC&pg=PA246 |year=1965|publisher=Psychology Press |page=246 |isbn=978-0-7146-2019-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105900/https://books.google.com/books?id=YyHG9ZKl3bwC&pg=PA246 |url-status=live }}] The British quickly found a replacement: abandoning coffee, they began cultivating tea instead. [[Tea production in Sri Lanka]] thrived in the following decades. Large-scale rubber plantations began in the early 20th century.
[[File:Kandyan Chiefs in 1905.JPG|upright=1.4|thumb|left|British appointed [[Native headmen of Ceylon|Kandyan chief headmen]] in 1905.]]
By the end of the 19th century, a new educated [[social class]] transcending race and [[caste]] arose through British attempts to staff the [[Ceylon Civil Service]] and the legal, educational, engineering, and medical professions with natives.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=116–117}}] New leaders represented the various ethnic groups of the population in the [[Legislative Council of Ceylon|Ceylon Legislative Council]] on a communal basis. Buddhist and Hindu revivalists reacted against [[Christian missionary]] activities.[{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q11ID2xfqD8C |author=Bond, George D. |title=The Buddhist revival in Sri Lanka: Religious tradition, reinterpretation and response |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publications |year=1992 |pages=11–22 |isbn=978-81-208-1047-1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Q11ID2xfqD8C |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.tamilweek.com/Cutting_edge_hindu_revivalism_0625.html |title=Cutting edge of Hindu revivalism in Jaffna |date=25 June 2006 |work=Balachandran, P.K. |access-date=18 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304134643/http://www.tamilweek.com/Cutting_edge_hindu_revivalism_0625.html |url-status=dead }}] The first two decades in the 20th century are noted by the unique harmony among Sinhalese and [[Tamils|Tamil]] political leadership, which has since been lost.[{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=387}}]
The [[1906 malaria outbreak in Ceylon]] actually started in the early 1900s, but the first case was documented in 1906.
In 1919, major Sinhalese and Tamil political organisations united to form the Ceylon National Congress, under the leadership of [[Ponnambalam Arunachalam]],[{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=386}}] pressing colonial masters for more constitutional reforms. But without massive popular support, and with the governor's encouragement for "communal representation" by creating a "Colombo seat" that dangled between Sinhalese and Tamils, the Congress lost momentum towards the mid-1920s.[{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|pp=389–395}}]
The [[Donoughmore Constitution|Donoughmore reforms]] of 1931 repudiated the communal representation and introduced [[Universal suffrage|universal adult franchise]] (the franchise stood at 4% before the reforms). This step was strongly criticised by the Tamil political leadership, who realised that they would be reduced to a minority in the newly created [[State Council of Ceylon]], which succeeded the legislative council.[{{cite web |url=https://tamilelibrary.org/teli/slhist.html |title=Chronology of events related to Tamils in Sri Lanka (1500–1948) |work=Hellmann-Rajanayagam, Dagmar |publisher=[[National University of Malaysia]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303194411/http://www.tamilelibrary.org/teli/slhist.html |url-status=live }}][{{Harvnb|De Silva|1981|p=423}}] In 1937, Tamil leader [[G. G. Ponnambalam]] demanded a 50–50 representation (50% for the Sinhalese and 50% for other ethnic groups) in the State Council. However, this demand was not met by the [[Soulbury Commission|Soulbury reforms]] of 1944–45.
=== Contemporary history ===
{{Main|History of Sri Lanka (1948–present)}}
{{See also|Sri Lankan independence movement|Sri Lankan Civil War}}
[[File:SL Independence.jpg|thumb|The formal ceremony marking the start of self-rule, with the opening of the first parliament at [[Independence Square, Colombo|Independence Square]]]]
[[File:J. R. Jayawardene, President of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka on June 20, 1984.jpg|thumb|197x197px|J. R. Jayewardene was the most influential political figure of Sri Lanka in the 1970s and 1980s.]]
The Soulbury constitution ushered in [[Dominion of Ceylon|dominion status]], with independence proclaimed on 4 February 1948.[{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/21.htm |title=Sinhalese Parties |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 April 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401001002/http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/21.htm |url-status=live }}] [[Don Stephen Senanayake|D. S. Senanayake]] became the first [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka|Prime Minister of Ceylon]].[{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/68.htm |title=Sinhalese Parties |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=21 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140821135521/http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/68.htm |url-status=live }}] Prominent [[Tamils|Tamil]] leaders including Ponnambalam and [[Arunachalam Mahadeva]] joined his cabinet.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=121–122}}] The [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy]] remained stationed at [[Trincomalee]] until 1956. A countrywide [[1953 Ceylonese Hartal|popular demonstration]] against withdrawal of the rice rations resulted in the resignation of prime minister [[Dudley Senanayake]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/2008/08/16/satmag1.html |title=Bandaranaike and Hartal of 1953 |author=Weerakoon, Batty |work=The Island |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126054816/http://www.island.lk/2008/08/16/satmag1.html |url-status=dead }}]
[[S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike]] was elected prime minister in 1956. His three-year rule had a profound influence through his self-proclaimed role of "defender of the besieged Sinhalese culture".[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=123}}] He introduced the controversial [[Sinhala Only Act]], recognising [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] as the only official language of the government. Although partially reversed in 1958, the bill posed a grave concern for the Tamil community, which perceived in it a threat to their language and culture.[{{Cite book |author=Ganguly, Šumit |editor=Brown, Michael E. |title=Fighting Words: language policy and ethnic relations in Asia |publisher=The MIT Press |year=2003 |pages=136–138 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC |isbn=978-0-262-52333-2 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105901/https://books.google.com/books?id=fcoDezu1ABoC |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |editor1=Schmid, Bettina |editor2=Schroeder, Ingo |title=Anthropology of Violence and Conflict |publisher=Routledge |year=2001 |page=185 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rx-1MdUlzaUC |isbn=978-0-415-22905-0 |access-date=15 July 2014}}][{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka Profile |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12004081 |work=BBC News |date=5 November 2013 |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=14 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614231749/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12004081 |url-status=live }}]
The [[Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi|Federal Party]] (FP) launched a movement of non-violent resistance ([[satyagraha]]) against the bill, which prompted Bandaranaike to reach an agreement ([[Bandaranaike–Chelvanayakam Pact]]) with [[S. J. V. Chelvanayakam]], leader of the FP, to resolve the looming ethnic conflict.[{{cite book |author=Peebles, Patrick |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SxO0eISluqEC |title=The History of Sri Lanka |publisher=Greenwood Press |date=2006 |pages=109–111 |isbn=978-0-313-33205-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105903/https://books.google.com/books?id=SxO0eISluqEC |url-status=live }}] The pact proved ineffective in the face of ongoing protests by opposition and the Buddhist clergy. The bill, together with various government [[Sri Lankan state-sponsored colonisation schemes|colonisation schemes]], contributed much towards the political rancour between Sinhalese and Tamil political leaders.[{{cite web |title=Staff profile: Jonathan Spencer |publisher=University of Edinburgh |url=http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/staff/social_anthropology/spencer_jonathan |access-date=15 July 2014 |author-link=University of Edinburgh |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808052143/http://www.sps.ed.ac.uk/staff/social_anthropology/spencer_jonathan |url-status=dead }}] Bandaranaike was [[S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike#Assassination|assassinated]] by an extremist Buddhist monk in 1959.[{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/Cl01Df05.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011220212820/http://atimes.com/ind-pak/Cl01Df05.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=20 December 2001 |title=Sri Lanka: The untold story – Assassination of Bandaranaike |work=Rajasingham, K. T. |year=2002 |access-date=15 July 2014}}]
{{multiple image |total_width=220
|title = Leaders in 1960
| align = left
| caption_align = center
| image1 = Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II (1959).jpg
|caption1=[[Elizabeth II]]
[[Monarchy of Ceylon (1948–1972)|Queen of Ceylon]]
|image2= Sirimavo Bandaranaike, Prime Minister of Ceylon 1960 (cropped).PNG
|caption2=[[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]]
Prime Minister
|footer=1960 saw the election of Sirimavo Bandaranaike as Ceylon's Prime Minister and the first time in world history that the heads of both state and government in a country were female.
}}
[[Sirimavo Bandaranaike]], the widow of Bandaranaike, took office as prime minister in 1960, and withstood an [[1962 Ceylonese coup d'état attempt|attempted coup d'état]] in 1962. During her second term as prime minister, the government instituted socialist economic policies, strengthening ties with the [[Soviet Union]] and China, while promoting a policy of non-alignment. In 1971, Ceylon experienced a [[1971 JVP insurrection|Marxist insurrection]], which was quickly suppressed. In 1972, the country became a [[republic]] named Sri Lanka, repudiating its dominion status. Prolonged minority grievances and the use of communal emotionalism as an election campaign weapon by both Sinhalese and Tamil leaders abetted a fledgling Tamil militancy in the north during the 1970s.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|pp=128–129}}] The [[policy of standardisation]] by the Sirimavo government to rectify disparities created in university enrolment, which was in essence an [[affirmative action]] to assist geographically disadvantaged students to obtain tertiary education,[{{cite web |url=http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-kmdesilva.PDF |pages=248–254 |title=Affirmative Action Policies: The Sri Lankan Experience |author1=De Silva |author2=K. M. |date=July 1997 |publisher=International Centre for Ethnic Studies |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930154652/http://www.ices.lk/publications/esr/articles_jul97/Esr-kmdesilva.PDF |archive-date=30 September 2011}}] resulted in reducing the proportion of Tamil students at university level and acted as the immediate catalyst for the rise of militancy.[{{cite book |author=Jayasuriya, J.E. |title=Education in the Third World |publisher=Indian Institute of Education |year=1981 |place=[[Pune]] | oclc=7925123}}][{{cite web |url=http://tamilnation.co/forum/sivaram/940508eelam_history.htm |title=The Exclusive Right to Write Eelam History |author=Taraki Sivaram |date=May 1994 |publisher=Tamil Nation |author-link=Taraki Sivaram |access-date=20 August 2011 |archive-date=19 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119055553/http://tamilnation.co/forum/sivaram/940508eelam_history.htm |url-status=live }}] The assassination of [[Jaffna]] [[Mayor]] [[Alfred Duraiyappah]] in 1975 by the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam]] (LTTE) marked a crisis point.[{{Cite book |author=Hoffman, Bruce |title=Inside Terrorism |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |place=New York |year=2006 |page=139 |isbn=978-0-231-12699-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ayrAgAAQBAJ |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105902/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ayrAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.padippakam.com/document/srilankan_gov/gov002.pdf |title=International and Regional Implications of the Sri Lankan Tamil Insurgency |author=Rohan Gunaratna |date=December 1998 |author-link=Rohan Gunaratna |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=1 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160101122924/http://www.padippakam.com/document/srilankan_gov/gov002.pdf |url-status=live }}]
The government of [[J. R. Jayawardene]] swept to power in 1977, defeating the [[United Front (Sri Lanka)|United Front]] government.[{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DA26Df04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020213090010/http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DA26Df04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=13 February 2002 |title=Tamil militancy – a manifestation |author=Rajasingham, K.T. |year=2002 |access-date=15 July 2014}}] Jayawardene introduced a [[Constitution of Sri Lanka|new constitution]], together with a [[free-market economy]] and a powerful [[Executive president|executive presidency]] modelled after that of France. It made Sri Lanka the first [[South Asia]]n country to [[Liberalism|liberalise]] its economy.[{{cite news |title=Remembering Sri Lanka's Black July – BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23402727 |website=BBC News |access-date=20 October 2015 |date=23 July 2013 |archive-date=22 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322023421/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-23402727 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2010/04/27/the-black-july-1983-that-created-a-collective-trauma/ |title=The Black July 1983 that Created a Collective Trauma |work=Jayatunge, Ruwan M. |publisher=LankaWeb |year=2010 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=3 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703213952/http://www.lankaweb.com/news/items/2010/04/27/the-black-july-1983-that-created-a-collective-trauma/ |url-status=live }}]
Lapses in foreign policy resulted in India strengthening the Tigers by providing arms and training.[{{cite news |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/970119/plus4.html |title=LTTE: the Indian connection |newspaper=Sunday Times |year=1997 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=15 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140915053716/http://sundaytimes.lk/970119/plus4.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971212/34650923.html |title=Uppermost in our minds was to save the Gandhis' name |newspaper=Express India |year=1997 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811204127/http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19971212/34650923.html |archive-date=11 August 2007}}][{{cite web |url=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2009/07/for-firmer-and-finer-international.html |title=For firmer and finer International Relations |work=Wijesinghe, Sarath |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201181154/http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2009/07/for-firmer-and-finer-international.html |url-status=live }}] In 1987, the [[Indo-Sri Lanka Accord]] was signed and the [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] (IPKF) was deployed in northern Sri Lanka to stabilise the region by neutralising the LTTE.[{{Cite journal |author=Stokke, K. |author2=Ryntveit, A.K. |year=2000 |title=The Struggle for Tamil Eelam in Sri Lanka |journal=Growth and Change: A Journal of Urban and Regional Policy |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=285–304 |doi=10.1111/0017-4815.00129|bibcode=2000GroCh..31..285S }}] The same year, the [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna|JVP]] launched its [[1987–89 JVP Insurrection|second insurrection]] in Southern Sri Lanka,[{{Cite book |author=Gunaratna, Rohan |title=Sri Lanka's Ethnic Crisis and National Security |publisher=South Asian Network on Conflict Research |place=[[Colombo]] |year=1998 |page=353 |isbn=978-955-8093-00-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnhAAAACAAJ |author-link=Rohan Gunaratna |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106105902/https://books.google.com/books?id=YpnhAAAACAAJ |url-status=live }}] necessitating redeployment of the IPKF in 1990.[{{cite web |url=http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020416181258/http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/DC09Df04.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=16 April 2002 |title=Chapter 30: Whirlpool of violence, Sri Lanka: The Untold Story |work=Asia Times |year=2002 |access-date=15 July 2014}}] In October 1990, the LTTE [[Expulsion of Muslims from the Northern province by LTTE|expelled Sri Lankan Moors]] (Muslims by religion) from northern Sri Lanka.[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2008/11/35271_space.html |title=1990, The War Year if Ethnic Cleansing of the Muslims From North and the East of Sri Lanka |publisher=lankanewspapers.com |year=2008 |access-date=21 May 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012159/http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2008/11/35271_space.html |archive-date=5 March 2016 }}] In 2002, the Sri Lankan government and LTTE signed a Norwegian-mediated ceasefire agreement.[{{cite web | title=US presidents in tsunami aid plea | website=BBC News | date=3 January 2005 | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4143459.stm#map | access-date=20 December 2021 | archive-date=20 December 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211220175054/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4143459.stm#map | url-status=live }}]
From 1985 to 2006, the Sri Lankan government and Tamil insurgents held four rounds of peace talks without success. Both LTTE and the government resumed fighting in 2006, and the government officially backed out of the ceasefire in 2008.[{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |title=Sri Lanka declares end to war with Tamil Tigers |work=The Guardian |date=19 May 2009 |access-date=18 August 2011 |location=London |first1=Matthew |last1=Weaver |first2=Gethin |last2=Chamberlain |archive-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906141729/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |last1=McDonald |first1=Mark |title=Tamil Tigers Confirm Death of Their Leader |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/26/world/asia/26lanka.html |access-date=11 April 2022 |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=25 May 2009 |archive-date=11 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411014251/https://www.nytimes.com/2009/05/26/world/asia/26lanka.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news|date=24 May 2009|title=Tamil Tigers confirm leader's death|work=[[Al Jazeera English]]|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2009/05/2009524124042406562.html|access-date=24 May 2009|archive-date=25 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525011712/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/asia/2009/05/2009524124042406562.html|url-status=live}}][{{cite news|date=24 May 2009|title=Tamil Tigers admit leader is dead|work=[[BBC News]]|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8066129.stm|access-date=24 May 2009|archive-date=25 May 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090525011643/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/8066129.stm|url-status=live}}] and re-established control of the entire country by the Sri Lankan Government.[{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |title=Sri Lanka declares end to war with Tamil Tigers |work=The Guardian |date=19 May 2009 |place=London |first1=Matthew |last1=Weaver |first2=Gethin |last2=Chamberlain |access-date=16 December 2016 |archive-date=6 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130906141729/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/may/18/tamil-tigers-killed-sri-lanka |url-status=live }}] Overall, between 60,000 and 100,000 people were killed during the course of the 26 year long conflict.[{{cite news |title=Up to 100,000 killed in Sri Lanka's civil war: UN |url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524 |newspaper=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation|ABC Australia]] |date=20 May 2009 |access-date=17 October 2015 |archive-date=23 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180923153656/http://www.abc.net.au/news/2009-05-20/up-to-100000-killed-in-sri-lankas-civil-war-un/1689524 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/srilanka/index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=sri%20lanka&st=cse |work=[[The New York Times]] |first=Erik |last=Olsen |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=4 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140804092738/http://topics.nytimes.com/top/news/international/countriesandterritories/srilanka/index.html?scp=1-spot&sq=sri%20lanka&st=cse |url-status=live }}]
[[2019 Sri Lanka Easter bombings]] carried out by the terrorist group [[National Thowheeth Jama'ath]] on 21 April 2019 killed 261 people.[{{Cite web|url=http://www.sundaytimes.lk/190428/columns/easter-sunday-massacres-where-do-we-go-from-here-347090.html|title=Easter Sunday massacres: Where do we go from here?|access-date=12 March 2023|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428182021/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/190428/columns/easter-sunday-massacres-where-do-we-go-from-here-347090.html|url-status=live}}] On 26 April 2019 an anti [[Sainthamaruthu shootout|terrorist operation]] was carried out against the National Thowheeth Jama'ath by the [[Sri Lanka Army]] with the operation being successful and National Thowheeth Jama'ath's insurgency ending.[{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-blasts-hospital-idUSKCN1S5113|title=Wife, daughter of Sri Lanka bombings mastermind will survive blast:...|newspaper=Reuters|date=29 April 2019|access-date=24 May 2019|via=www.reuters.com|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521204214/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-sri-lanka-blasts-hospital-idUSKCN1S5113|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|url=http://www.adaderana.lk/news/54693/15-bodies-including-children-found-at-blast-site-in-sainthamaruthu|title=15 bodies including children found at blast site in Sainthamaruthu|website=adaderana.lk|access-date=24 May 2019|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428081702/http://www.adaderana.lk/news/54693/15-bodies-including-children-found-at-blast-site-in-sainthamaruthu|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|url=http://www.hirunews.lk/215282/15-bodies-found-from-site-of-shootout-and-explosions-in-saindamaradu6-suicide-bombers-among-them|title=15 bodies found from site of shootout and explosions in Saindamaradu;6 Suicide bombers among them|website=Hiru News|access-date=29 April 2019|archive-date=28 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190428081706/http://www.hirunews.lk/215282/15-bodies-found-from-site-of-shootout-and-explosions-in-saindamaradu6-suicide-bombers-among-them|url-status=live}}]
[[File:Anti-government protest in Sri Lanka 2022.jpg|thumb|[[2022 Sri Lankan protests|Sri Lankans protesting]] in front of the [[Presidential Secretariat (Sri Lanka)|Presidential Secretariat]] in Colombo, 13 April 2022]]
Economic troubles in Sri Lanka began in 2019, when a [[2019–present Sri Lankan economic crisis|severe economic crisis]] occurred caused by rapidly increasing foreign debt, massive government budget deficits due to tax cuts, falling foreign remittances, a food crisis caused by mandatory organic farming along with a ban on chemical fertilisers, and a multitude of other factors.[{{Cite web |date=23 April 2022 |title=Everything to Know About Sri Lanka's Economic Crisis |url=https://www.borgenmagazine.com/sri-lankas-economic-crisis/ |access-date=15 May 2022 |website=BORGEN |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519130407/https://www.borgenmagazine.com/sri-lankas-economic-crisis/ |url-status=live }}] The Sri Lankan Government officially declared the ongoing crisis to be the worst [[Economy of Sri Lanka|economic crisis in the country]] in 73 years.[{{Cite web |date=30 April 2021 |title=Sri Lanka declares worst economic downturn in 73 years |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210430-sri-lanka-declares-worst-economic-downturn-in-73-years |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015180503/https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20210430-sri-lanka-declares-worst-economic-downturn-in-73-years |archive-date=15 October 2021 |access-date=27 June 2021 |website=France 24 |language=en}}] In August 2021, a food emergency was declared.[{{Cite web |date=31 August 2021 |others=Agence France-Presse |title=Sri Lanka declares food emergency as forex crisis worsens |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/sri-lanka-declares-food-emergency-forex-crisis-1847478-2021-08-31 |access-date=6 April 2022 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=6 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220406094041/https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/sri-lanka-declares-food-emergency-forex-crisis-1847478-2021-08-31 |url-status=live }}] In June 2022, Prime Minister [[Ranil Wickremesinghe]] declared the collapse of the Sri Lankan economy in parliament.[{{Cite web |title=Sri Lanka's PM says its debt-laden economy has 'collapsed' |url=https://news.sky.com/story/sri-lankas-pm-says-its-debt-laden-economy-has-collapsed-12638329 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622094829/https://news.sky.com/story/sri-lankas-pm-says-its-debt-laden-economy-has-collapsed-12638329 |archive-date=22 June 2022 |access-date=22 June 2022 |website=Sky News |language=en}}] The crisis resulted in Sri Lanka defaulting on its $51 billion sovereign debt for the first time in its history, along with double-digit inflation, a crippling energy crisis that led to approximately 15 hour power cuts, severe fuel shortages leading to the suspension of fuel to all non-essential vehicles, and more such economic disorder.[{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka becomes first Asia-Pacific country in decades to default on foreign debt |url=https://www.newswire.lk/2022/05/19/sri-lanka-becomes-first-asia-pacific-country-in-decades-to-default-on-foreign-debt/ |access-date=19 May 2022 |work=NewsWire |date=19 May 2022 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519121627/https://www.newswire.lk/2022/05/19/sri-lanka-becomes-first-asia-pacific-country-in-decades-to-default-on-foreign-debt/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |date=11 April 2022 |title=Sri Lanka to reduce power cut duration from April 18 as rains start – PUCSL |url=https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-to-reduce-power-cut-duration-from-april-18-as-rains-start-pucsl-92927 |access-date=28 April 2022 |website=EconomyNext |language=en |archive-date=6 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706194528/https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-to-reduce-power-cut-duration-from-april-18-as-rains-start-pucsl-92927/ |url-status=live }}] Due to the crisis, massive [[2022 Sri Lankan protests|street protests]] erupted all over the country, with protesters demanding the resignation of the President [[Gotabaya Rajapaksa]]. The protests culminated with the storming and siege of the [[President's House, Colombo|President's House]] on 9 July 2022, and resulted in President Gotabaya Rajapaksa fleeing to Singapore[{{Cite web|date=9 July 2022|title=Sri Lanka protesters break into President's House as thousands rally|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/09/asia/sri-lanka-protest-president-saturday-intl-hnk/index.html|access-date=9 July 2022|website=CNN|archive-date=15 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715132642/https://www.cnn.com/2022/07/09/asia/sri-lanka-protest-president-saturday-intl-hnk/index.html|url-status=live}}] and later emailing his resignation to parliament, formally announcing his resignation and making him the first Sri Lankan president to resign in the middle of his term.[{{cite news |title=President Gotabaya Rajapaksa Resigns – letter sent to Speaker of Parliament |url=https://www.hirunews.lk/english/309987/president-gotabaya-rajapaksa-resigns-letter-sent-to-speaker-of-parliament |access-date=14 July 2022 |work=Hiru News |date=14 July 2022 |archive-date=14 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714134628/https://www.hirunews.lk/english/309987/president-gotabaya-rajapaksa-resigns-letter-sent-to-speaker-of-parliament |url-status=live }}] On the same day the President's House was stormed, protesters besieged and stormed the [[115 Fifth Lane|private residence of the prime minister]] and burnt it down.[{{Cite web |date=9 July 2022 |title=Sri Lankan crisis: Protesters set PM Ranil Wickremesinghe's residence on fire |url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/protesters-set-sri-lankan-pm-ranil-wickremesinghe-s-residence-on-fire-101657381849320.html |access-date=9 July 2022 |website=Hindustan Times News |language=en |archive-date=13 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220713064308/https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/protesters-set-sri-lankan-pm-ranil-wickremesinghe-s-residence-on-fire-101657381849320.html |url-status=live }}]
After [[Parliament of Sri Lanka|Parliament]] elected the new president as [[Ranil Wickremesinghe]] on [[2022 Sri Lankan presidential election|20 July 2022]], Wickremesinghe took oath as the ninth President of Sri Lanka.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/ranil-wickremesinghe-takes-oath-as-sri-lankan-president-video-1978092-2022-07-21|title=Ranil Wickremesinghe takes oath as President of Sri Lanka|website=indiatoday.in|date=21 July 2022|access-date=29 July 2023|archive-date=25 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325190951/https://www.indiatoday.in/world/story/ranil-wickremesinghe-takes-oath-as-sri-lankan-president-video-1978092-2022-07-21|url-status=live}}] He implemented various economic reforms in efforts to stabilise Sri Lanka's economy, which has shown slight improvement since.[{{cite news | url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-cuts-policy-rates-to-reduce-inflation-and-boost-economic-recovery/article66919025.ece | title=Sri Lanka cuts policy rates to reduce inflation and boost economic recovery | newspaper=The Hindu | date=June 2023 | access-date=6 October 2023 | archive-date=27 September 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230927194156/https://www.thehindu.com/news/international/sri-lanka-cuts-policy-rates-to-reduce-inflation-and-boost-economic-recovery/article66919025.ece | url-status=live }}][{{Cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2024/03/01/022224oped-srilanka-economic-reform-program-is-starting-to-work|title=Sri Lanka's Economic Reform Program is Starting to Work—Keep at It for a Full Recovery|website=IMF}}] On 23 September 2024, [[Anura Kumara Dissanayake]] was sworn in as Sri Lanka's new president after winning the presidential [[2024 Sri Lankan presidential election|election]] as a left-wing candidate.[{{cite news |title=Anura Kumara Dissanayake sworn in as Sri Lanka's president |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cqxr03x4dvzo |work=www.bbc.com}}] On 14 November 2024, President Anura Kumara Dissanayake's [[National People's Power]] (NPP), a left-leaning alliance, received a two-thirds majority in parliament in Sri Lankan [[2024 Sri Lankan parliamentary election|parliamentary election.]][{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka: Left-leaning leader's coalition secures landslide victory |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/crr9n2w0lyzo |work=www.bbc.com}}]
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Topography Sri Lanka.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A roughly oval island with a mountainous centre|Topographic map of Sri Lanka]]
Sri Lanka, an island in [[South Asia]], lies on the [[Indian Plate]], a major [[plate tectonics|tectonic plate]] that was formerly part of the [[Indo-Australian Plate]].[{{cite web |author1=Seth Stein |title=The January 26, 2001 Bhuj Earthquake and the Diffuse Western Boundary of the Indian Plate |url=https://www.earth.northwestern.edu/public/emile/PDF/EAO147.pdf |website=earth.northwestern.edu |access-date=16 November 2018 |archive-date=11 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411211629/https://www.earth.northwestern.edu/public/emile/PDF/EAO147.pdf |url-status=live }}] It is in the Indian Ocean southwest of the [[Bay of Bengal]], between latitudes [[5th parallel north|5°]] and [[10th parallel north|10° N]], and longitudes [[79th meridian east|79°]] and [[82nd meridian east|82° E]].[{{cite web |url=http://jyotisha.00it.com/Lankaco.htm |title=Geographic Coordinates for Sri Lanka Towns and Villages |publisher=jyotisha.00it.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=20 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140720060903/http://jyotisha.00it.com/Lankaco.htm |url-status=live }}] Sri Lanka is separated from the mainland portion of the [[Indian subcontinent]] by the [[Gulf of Mannar]] and [[Palk Strait]]. According to [[Hindu mythology]], a land bridge existed between the Indian mainland and Sri Lanka. It now amounts to only a [[Adam's Bridge|chain of limestone shoals]] remaining above [[sea level]].[{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6996621.stm |title=Gods row minister offers to quit |publisher=BBC |date=15 September 2007 |access-date=16 September 2007 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205062935/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6996621.stm |url-status=live }}] Legends claim that it was passable on foot up to 1480 CE, until [[cyclone]]s deepened the channel.[{{cite book |author=Garg, Ganga Ram |title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World |volume=A–Aj |year=1992 |publisher=South Asia Books |place=New Delhi |isbn=978-81-261-3489-2 |page=142 |chapter=Adam's Bridge}}][{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jul/04spec.htm |title=Ramar Sethu, a world heritage centre? |work=Rediff.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=14 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140214082353/http://www.rediff.com/news/2007/jul/04spec.htm |url-status=live }}] Portions are still as shallow as {{convert|1|m|ft|sigfig=1}}, hindering navigation.[{{cite encyclopedia |title=Adam's Bridge |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Adams-Bridge |access-date=21 December 2015 |archive-date=13 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113002452/https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9003680 |url-status=live }}] The island consists mostly of flat to rolling coastal plains, with mountains rising only in the south-central part. The highest point is [[Pidurutalagala]], reaching {{convert|2524|m|ft|0}} above sea level.
[[File:Sri Paada1.JPG|thumb|A view of [[Adam's Peak|Sripada]] from [[Maskeliya]]]]
Sri Lanka has 103 rivers. The longest of these is the [[Mahaweli River]], extending {{convert|335|km|mi|0}}.[{{Cite book |author=Aves, Edward |year=2003 |title=Sri Lanka |publisher=Footprint Travel Guides |page=372 |place=London |isbn=978-1-903471-78-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E_kbgCvVm4UC}}] These waterways give rise to 51 natural waterfalls of {{convert|10|m}} or more. The highest is [[Bambarakanda Falls]], with a height of {{convert|263|m|ft|0}}.[{{cite web |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka |title=Introducing Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=17 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717232921/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka |url-status=live }}] Sri Lanka's coastline is {{cvt|1,585|km}} long.[{{cite web |url=http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf |page=86 |title=Depletion of coastal resources |publisher=[[United Nations Environment Programme]] | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331091614/http://www.rrcap.unep.org/pub/soe/srilanka_coastal.pdf |archive-date=31 March 2012 }}] Sri Lanka claims an [[exclusive economic zone]] extending 200 [[nautical mile]]s, which is approximately 6.7 times Sri Lanka's land area. The coastline and adjacent waters support highly productive marine ecosystems such as [[Fringing reef|fringing]] [[coral reef]]s and shallow beds of coastal and [[Estuary|estuarine]] [[seagrass]]es.[{{cite web |url=https://www.fao.org/docrep/X5627E/x5627e09.htm |title=5 Coral Reefs of Sri Lanka: Current Status And Resource Management |publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=7 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180307052654/http://www.fao.org/docrep/x5627e/x5627e09.htm |url-status=live }}]
Sri Lanka has 45 [[Estuary|estuaries]] and 40 [[lagoon]]s.[{{cite web |url=http://www.elanguages.org/files/144094 |title=Information Brief on Mangroves in Sri Lanka |publisher=[[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126103137/http://www.elanguages.org/files/144094 |url-status=dead }}] The island is rich in minerals such as [[ilmenite]], [[feldspar]], [[graphite]], [[silica]], [[kaolin]], [[mica]] and [[thorium]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?country=lk&product=graphite&graph=production |title=Sri Lanka Graphite Production by Year |publisher=indexmundi.com |year=2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150205010400/http://www.indexmundi.com/minerals/?country=lk&product=graphite&graph=production |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/node/13747 |title=Availability of sizeable deposits of thorium in Sri Lanka |work=[[Tissa Vitharana]] | year=2008 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224104852/http://www.asiantribune.com/node/13747 |url-status=dead}}] Existence of [[petroleum]] and gas in the Gulf of Mannar has also been confirmed, and the extraction of recoverable quantities is underway.[{{cite web |url=http://www.prds-srilanka.com/pdfs/Sri_Lanka_Seismic_EIA_Final_Report.pdf |pages=iv–vii |title=Three Dimensional Seismic Survey for Oil Exploration in Block SL-2007-01-001 in Gulf of Mannar–Sri Lanka |publisher=Cairn Lanka |year=2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126072118/http://www.prds-srilanka.com/pdfs/Sri_Lanka_Seismic_EIA_Final_Report.pdf |url-status=usurped }}]
=== Climate ===
{{See also|Geography of Sri Lanka#Climate}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map LKA present.svg|thumb|left|Sri Lanka map of Köppen climate classification]]
[[File:Water_stress,_top_countries_(2022).svg|thumb|Sri Lanka was the nineteenth most water-stressed country in the world in 2022.]]
The climate is [[Tropical climate|tropical]] and warm because of moderating effects of ocean winds. Mean temperatures range from {{convert|17|°C|°F|1}} in the [[Central Highlands of Sri Lanka|Central Highlands]], where frost may occur for several days in the winter, to a maximum of {{convert|33|C|F|1|abbr=on}} in low-altitude areas. Average yearly temperatures range from {{convert|28|°C|°F|1|abbr=on}} to nearly {{convert|31|°C|°F|1|abbr=on}}. Day and night temperatures may vary by {{convert|14|C-change|F-change|0|abbr=on}} to {{convert|18|C-change|F-change|0|abbr=on}}.[{{cite web |url=http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/climate.htm |title=Climate & Seasons: Sri Lanka |website=mysrilanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010151923/http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/climate.htm |url-status=live }}]
The rainfall pattern is influenced by [[monsoon]] winds from the Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal. The "wet zone" and some of the windward slopes of the central highlands receive up to {{convert|2500|mm|in|1}} of rain each year, but the leeward slopes in the east and northeast receive little rain. Most of the east, southeast, and northern parts of Sri Lanka constitute the "dry zone", which receives between {{convert|1200|and|1900|mm|in|abbr=on}} of rain annually.[{{cite web |url=http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/rainfall.htm |title=Sri Lanka Rainfall |work=mysrilanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102072708/http://www.mysrilanka.com/travel/theland/rainfall.htm |url-status=live }}]
The arid northwest and southeast coasts receive the least rain at {{convert|800|to|1200|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year. Periodic squalls occur and sometimes [[tropical cyclone]]s bring overcast skies and rains to the southwest, northeast, and eastern parts of the island. Humidity is typically higher in the southwest and mountainous areas and depends on the seasonal patterns of rainfall.[{{cite web |url=http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/ |title=Sri Lanka Climate Guide |publisher=climatetemp.info |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625222627/http://www.climatetemp.info/sri-lanka/ |archive-date=25 June 2012}}] An increase in average rainfall coupled with heavier rainfall events has resulted in recurrent flooding and related damages to infrastructure, utility supply and the urban economy.[[http://cdkn.org/resource/integrating-urban-agriculture-and-forestry-into-climate-change-action-plans-lessons-from-sri-lanka/ Integrating urban agriculture and forestry into climate change action plans: Lessons from Sri Lanka] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714214438/http://cdkn.org/resource/integrating-urban-agriculture-and-forestry-into-climate-change-action-plans-lessons-from-sri-lanka/ |date=14 July 2014 }}, Marielle Dubbeling, the RUAF Foundation, 2014]
=== Flora and fauna ===
{{Main|Environment of Sri Lanka|Wildlife of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|List of mammals of Sri Lanka|List of birds of Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Elephas maximus maximus - 01.jpg|thumb|The [[Sri Lankan elephant]] is one of three recognised [[subspecies]] of the [[Asian elephant]]. The 2011 elephant census estimated a population of 5,879.[{{cite web |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/sri-lanka-survey-finds-more-elephants-than-expected-129086673/167947.html |title=Sri Lanka Survey Finds More Elephants Than Expected |date=2 September 2011 |publisher=[[Voice of America]] | access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120129112134/http://www.voanews.com/english/news/asia/Sri-Lanka-Survey-Finds-More-Elephants-Than-Expected-129086673.html |archive-date=29 January 2012 |url-status=live}}]]]
The [[Western Ghats]] of India and Sri Lanka were included among the first 18 global [[biodiversity hotspot]]s due to high levels of species endemism. The number of biodiversity hotspots has now increased to 34.[{{cite journal |last1=Gunawardene |first1=N. R. |last2=Daniels |first2=A. E. D. |last3=Gunatilleke |first3=I. A. U. N. |last4=Gunatilleke |first4=C. V. S. |last5=Karunakaran |first5=P. V. |last6=Nayak |first6=K. |last7=Prasad |first7=S. |last8=Puyravaud |first8=P. |last9=Ramesh |first9=B. R. |last10=Subramanian |first10=K. A |last11=Vasanthy |first11=G. |title=A brief overview of the Western Ghats—Sri Lanka biodiversity hotspot |journal=Current Science |date=10 December 2007 |volume=93 |issue=11 |pages=1567–1572 |url=http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue53/bibliography/115-a-brief-overview-of-the-western-ghats.PDF |access-date=16 November 2020 |archive-date=18 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210118022902/http://wgbis.ces.iisc.ernet.in/biodiversity/sahyadri_enews/newsletter/issue53/bibliography/115-a-brief-overview-of-the-western-ghats.PDF |url-status=live }}] Sri Lanka has the highest biodiversity per unit area among Asian countries for flowering plants and all vertebrate groups except birds.[{{cite book |last1=Mahindapala |first1=R. |editor1-last=Carew-Reid |editor1-first=J. |title=Biodiversity Planning in Asia |date=2002 |publisher=IUCN |location=Gland, Switzerland |isbn=2-8317-0643-2 |page=451 |url=http://www.icem.com.au/documents/biodiversity/bioplan/sri_lanka.pdf |chapter=Sri Lanka |access-date=17 November 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210407151019/http://www.icem.com.au/documents/biodiversity/bioplan/sri_lanka.pdf |url-status=live }}] A remarkably high proportion of the species among its flora and fauna, 27% of the 3,210 flowering plants and 22% of the mammals, are [[Endemism|endemic]].[{{cite web |url=http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140723163108/http://news.mongabay.com/2006/1106-interview_ranil.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 July 2014 |title=An interview with Dr. Ranil Senanayake, chairman of Rainforest Rescue International |work=news.mongabay.com |access-date=15 July 2014 }}] Sri Lanka supports a rich avifauna of that stands at 453 species and this includes 240 species of birds that are known to breed in the country. [[List of endemic birds of Sri Lanka|33 species]] are accepted by some ornithologists as endemic while some ornithologists consider only 27 are endemic and the remaining six are considered as proposed endemics.[{{cite book |last1=Weerakoon |first1=D. K. |last2=Gunawardena |first2=K. |editor1-last=Weerakoon |editor1-first=D. K. |editor2-last=Wijesundara |editor2-first=S. |title=The National Red List 2012 of Sri Lanka; Conservation Status of the Fauna and Flora |date=2012 |publisher=Ministry of Environment |location=Colombo, Sri Lanka |isbn=978-955-0-03355-3 |page=114 |url=https://www.cea.lk/web/images/pdf/redlist2012.pdf |chapter=The Taxonomy and Conservation Status of Birds in Sri Lanka |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=13 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180713202136/http://cea.lk/web/images/pdf/redlist2012.pdf |url-status=live }}] Sri Lanka's protected areas are administered by two government bodies: The [[Department of Forest Conservation (Sri Lanka)|Department of Forest Conservation]] and the [[Department of Wildlife Conservation (Sri Lanka)|Department of Wildlife Conservation]]. Department of Wildlife Conservation administers 61 wildlife sanctuaries, 22 national parks, four nature reserves, three strict nature reserves, and one jungle corridor; while Department of Forest Conservation oversees 65 conservation forests and one national heritage wilderness area. 26.5% of the country's land area is legally protected. This is a higher percentage of protected areas when compared to the rest of Asia.[{{cite journal |last1=Senevirathna |first1=H.M.M.C. |last2=Perera |first2=P.K.P. |title=Wildlife Viewing Preferences of Visitors to Sri Lanka's National Parks: Implications for Visitor Management and Sustainable Tourism Planning |journal=Journal of Tropical Forestry and Environment |year=2013 |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.31357/JTFE.V3I2.1838 |s2cid=58915438 |doi-access=free}}]
Sri Lanka contains four terrestrial ecoregions: [[Sri Lanka lowland rain forests]], [[Sri Lanka montane rain forests]], [[Sri Lanka dry-zone dry evergreen forests]], and [[Deccan thorn scrub forests]].[{{cite journal |last1=Dinerstein |first1=Eric |last2=Olson |first2=David |last3=Joshi |first3=Anup |last4=Vynne |first4=Carly |last5=Burgess |first5=Neil D. |last6=Wikramanayake |first6=Eric |last7=Hahn |first7=Nathan |last8=Palminteri |first8=Suzanne |last9=Hedao |first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed |last11=Hansen |first11=Matt |last12=Locke |first12=Harvey |last13=Ellis |first13=Erle C |last14=Jones |first14=Benjamin |last15=Barber |first15=Charles Victor |last16=Hayes |first16=Randy |last17=Kormos |first17=Cyril |last18=Martin |first18=Vance |last19=Crist |first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes |last21=Price |first21=Lori |last22=Baillie |first22=Jonathan E. M. |last23=Weeden |first23=Don |last24=Suckling |first24=Kierán |last25=Davis |first25=Crystal |last26=Sizer |first26=Nigel |last27=Moore |first27=Rebecca |last28=Thau |first28=David |last29=Birch |first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter |last31=Turubanova |first31=Svetlana |last32=Tyukavina |first32=Alexandra |last33=de Souza |first33=Nadia |last34=Pintea |first34=Lilian |last35=Brito |first35=José C. |last36=Llewellyn |first36=Othman A. |last37=Miller |first37=Anthony G. |last38=Patzelt |first38=Annette |last39=Ghazanfar |first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan |last41=Klöser |first41=Heinz |last42=Shennan-Farpón |first42=Yara |last43=Kindt |first43=Roeland |last44=Lillesø |first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow |last45=van Breugel |first45=Paulo |last46=Graudal |first46=Lars |last47=Voge |first47=Maianna |last48=Al-Shammari |first48=Khalaf F. |last49=Saleem |first49=Muhammad |display-authors=1 |title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm |journal=BioScience |volume=67 |issue=6 |year=2017 |pages=534–545 |issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014 |pmid=28608869 |pmc=5451287 |doi-access=free}}] Flowering [[acacia]]s flourish on the arid [[Jaffna Peninsula]]. Among the trees of the dry-land forests are valuable species such as [[Chloroxylon|satinwood]], [[ebony]], [[Mesua ferrea|ironwood]], [[mahogany]] and [[teak]]. The wet zone is a tropical evergreen forest with tall trees, broad foliage, and a dense undergrowth of vines and creepers. Subtropical evergreen forests resembling those of temperate climates flourish in the higher altitudes.[{{cite web |url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.PDF |title=Forests, Grasslands, and Drylands – Sri Lanka |page=4 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027053304/http://earthtrends.wri.org/pdf_library/country_profiles/for_cou_144.pdf |archive-date=27 October 2007}}]
[[File:Rainbirder - Leopard (1).jpg|thumb|left|The [[Sri Lankan leopard]] (''Panthera pardus kotiya'') is an [[endangered species|endangered]] subspecies of [[leopard]] native to Sri Lanka.]]
[[Yala National Park]] in the southeast protects herds of elephant, deer, and peacocks. The [[Wilpattu National Park]] in the northwest, the largest national park, preserves the habitats of many water birds such as storks, pelicans, ibis, and spoonbills. The island has four [[Nature reserve|biosphere reserves]]: [[Bundala National Park|Bundala]], [[Hurulu Forest Reserve]], the [[Kanneliya-Dediyagala-Nakiyadeniya]], and [[Sinharaja Forest Reserve|Sinharaja]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/contact.asp?code=SRL |title=Sri Lanka |date=1 September 2006 |publisher=[[UNESCO]] |access-date=21 May 2009 |archive-date=4 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101204011828/http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/contact.asp?code=SRL |url-status=live }}] Sinharaja is home to 26 endemic birds and 20 rainforest species, including the elusive [[red-faced malkoha]], the [[green-billed coucal]] and the [[Sri Lanka blue magpie]]. The untapped genetic potential of Sinharaja flora is enormous. Of the 211 woody trees and lianas within the reserve, 139 (66%) are endemic. The total vegetation density, including trees, shrubs, herbs, and seedlings, has been estimated at 240,000 individuals per hectare. The Minneriya National Park borders the [[Minneriya Tank]], which is an important source of water for elephants inhabiting the surrounding forests. Dubbed "The Gathering", the congregation of elephants can be seen on the tank-bed in the late dry season (August to October) as the surrounding water sources steadily disappear. The park also encompasses a range of micro-habitats which include classic dry zone tropical monsoonal evergreen forest, thick stands of giant bamboo, hilly pastures (patanas), and grasslands (talawas).[{{cite web |url=http://trabanatours.com/locations/minneriya/ |title=Minneriya National Park |publisher=trabanatours.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=16 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140516114439/http://trabanatours.com/locations/minneriya/ |url-status=usurped}}]
[[File:Rhododendron arboreum zeylanicum flower.jpg|thumb|Maha rath mala (''Rhododendron arboreum'' ssp. ''zeylanicum'') is a rare sub-species of ''[[Rhododendron arboreum]]'' found in [[Central Highlands of Sri Lanka]].]]
During the Mahaweli Programme of the 1970s and 1980s in northern Sri Lanka, the government set aside four areas of land totalling {{convert|1900|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} as national parks. Statistics of Sri Lanka's forest cover show rapid deforestation from 1956 to 2010. In 1956, 44.2 percent of the country's land area had forest cover. Forest cover depleted rapidly in recent decades; 29.6 percent in 1999, 28.7 percent in 2010.[{{cite journal |last1=Ranagalage |first1=M. |last2=Gunarathna |first2=M. H. J. P. |last3=Surasinghe |first3=T. D. |last4=Dissanayake |first4=D. M. S. L. G. |last5=Simwanda |first5=M. |last6=Murayama |first6=Y. |last7=Morimoto |first7=T. |last8=Phiri |first8=D. |last9=Nyirenda |first9=V. R. |last10=Premakantha |first10=K. T. |last11=Sathurusinghe |first11=A. |title=Multi-Decadal Forest-Cover Dynamics in the Tropical Realm: Past Trends and Policy Insights for Forest Conservation in Dry Zone of Sri Lanka |journal=Forests |date=1 August 2020 |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=836 |doi=10.3390/f11080836 |url=https://www.mdpi.com/1999-4907/11/8/836/pdf |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020Fore...11..836R |access-date=25 November 2020 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110416/https://mdpi-res.com/d_attachment/forests/forests-11-00836/article_deploy/forests-11-00836-v2.pdf?version=1596439027 |url-status=live |hdl=2241/0002003128 |hdl-access=free }}]
== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Government of Sri Lanka|Politics of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|Constitution of Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Old Parliament Building, Colombo.JPG|thumb|The [[Old Parliament Building, Colombo|old Sri Lankan Parliament building]], near the [[Galle Face Green]] in Colombo. It now serves as the [[Presidential Secretariat (Sri Lanka)|Presidential Secretariat]]'s headquarters.]]
Sri Lanka is a [[Democracy|democratic]] [[republic]] and a [[unitary state]] which is governed by a [[semi-presidential system]].[{{cite web |title=Chapter 1 – The People, The State and Sovereignty |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531083515/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Chapter_01_Amd.html |archive-date=31 May 2014 |access-date=15 July 2014 |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka}}] Sri Lanka is the oldest democracy in Asia.[{{cite book |author=Norton, James H.K. |title=India and South Asia |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]] | place=United States |isbn=978-0-07-243298-5 |year=2001}}] Most provisions of the constitution can be amended by a [[Supermajority|two-thirds majority]] in [[Parliament of Sri Lanka|parliament]]. The amendment of [[Entrenched clause|certain fundamental features]], including clauses on national symbols, religion, term limits, the reference to Sri Lanka as a unitary state, and the entrenchment mechanism itself, requires both a two-thirds majority in Parliament and approval in a nationwide [[referendum]].[{{Cite web |last=Walpola |first=Thilina |date=15 July 2024 |title=Creating confusion about a crystal-clear Article 83 (b) |url=https://island.lk/creating-confusion-about-a-crystal-clear-article-83-b/ |access-date=19 November 2024 |language=en-US}}][{{Cite web |title=Op-ed: Are there limits to amending Sri Lanka's constitution? |url=https://constitutionnet.org/news/op-ed-are-there-limits-amending-sri-lankas-constitution |access-date=20 November 2024 |website=ConstitutionNet |language=en}}] The Constitution of Sri Lanka officially declares it to be a [[socialist state]].[{{cite constitution|article=Preamble|section=Preamble|country=the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka|ratified=7 September 1978|url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Preamble.html}}]
In common with many democracies, the Sri Lankan government has three branches:
* '''Executive''': The [[President of Sri Lanka]] is the [[head of state]]; the [[Commander-in-chief|commander in chief]] of the armed forces; [[Chief executive (gubernatorial)|chief executive]], and is popularly elected for a five-year term.[{{cite web |title=The Executive Presidency |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921054039/http://www.priu.gov.lk/execpres/Indexep.html |archive-date=21 September 2014 |access-date=15 July 2014 |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka}}] The president heads the [[cabinet (government)|cabinet]] and appoints [[minister (government)|ministers]] from elected [[Member of parliament|members of parliament]].[{{cite web |date=20 November 2003 |title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Contents |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118180853/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/CONTENTS.html |archive-date=18 November 2014 |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka}}] The president is immune from legal proceedings while in the office with respect to any acts done or omitted to be done by him or her in either an official or private capacity.[{{cite web |title=Presidential Immunity |url=http://www.constitution.lk/static_pages/view/26 |publisher=constitution.lk}}{{dead link|date=July 2017|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}] Following the passage of the [[Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution of Sri Lanka|19th amendment to the constitution]] in 2015, the president has two terms, which previously stood at no term limit.
* '''Legislative''': The [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]] is a [[Unicameralism|unicameral]] 225-member legislature with 196 members elected from 22 multi-seat constituencies and 29 elected by [[proportional representation]].[{{cite web |title=Evolution of the Parliamentary System |url=http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616221401/http://www.parliament.lk/about_us/evolution.jsp |archive-date=16 June 2010 |publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]}}] Members are elected by universal suffrage for a five-year term. The president may summon, suspend, or end a legislative session and dissolve Parliament anytime after four and a half years. The parliament reserves the power to make all laws.[{{cite web |title=The Legislative Power of Parliament |url=http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616221100/http://www.parliament.lk/functions/legislative_power.jsp |archive-date=16 June 2010 |publisher=[[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]}}] The president's deputy and [[head of government]], the [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka|prime minister]], leads the [[ruling party]] in parliament and shares many executive responsibilities, mainly in domestic affairs.
[[File:Supreme Court Colombo.jpg|thumb|The Supreme Court of Sri Lanka, Colombo]]
* '''Judicial''': Sri Lanka's judiciary consists of a [[Supreme Court of Sri Lanka|Supreme Court]]—the highest and final superior court of record,[{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka public administration |url=http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023242.pdf |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=[[United Nations Public Administration Network]] |page=2 |archive-date=2 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102055202/http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/un/unpan023242.pdf |url-status=dead }}] Criminal law is based almost entirely on [[English law|British law]]. Basic civil law derives from [[Roman-Dutch law]]. Laws pertaining to marriage, divorce, and inheritance are [[Common law|communal]].[{{cite web |title=Background Note: Sri Lanka |newspaper=U.S. Department of State |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |archive-date=4 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190604192233/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5249.htm |url-status=live }}] Because of ancient customary practices and religion, the Sinhala customary law (Kandyan law), the [[Thesavalamai]], and [[Sharia]] law are followed in special cases.[{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka Society & Culture: Customs, Rituals & Traditions |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit.html |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=lankalibrary.com |archive-date=18 June 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140618224748/http://www.lankalibrary.com/rit.html |url-status=live }}] The president appoints judges to the Supreme Court, the Court of Appeal, and the High Courts. A judicial service commission, composed of the [[Chief Justice of Sri Lanka|chief justice]] and two Supreme Court judges, appoints, transfers, and dismisses lower court judges.
=== Politics ===
{{Main|Politics of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|Elections in Sri Lanka}}
{{Sri Lankan symbols}}
The current political culture in Sri Lanka is a contest between two rival coalitions led by the [[Centre-left politics|centre-left]] and [[Progressivism|progressive]] [[United People's Freedom Alliance]] (UPFA), an offspring of [[Sri Lanka Freedom Party]] (SLFP), and the comparatively [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]] and pro-[[Capitalism|capitalist]] [[United National Party]] (UNP). After 2018, two major political parties split from these two parties: The [[Samagi Jana Balawegaya]] split from the UNP, and the [[Sri Lanka Podujana Peramuna]] split from the UPFA. The third wing party [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna]] has gained popularity since 2022.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=95}}]
Sri Lanka is essentially a multi-party democracy with many smaller Buddhist, socialist, and Tamil nationalist political parties. As of July 2011, the number of registered political parties in the country is 67.[{{cite web |url=http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919123154/http://www.slelections.gov.lk/pp.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 September 2011 |title=Political Parties in Sri Lanka |publisher=Department of Election, Sri Lanka |date=July 2011 |access-date=23 August 2011 }}] Of these, the [[Lanka Sama Samaja Party]] (LSSP), established in 1935, is the oldest.[{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/12/18/fea01.asp |title=Sri Lanka's oldest political party |work=Daily News |date=18 December 2010 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=24 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140824024913/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/12/18/fea01.asp |url-status=live }}]
The UNP, established by D. S. Senanayake in 1946, was until recently the largest single political party.[{{cite web |url=http://www.unplanka.com/ |title=UNP: The Story of the Major Tradition |publisher=unplanka.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140518080126/http://unplanka.com/ |archive-date=18 May 2014}}] It is the only political group which had representation in all parliaments since independence.[{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/11/16/fea03.asp |title=Charting a new course for Sri Lanka's success |work=Daily News |date=16 November 2009 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=20 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220161248/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/11/16/fea03.asp |url-status=live }}] SLFP registered its first victory in 1956, defeating the ruling UNP in the [[1956 Ceylonese parliamentary election|1956 Parliamentary election]].[{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_2784000/2784527.stm |title=Ceylon chooses world's first woman PM |publisher=BBC |date=20 July 1960 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307032617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/july/20/newsid_2784000/2784527.stm |url-status=live }}]
[[G. G. Ponnambalam]], the [[Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism|Tamil nationalist]] counterpart of S. W. R. D. Bandaranaike,[{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m4Y9AAAAYAAJ |author=Society of Jesus in India |title=New review, Volume 23 |publisher=Macmillan and co. ltd. |place=India |page=78 |year=1946 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110417/https://books.google.com/books?id=m4Y9AAAAYAAJ |url-status=live }}] founded the [[All Ceylon Tamil Congress]] (ACTC) in 1944. Objecting to Ponnambalam's cooperation with D. S. Senanayake, a dissident group led by [[S. J. V. Chelvanayakam|S.J.V. Chelvanayakam]] broke away in 1949 and formed the [[Illankai Tamil Arasu Kachchi]] (ITAK), also known as the Federal Party, becoming the main Tamil political party in Sri Lanka for the next two decades.[{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC|first1=Lakshman|last1=W. D.|author-link2=Clem Tisdell|last2=Tisdell|first2=Clem|title=Sri Lanka's development since independence: socio-economic perspectives and analyses|publisher=[[Nova Publishers]]|place=[[New York City|New York]]|page=80|isbn=978-1-56072-784-2|year=2000|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-date=6 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110417/https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC|url-status=live}}] The Federal Party advocated a more aggressive stance toward the Sinhalese.[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/postcolonial_history.htm |title=Sri Lanka: Post Colonial History |publisher=Lanka Library |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126130640/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/postcolonial_history.htm |url-status=live }}] With the constitutional reforms of 1972, the ACTC and ITAK created the Tamil United Front (later [[Tamil United Liberation Front]]). Following a period of turbulence as Tamil militants rose to power in the late 1970s, these Tamil political parties were succeeded in October 2001 by the [[Tamil National Alliance]].[{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/24/sri-lanka-tamil-national-alliance-denies-having-talks-buddhist-prelates |title=Sri Lanka Tamil National Alliance denies having talks with Buddhist prelates |newspaper=[[Asian Tribune]] |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=23 August 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304123053/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/24/sri-lanka-tamil-national-alliance-denies-having-talks-buddhist-prelates |url-status=live }}] [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna]], a [[Marxism–Leninism|Marxist–Leninist]] political party founded by [[Rohana Wijeweera]] in 1965, serves as a third force in the current political context.[{{cite web |url=http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf |page=139 |title=Revolutionary Idealism and Parliamentary Politics |publisher=Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences |date=December 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110920090225/http://socialsciences-ejournal.org/SP%2012.%20Shathasiri.pdf |archive-date=20 September 2011}}] It endorses leftist policies which are more radical than the traditionalist leftist politics of the LSSP and the [[Communist Party of Sri Lanka|Communist Party]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.sangam.org/2011/02/SL_Muslims.php?uid=4258 |title=Sri Lankan Muslims: Between ethno-nationalism and the global ummah |work=Dennis B. McGilvray |publisher=[[Association for the Study of Ethnicity and Nationalism]] |date=January 2011 |access-date=29 April 2012 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306194038/http://www.sangam.org/2011/02/SL_Muslims.php?uid=4258 |url-status=live }}]
President [[Mahinda Rajapaksa]] lost the [[2015 Sri Lankan presidential election|2015 presidential elections]], ending his ten-year presidency. However, his successor as Sri Lankan President, [[Maithripala Sirisena]], decided not to seek re-election in 2019.[{{cite news |title=Sri Lanka President Sirisena abandons re-election bid |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka-president-sirisena-abandons-re-election-bid |work=The Straits Times |date=6 October 2019 |language=en |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123143110/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/south-asia/sri-lanka-president-sirisena-abandons-re-election-bid |url-status=live }}] The Rajapaksa family regained power in November [[2019 Sri Lankan presidential election|2019 presidential elections]] when Mahinda's younger brother and former wartime defence chief [[Gotabaya Rajapaksa]] won the election, and he was later sworn in as the new president of Sri Lanka.[{{Cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2020/03/05/sri-lankas-ruling-party-calls-an-election-hoping-for-a-landslide |title=Sri Lanka's ruling party calls an election, hoping for a landslide |date=5 March 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309095940/https://www.economist.com/asia/2020/03/05/sri-lankas-ruling-party-calls-an-election-hoping-for-a-landslide |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/17/world/asia/sri-lanka-Gotabaya-Rajapaksa-election.html |title=Gotabaya Rajapaksa Wins Sri Lanka Presidential Election |first1=Dharisha |last1=Bastians |first2=Kai |last2=Schultz |date=17 November 2019 |work=The New York Times |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304005105/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/11/17/world/asia/sri-lanka-Gotabaya-Rajapaksa-election.html |url-status=live }}] Their firm grip of power was consolidated in the [[2020 Sri Lankan parliamentary election|parliamentary elections]] in August 2020. The family's political party, [[Sri Lanka People's Front]] (known by its Sinhala initials SLPP), obtained a landslide victory and a clear majority in the parliament. Five members of the Rajapaksa family won seats in the new parliament. Former president Mahinda Rajapaksa became the new prime minister.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/9/mahinda-rajapaksa-sworn-in-as-sri-lankas-pm-after-record-victory |title=Mahinda Rajapaksa sworn in as Sri Lanka's PM |publisher=Al Jazeera |access-date=3 March 2021 |archive-date=7 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307092414/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/8/9/mahinda-rajapaksa-sworn-in-as-sri-lankas-pm-after-record-victory |url-status=live }}]
In 2022, a [[2022 Sri Lankan political crisis|political crisis]] started due to the power struggle between [[President of Sri Lanka|President]] [[Gotabaya Rajapaksa]] and the [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]]. The crisis was fuelled by [[2022 Sri Lankan protests|anti-government protests and demonstrations by the public]] and also due to the worsening [[economy of Sri Lanka]] since 2019. The anti-government sentiment across various parts of Sri Lanka has triggered unprecedented political instability, creating shockwaves in the political arena.[{{Cite web |title=Rajapaksa Clan Losing Grip on Power in Sri Lanka |url=https://thediplomat.com/2022/04/rajapaksa-clan-losing-grip-on-power-in-sri-lanka/ |access-date=10 April 2022 |website=thediplomat.com |language=en-US |archive-date=30 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220430192710/https://thediplomat.com/2022/04/rajapaksa-clan-losing-grip-on-power-in-sri-lanka/ |url-status=live }}]
On 20 July 2022, [[Ranil Wickremesinghe]] was elected as the ninth President via a [[2022 Sri Lankan presidential election|parliamentarian election]].[{{cite news |last1=Jayasinghe |first1=Uditha |last2=Pal |first2=Alasdair |last3=Ghoshal |first3=Devjyot |title=Sri Lanka gets new president in six-time PM Wickremesinghe |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/sri-lanka-could-tip-back-chaos-if-six-time-pm-voted-president-2022-07-20/ |work=Reuters |date=21 July 2022 |language=en |access-date=29 September 2022 |archive-date=29 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929043828/https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/sri-lanka-could-tip-back-chaos-if-six-time-pm-voted-president-2022-07-20/ |url-status=live }}] President Ranil Wickremesinghe was defeated by left-leaning [[Anura Kumara Dissanayake]] in 2024 presidential [[2024 Sri Lankan presidential election|elections]].[{{cite news |title=New Sri Lanka President Anura Kumara Dissanayake sworn in – DW – 09/23/2024 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/new-sri-lanka-president-anura-kumara-dissanayake-sworn-in/a-70297993 |work=dw.com |language=en}}]
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Administrative divisions of Sri Lanka}}
For administrative purposes, Sri Lanka is divided into nine [[Provinces of Sri Lanka|provinces]][{{cite web |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html |title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – Eighth Schedule |publisher=Priu.gov.lk |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025856/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_8_Amd.html |archive-date=16 October 2014 }}] and twenty-five [[Districts of Sri Lanka|districts]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html |title=The Constitution of Sri Lanka – First Schedule |publisher=Priu.gov.lk |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141016025819/http://www.priu.gov.lk/Cons/1978Constitution/Schedle_1_Amd.html |archive-date=16 October 2014 }}]
==== Provinces ====
Provinces in Sri Lanka have existed since the 19th century, but they had no legal status until 1987 when the 13th Amendment of the 1978 constitution established provincial councils after several decades of increasing demand for a [[Devolution|decentralisation]] of the government.[{{cite web |url=http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html |title=Provincial Councils |work=The Official Website of the Government of Sri Lanka |date=3 September 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090707214924/http://www.priu.gov.lk/ProvCouncils/ProvicialCouncils.html |archive-date=7 July 2009 }}] Each provincial council is an autonomous body not under the authority of any ministry. Some of its functions had been undertaken by central government ministries, departments, corporations, and statutory authorities,[{{cite news |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/lanka-heads-for-collision-course-with-india/802524/ |title=Lanka heads for collision course with India: Report |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=12 June 2011}}][{{cite web |url=http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296:accepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1:latest&Itemid=121 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101006012934/http://www.peace-srilanka.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=296%3Aaccepting-reality-and-building-trust&catid=1%3Alatest&Itemid=121 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 October 2010 |title=Accepting reality and building trust |work=Jehan Perera |publisher=peace-srilanka.org |date=14 September 2010 }}] Between 1989 and 2006, the Northern and Eastern provinces were temporarily merged to form the [[North Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|North-East Province]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html |title=North-East merger illegal: SC |publisher=LankaNewspapers.com |date=17 October 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090524142033/http://www.lankanewspapers.com/news/2006/10/8947.html |archive-date=24 May 2009 }}][{{cite web |url=http://southasiaanalysis.org/%5Cnotes4%5Cnote344.html |title=North East De-merger-At What Cost? Update No. 107 |work=Hariharan, R. |publisher=southasiaanalysis.org |date=19 October 2010 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613022544/http://southasiaanalysis.org/notes4/note344.html |archive-date=13 June 2010}}] Prior to 1987, all administrative tasks for the provinces were handled by a district-based civil service which had been in place since colonial times. Now each province is administered by a directly elected provincial council:
{{Sri Lankan Provinces and districts|float=left}}
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="text-align:left; font-size:85%;"
|- style="font-size:100%; text-align:right;"
! style="width:160px;"| [[Provinces of Sri Lanka|Province]] !! style="width:85px;" | Capital !! style="width:75px;" | Area
(km2) !! style="width:70px;" | Population (2024)[{{cite web |title=Population|url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk//Resource/en/Population/CPH_2024/CPH2024_Preliminary_Report.pdf |website=www.statistics.gov.lk |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics|access-date=17 May 2025 |date=2024 }}] !! style="width:100px;"| Density
(Persons per km2) !! style="width:100px;" | Provincial GDP share (%) (2023)[{{cite web |title=Provincial Gross Domestic Product (PGDP) - 2023 |url=https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/press/pr/press_20241220_pgdp_2023_e.pdf |website=cbsl.gov.lk |publisher=Central Bank of Sri Lanka |access-date=12 February 2025 |date=2024 }}] !! style="width:100px;" | Sri Lanka Prosperity Index (2021)[{{cite web |title=Sri Lanka Prosperity Index - 2021 |url=https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/press/pr/press_20221230_sri_lanka_prosperity_index_2021_e.pdf |website=cbsl.gov.lk |publisher=Central Bank of Sri Lanka |access-date=26 September 2023 |date=2022 |archive-date=30 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330010354/https://www.cbsl.gov.lk/sites/default/files/cbslweb_documents/press/pr/press_20221230_sri_lanka_prosperity_index_2021_e.pdf |url-status=live }}]
|-
| [[Central Province, Sri Lanka|Central]] || [[Kandy]] || style="text-align:right"|5,674 || style="text-align:right"|2,712,804 || style="text-align:right"| 453 || style="text-align:right"|10.3 || style="text-align:right"|0.559
|-
| [[Eastern Province, Sri Lanka|Eastern]] || [[Trincomalee]] || style="text-align:right"|9,996 || style="text-align:right"|1,782,050 || style="text-align:right"| 155 || style="text-align:right"|4.7 || style="text-align:right"|0.519
|-
| [[North Central Province, Sri Lanka|North Central]] || [[Anuradhapura]] || style="text-align:right"|10,714 || style="text-align:right"|1,406,890 || style="text-align:right"| 118 || style="text-align:right"|4.8 || style="text-align:right"|0.521
|-
| [[North Western Province, Sri Lanka|North Western]] || [[Kurunegala]] || style="text-align:right"|7,812 || style="text-align:right"|2,578,894 || style="text-align:right"| 305 || style="text-align:right"|10.9 || style="text-align:right"|0.541
|-
| [[Northern Province, Sri Lanka|Northern]] || [[Jaffna]] || style="text-align:right"|8,884 || style="text-align:right"|1,149,240 || style="text-align:right"| 119 || style="text-align:right"|4.5 || style="text-align:right"|0.564
|-
| [[Sabaragamuwa Province|Sabaragamuwa]] || [[Ratnapura]] || style="text-align:right"|4,902 || style="text-align:right"|2,015,039 || style="text-align:right"| 393 || style="text-align:right"|7.0 || style="text-align:right"|0.499
|-
| [[Southern Province, Sri Lanka|Southern]] || [[Galle]] || style="text-align:right"|5,559 || style="text-align:right"|2,605,506 || style="text-align:right"| 446 || style="text-align:right"|9.3 || style="text-align:right"|0.582
|-
| [[Uva Province|Uva]] || [[Badulla]] || style="text-align:right"|8,488 || style="text-align:right"|1,399,049 || style="text-align:right"| 149 || style="text-align:right"|4.7 || style="text-align:right"|0.468
|-
| [[Western Province, Sri Lanka|Western]] || [[Colombo]] || style="text-align:right"|3,709 || style="text-align:right"|6,113,698 || style="text-align:right"| 1,578 || style="text-align:right"|43.7|| style="text-align:right"|0.802
|-
| Sri Lanka || [[Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte]] and [[Colombo]] || style="text-align:right" |65,610 || style="text-align:right"|21,763,170 || style="text-align:right"| 310 || style="text-align:right"|100 || style="text-align:right"|0.796
|}
{{clear}}
==== Districts and local authorities ====
Each district is administered under a [[Government Agent (Sri Lanka)|district secretariat]]. The districts are further subdivided into 256 [[Divisional Secretariats of Sri Lanka|divisional secretariats]], and these to approximately 14,008 [[Grama Niladhari]] divisions.[{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf |page=3 |title=List of Codes for the Administrative Divisions of Sri Lanka 2001 |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110519151751/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/GNcode/introduction.pdf |archive-date=19 May 2011}}] The districts are known in Sinhala as ''disa'' and in Tamil as ''māwaddam''. Originally, a ''disa'' (usually rendered into English as Dissavony) was a [[duchy]], notably Matale and Uva.
There are three other types of local authorities: municipal councils (18), urban councils (13) and pradeshiya sabha, also called pradesha sabhai (256).[{{Cite book |author=Commonwealth Secretariat |year=2004 |title=Commonwealth Local Government Handbook |place=London |publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat |isbn=978-0-9542917-9-2 |page=146 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM1oHe3eTIC |author-link=Commonwealth Secretariat |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110419/https://books.google.com/books?id=WNM1oHe3eTIC |url-status=live }}] Local authorities were originally based on feudal counties named ''korale'' and ''rata'', and were formerly known as "D.R.O. divisions" after the divisional revenue officer.[{{Cite book |author=Dilesh Jayanntha |year=2006 |title=Electoral Allegiance in Sri Lanka |place=London |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-02975-9 |pages=82–85 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nkr3ra6gR2YC |access-date=24 July 2018 |archive-date=6 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240106110418/https://books.google.com/books?id=nkr3ra6gR2YC |url-status=live }}] Later, the D.R.O.s became "assistant government agents", and the divisions were known as "A.G.A. divisions". These divisional secretariats are currently administered by a divisional secretary.
=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|Sri Lanka and the Non-Aligned Movement}}
[[File:Jayewardene presents elephant to Reagan.jpg|thumb|President [[J. R. Jayewardene]] gifting [[Jayathu]], a baby elephant to US President [[Ronald Reagan]] in 1984]]
[[File:The Prime Minister, Shri Narendra Modi with the Prime Minister of the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka, Mr. Mahinda Rajapaksa, at Hyderabad House, in New Delhi on February 08, 2020.jpg|thumb|Sri Lankan Prime Minister [[Mahinda Rajapaksa]] with Indian Prime Minister [[Narendra Modi]] in 2020]]
Sri Lanka is a founding member of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]] (NAM). While ensuring that it maintains its independence, Sri Lanka has cultivated [[India–Sri Lanka relations|relations with India]].[{{Cite news |title=Foreign Relations |url=http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/74.htm |work=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=31 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140331174753/http://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/74.htm |url-status=live }}] Sri Lanka became a member of the [[United Nations]] in 1955. Today, it is also a member of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]], the [[South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation|SAARC]], the [[World Bank]], the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[Asian Development Bank]], and the [[Colombo Plan]].
The United National Party has traditionally favoured links with the West, while the Sri Lanka Freedom Party has favoured links with the East.[{{Cite news |title=Colombo Plan at 57 |url=http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4 |work=[[Colombo Plan]] | author=Jayasekera, Upali S. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120113150629/http://www.colombo-plan.org/viewPressContent.php?id=93&page=4 |archive-date=13 January 2012}}] At the [[Treaty of San Francisco|San Francisco Peace Conference]] in 1951, while many countries were reluctant, Sri Lanka argued for a free [[Japan]] and refused to accept payment of reparations for [[World War II]] damage because it believed it would harm Japan's economy.[{{Cite news |title=Sri Lanka excels at the San Francisco Peace Conference |url=http://pdfs.island.lk/2009/09/07/p12.pdf |work=The Island |date=7 September 2009 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304111157/http://pdfs.island.lk/2009/09/07/p12.pdf |url-status=dead }}] Sri Lanka-China relations started as soon as the People's Republic of China was formed in 1949. The two countries signed an important [[Ceylon-China Trade Agreement of 1952|Rubber-Rice Pact]] in 1952.[{{Cite news |title=Lanka-China bilateral ties at its zenith |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp |work=The Sunday Observer |date=3 October 2010 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082628/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2010/10/03/fea02.asp |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}] Sri Lanka played a vital role at the [[Asian–African Conference]] in 1955, which was an important step in the crystallisation of the NAM.[{{Cite news |title=Bandung Conference of 1955 and the resurgence of Asia and Africa |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2005/04/21/fea01.htm |work=The Daily News |date=21 April 2005 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231075624/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2005/04/21/fea01.htm |url-status=live }}]
The Bandaranaike government of 1956 significantly changed the pro-western policies set by the previous UNP government. It recognised Cuba under [[Fidel Castro]] in 1959. Shortly afterward, Cuba's revolutionary [[Che Guevara]] paid a visit to Sri Lanka.[{{Cite news |title=Lanka-Cuba relations should be strengthened |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/01/14/new24.html |work=The Daily News |date=14 January 2004 |access-date=27 July 2014 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231070650/http://archives.dailynews.lk/2004/01/14/new24.html |url-status=live }}] The [[Sirima–Shastri Pact|Sirima-Shastri Pact]] of 1964[{{Cite news |title=29 October 1964 |url=http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/ |work=Pact.lk |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128112857/http://pact.lk/29-october-1964/ |archive-date=28 January 2015 }}] and [[Sirima–Gandhi Pact|Sirima-Gandhi Pact]] of 1974[{{Cite news |title=Statelessness abolished? |url=http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News |work=cope.nu |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140813065808/http://www.cope.nu/show.asp?NewsID=170&DocType=News |archive-date=13 August 2014 |url-status=dead}}] were signed between Sri Lankan and Indian leaders in an attempt to solve the [[Ceylon Citizenship Act|long-standing dispute]] over the status of [[Indian Tamils of Sri Lanka|plantation workers of Indian origin]]. In 1974, [[Katchatheevu|Kachchatheevu]], a small island in [[Palk Strait]], was formally ceded to Sri Lanka.[{{Cite news |title=India-Sri Lanka: 1921 Conference On Fisheries And Ceding Of Kachchatheevu – Analysis |url=http://www.albanytribune.com/22082011-india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis/ |work=Albany Tribune |date=22 August 2011 |author=Suryanarayan, V. |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402073824/http://www.albanytribune.com/22082011-india-sri-lanka-1921-conference-on-fisheries-and-ceding-of-kachchatheevu-%E2%80%93-analysis/ |archive-date=2 April 2012}}] By this time, Sri Lanka was strongly involved in the NAM, and the [[5th Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement|fifth NAM summit]] was held in Colombo in 1976.[{{Cite news |title=NAM Golden Jubilee this year |url=https://archives.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp |work=The Sunday Observer |date=10 July 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304095243/http://www.sundayobserver.lk/2011/07/10/fea02.asp |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}] The relationship between Sri Lanka and India became tense under the government of [[Junius Richard Jayewardene|J. R. Jayawardene]].[{{Cite journal |doi=10.1080/09700160008455216 |title=Indo-Sri Lankan security perceptions: Divergences and convergences |journal=Strategic Analysis |volume=24 |issue=2 |page=343 |year=2000 |last1=Murthy |first1=P. |s2cid=154512767}}] To this end, Sri Lanka had briefly adopted a 'Look [[Southeast Asia|East]]' policy,[{{Cite book |last1=Wadhva |first1=Charan D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OdDZy2fdZmMC&q=asean&pg=PA341 |title=ASEAN-South Asia Economic Relations |last2=Asher |first2=Mukul G. |date=1985 |publisher=Institute of Southeast Asian Studies |isbn=978-9971-902-98-8 |language=en}}]{{rp|1}} and at one point pursued [[Accession of Sri Lanka to ASEAN|ASEAN membership]] over joining SAARC.[{{Cite web |last=De Silva |first=Mervyn |date=1981 |title=Sri Lanka: ASEAN Operation |url=http://www.srilankaguardian.org/2020/10/sri-lanka-asean-operation.html |access-date=13 May 2024 |website=[[India Today]] |via=Sri Lanka Guardian |ref=none}}][{{Cite journal |last=Shastri |first=Amita |date=1 February 1997 |title=Regional Powers and Small State Security: India and Sri Lanka, 1977–90. By K. M. de Silva. Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1995. xvii, 388 pp. $48.50 (cloth). |url=https://archive.org/details/regionalpowerssm00desi/page/n11/mode/2up |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |language=en |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages= |doi=10.2307/2646399 |issn=0021-9118 |jstor=2646399}}]{{rp|64}} Further deterioration led to the [[Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War]] and subsequently deployed an [[Indian Peace Keeping Force]] in 1987.[{{cite news |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2fNews%2fWorld%2fCountries%20and%20Territories%2fIndia |title=India airlifts aid to Tamil rebels |newspaper=The New York Times |date=5 June 1987 |author=Weisman, Steven R. |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=19 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080219034919/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?sec=health&res=9B0DE0D8173FF936A35755C0A961948260&n=Top%2FNews%2FWorld%2FCountries%20and%20Territories%2FIndia |url-status=live }}] In the present, Sri Lanka enjoys extensive relations with China,[{{cite news |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31707.pdf |page=6 |title=Sri Lanka: Background and U.S. Relations |publisher=[[Federation of American Scientists]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=26 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126061136/http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL31707.pdf |url-status=live }}] Russia,[{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/02/09/russia-and-sri-lanka-strengthen-bilateral-relations |title=Russia and Sri Lanka to strengthen bilateral relations |newspaper=[[Asian Tribune]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201213355/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2010/02/09/russia-and-sri-lanka-strengthen-bilateral-relations |url-status=live }}] and Pakistan.[{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/04/world-leaders-send-warm-greeting-sri-lanka-independence-day |title=World leaders send warm greeting to Sri Lanka on Independence Day |newspaper=[[Asian Tribune]] |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=1 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140201213317/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/02/04/world-leaders-send-warm-greeting-sri-lanka-independence-day |url-status=live }}]
=== Military ===
{{Main|Sri Lanka Armed Forces}}
The Sri Lanka Armed Forces, comprising the [[Sri Lanka Army]], the [[Sri Lanka Navy]], and the [[Sri Lanka Air Force]], come under the purview of the [[Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka)|Ministry of Defence]].[{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sri-lanka/ |title=CIA World Factbook: Sr Lanka |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |date=16 August 2011 |access-date=23 January 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217185333/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/sri-lanka/ |url-status=dead }}] The total strength of the three services is about 346,000 personnel, with nearly 36,000 reserves.[{{cite book |title=The Military Balance 2010 |pages=370–371 |author1=International Institute for Strategic Studies |author-link1=International Institute for Strategic Studies |editor=Hackett, James |date=3 February 2010 |publisher=[[Routledge]] | place=London |isbn=978-1-85743-557-3 |ref=IISS2010}}] Sri Lanka has not enforced [[Conscription|military conscription]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_con-military-conscription |title=Conscription (most recent) by country |publisher=NationMaster |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231015536/http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/mil_con-military-conscription |url-status=live }}] Paramilitary units include the [[Special Task Force (Sri Lanka)|Special Task Force]], the [[Sri Lanka Civil Security Force|Civil Security Force]], and the [[Sri Lanka Coast Guard]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/sri-lanka-coast-guard-sets-up-bases/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304194800/http://www.lankabusinessonline.com/sri-lanka-coast-guard-sets-up-bases/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=4 March 2016 |title=Sri Lanka coast guard sets up bases |publisher=Lanka Business Online |date=10 August 2009}}][{{cite web |url=http://defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04 |title=Coast Guard bill passed in Parliament |publisher=[[Ministry of Defence (Sri Lanka)|Sri Lanka Ministry of Defence]] | date=7 October 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303213156/http://www.defence.lk/new.asp?fname=20090710_04 |archive-date=3 March 2016 }}]
Since independence in 1948, the primary focus of the armed forces has been internal security, crushing three major insurgencies, two by [[Marxism|Marxist]] militants of the [[Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna|JVP]] and a 26-year-long conflict with the [[Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam|LTTE]]. The armed forces have been in a continuous mobilised state for the last 30 years.[{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8063409.stm |title=How Sri Lanka's military won |work=BBC News |date=22 May 2009 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307021811/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/8063409.stm |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |last=Doucet |first=Lyse |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308610 |title=UN 'failed Sri Lanka civilians', says internal probe |work=BBC News |date=13 November 2012 |access-date=10 September 2013 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145024/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-20308610 |url-status=live }}] The Sri Lankan Armed Forces have engaged in [[United Nations]] [[peacekeeping]] operations since the early 1960s, contributing forces to permanent contingents deployed in several UN peacekeeping missions in [[United Nations Mission in the Central African Republic and Chad|Chad]], [[United Nations Interim Force in Lebanon|Lebanon]], and [[United Nations Stabilisation Mission in Haiti|Haiti]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2012/March12_3.pdf |title=UN Mission's Summary detailed by Country – March 2012 |page=33 |publisher=[[United Nations]] |date=April 2012 |access-date=29 April 2012 |archive-date=12 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212201338/http://www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/contributors/2012/March12_3.pdf |url-status=live }}]
Sri Lanka is the 100th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].[{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf}}]
=== Human rights ===
{{Main|Human rights in Sri Lanka}}
Officially, the constitution of Sri Lanka guarantees human rights as ratified by the United Nations. However, several groups, such as [[Amnesty International]], [[Freedom from Torture]], [[Human Rights Watch]],[{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/region/sri-lanka |title=Amnesty International{{snd}}Sri Lanka Human Rights Reports |publisher=[[Amnesty International]] |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=17 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150217135852/http://www.amnesty.org/en/region/sri-lanka |url-status=dead }}] as well as the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]][{{cite web | last=Keerthisinghe | first=Lakshman I. | url=http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/172-opinion/28002-the-british-duplicity-in-protecting-human-rights-in-sri-lanka.html | title=The British duplicity in protecting human rights in Sri Lanka | publisher=Daily Mirror | year=2013 | access-date=21 October 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021114438/http://www.dailymirror.lk/opinion/172-opinion/28002-the-british-duplicity-in-protecting-human-rights-in-sri-lanka.html | archive-date=21 October 2013 | url-status=dead }}] and the [[United States Department of State]] have criticised human rights violations in Sri Lanka.[{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010607063826/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2000/sa/index.cfm?docid=704 |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 June 2001 |title=Sri Lanka: Country Report on Human Rights Practices |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] | date=23 February 2001}}] The [[Government of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan Government]] and the LTTE have both been accused of violating human rights. A [[Report of the Secretary-General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka|report by an advisory panel to the UN secretary-general]] accused both the LTTE and the Sri Lankan government of [[Alleged war crimes during the Sri Lankan Civil War|war crimes]] during the final stages of the civil war.[{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/News/dh/infocus/Sri_Lanka/POE_Report_Full.pdf |title=Report of the Secretary – General's Panel of Experts on Accountability in Sri Lanka |page=71 |date=31 March 2011 |publisher=[[United Nations]]}}][{{cite news |url=https://www.lemonde.fr/asie-pacifique/article/2009/05/28/sri-lanka-l-onu-a-cache-l-ampleur-des-massacres_1199091_3216.html |title=L'ONU a caché l'ampleur des massacres au Sri Lanka |newspaper=Le Monde |access-date=26 February 2013 |date=28 May 2009}}] Corruption remains a problem in Sri Lanka, and there is little protection for those who stand up against corruption.[{{cite web |title=Business Corruption in Sri Lanka |url=http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/south-asia/sri-lanka/business-corruption-in-sri-lanka.aspx |publisher=Business Anti-Corruption Portal |access-date=8 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408215752/http://www.business-anti-corruption.com/country-profiles/south-asia/sri-lanka/business-corruption-in-sri-lanka.aspx |archive-date=8 April 2014}}] The 135-year-old [[Article 365 of the Sri Lankan Penal Code]] criminalises [[LGBT rights in Sri Lanka|homosexual acts]], with a penalty of up to ten years in prison.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.justice.gov/sites/default/files/eoir/legacy/2014/03/06/LKA103948.E.pdf|title=Department for Justice}}]
The [[United Nations Human Rights Council|UN Human Rights Council]] has documented [[Enforced disappearances in Sri Lanka|over 12,000 named individuals]] who have disappeared after detention by security forces in Sri Lanka, the second-highest figure in the world since the Working Group came into being in 1980.[{{cite web |last=United Nations |first=Human Rights Council Nineteenth session |title=Report of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances |url=http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/HRBodies/HRCouncil/RegularSession/Session19/A-HRC-19-58-Rev1_en.pdf |publisher=UN |access-date=24 November 2012 |pages=3,113 |quote='The original mandate derives from Commission on Human Rights resolution 20 (XXXVI) of 29 February 1980','Since its establishment, the Working Group has transmitted 12,460 cases to the Government; of those, 40 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the source, 6,535 cases have been clarified on the basis of information provided by the Government, 214 cases were found to be duplications and were therefore deleted, and 5,671 remain outstanding.'}}] The Sri Lankan government confirmed that 6,445 of these died. Allegations of human rights abuses have not ended with the close of the ethnic conflict.[{{cite news |last=Disappearances in Sri Lanka |title=Murky business: People are disappearing{{snd}}and the government has been accused|url=https://www.economist.com/asia/2012/01/14/murky-business|access-date=24 November 2012|newspaper=The Economist|date=14 January 2012}}]
[[Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights|UN Human Rights Commissioner]] [[Navanethem Pillay]] visited Sri Lanka in May 2013. After her visit, she said: "The war may have ended [in Sri Lanka], but in the meantime, democracy has been undermined and the rule of law eroded." Pillay spoke about the military's increasing involvement in civilian life and reports of military [[land grabbing]]. She also said that, while in Sri Lanka, she had been allowed to go wherever she wanted, but that Sri Lankans who came to meet her were harassed and intimidated by security forces.[{{cite news |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/asia-pacific/130831/un-human-rights-commissioner-democracy-has-been-undermined |title=UN Human Rights Commissioner: 'democracy has been undermined' in Sri Lanka |work=GlobalPost |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013}}][{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-23899082 |title=UN's Navi Pillay attacks Sri Lanka human rights record |work=BBC News |date=31 August 2013 |access-date=10 September 2013}}]
In 2012, the UK charity [[Freedom from Torture]] reported that it had received 233 referrals of torture survivors from Sri Lanka for clinical treatment or other services provided by the charity. In the same year, the group published ''Out of the Silence'', which documents evidence of torture in Sri Lanka and demonstrates that the practice has continued long after the end of the civil war in 2009.[[https://www.freedomfromtorture.org/feature/out_of_the_silence/5980 Sri Lanka: Out of the Silence]. freedomfromtorture.org] On 29 July 2020, [[Human Rights Watch]] said that the Sri Lanka government has targeted lawyers, human rights defenders, and journalists to suppress criticism against the government.[{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/07/29/sri-lanka-human-rights-under-attack |title=Sri Lanka: Human Rights Under Attack |date=29 July 2020 |access-date=29 July 2020 |publisher=Human Rights Watch}}]
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Sri Lanka}}
{{See also|Agriculture in Sri Lanka|Tea production in Sri Lanka|Tourism in Sri Lanka|Transport in Sri Lanka|Nationalisation in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:GDP per capita development of Sri Lanka.svg|thumb|Development of real GDP per capita, 1820 to 2018]]
According to the International Monetary Fund, Sri Lanka's [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] in terms of [[purchasing power parity]] is the second highest in the South Asian region in terms of [[per capita income]]. In the 19th and 20th centuries, Sri Lanka became a [[plantation economy]] famous for its production and export of [[cinnamon]], [[rubber]], and [[Tea production in Sri Lanka|Ceylon tea]], which remains a trademark national export.[{{cite web |url=http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html |title=Echoes of a Plantation Economy |publisher=historyofceylontea.com |author=Fernando, Maxwell |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120117155721/http://www.historyofceylontea.com/articles/tea_feat_echoes_plantation_economy.html |archive-date=17 January 2012}}] The [[Ministry of Ports and Aviation (Sri Lanka)|development of modern ports]] under British rule raised the strategic importance of the island as a centre of trade.[{{cite web |url=http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia |title=The Strategic Importance of Sri Lanka to Australia |publisher=asiapacificdefencereporter.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140807181932/http://www.asiapacificdefencereporter.com/articles/53/The-Strategic-Importance-of-Sri-Lanka-to-Australia |archive-date=7 August 2014 |url-status=dead }}] From 1948 to 1977, socialism strongly influenced the government's economic policies. Colonial plantations were dismantled, [[Nationalisation in Sri Lanka|industries were nationalised]], and a [[welfare state]] established. In 1977, the [[free market]] economy was introduced to the country, incorporating privatisation, deregulation, and the promotion of private enterprise.[{{cite web |url=http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561 |title=Sri Lanka – an Overview |publisher=[[Fulbright Program|Fulbright commission]] |access-date=20 August 2011 |archive-date=16 March 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110316231316/http://www.fulbrightsrilanka.com/?page_id=561 |url-status=live }}]
[[File:LK-Colombo-altes-parlament.jpg|thumb|The [[World Trade Center Colombo|World Trade Center]] in Colombo. [[Presidential Secretariat (Sri Lanka)|Presidential Secretariat]], Bank of Ceylon and Galadari Hotel are also visible in the image.]]
While the production and export of tea, rubber, coffee, sugar, and other commodities remain important, industrialisation has increased the importance of food processing, textiles, telecommunications, and finance. The country's main economic sectors are tourism, tea export, clothing, rice production, and other agricultural products. In addition to these economic sectors, overseas employment, especially in the Middle East, contributes substantially in foreign exchange.[{{cite web |url=https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/2a7fd7a7-2ce2-4b4a-afc3-6e61ff0c993c |title=Annual Report 2010 |publisher=Ministry of Finance – Sri Lanka |year=2011 |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=7 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707104601/https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/2a7fd7a7-2ce2-4b4a-afc3-6e61ff0c993c |url-status=live }}]
{{As of|2020}}, the service sector makes up 59.7% of GDP, the industrial sector 26.2%, and the agriculture sector 8.4%.[{{cite web |title=Annual Report 2020 |url=https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/0b7d1935-6235-4156-97b6-752d6a8039d0 |website=treasury.gov.lk |publisher=[[Ministry of Finance (Sri Lanka)|Ministry of Finance]] |access-date=23 May 2022 |archive-date=23 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220523190037/https://www.treasury.gov.lk/api/file/0b7d1935-6235-4156-97b6-752d6a8039d0 |url-status=live }}] The private sector accounts for 85% of the economy.[{{cite web |url=https://www.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf |page=1 |title=Country Partnership Strategy |publisher=[[Asian Development Bank]] | year=2008 |access-date=15 July 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115144722/http://www2.adb.org/Documents/CPSs/SRI/2008/CPS-SRI-2009-2011.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013}}] China, India and the United States are Sri Lanka's largest trading partners.[{{cite web |url=https://www.lki.lk/blog/who-are-sri-lankas-top-trading-partners/ |title=Sri Lanka's Top Trading Partners |publisher=Lakshman Kadiragamar Institute |year=2018 |access-date=14 October 2018 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617093141/https://www.lki.lk/blog/who-are-sri-lankas-top-trading-partners/ |url-status=live }}] Economic disparities exist between the provinces with the Western Province contributing 45.1% of the GDP and the Southern Province and the Central Province contributing 10.7% and 10%, respectively.[{{cite news |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt24.html |title=Western Province share of national GDP falling: CB |newspaper=Sunday Times |date=17 July 2011 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304113958/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/110717/BusinessTimes/bt24.html |url-status=live }}] With the end of the war, the Northern Province reported a record 22.9% GDP growth in 2010.[{{cite news |url=http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/07/18/sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-northern-province-has-recorded-highest-gdp-growth-rate-229-cent-last-yea |title=Sri Lanka's Northern province has recorded the highest GDP growth rate of 22.9 per cent last year |newspaper=[[Asian Tribune]] |date=18 July 2011 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304122500/http://www.asiantribune.com/news/2011/07/18/sri-lanka%E2%80%99s-northern-province-has-recorded-highest-gdp-growth-rate-229-cent-last-yea |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Sri Lanka 030.jpg|thumb|Sri Lanka's most widely known export, [[Ceylon tea]], which [[ISO]] considers the cleanest tea in the world in terms of pesticide residues. Sri Lanka is also the world's 3rd largest exporter of tea.[{{cite web |url=https://www.newswire.lk/2025/03/27/india-surpasses-sri-lanka-to-become-second-largest-tea-exporter/ |title=Newswire |date=27 March 2025 |publisher=newswire.lk|access-date=27 March 2025 }}{{dead link|date=July 2022|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}]]]
The per capita income of Sri Lanka doubled from 2005 to 2011.[{{cite web |url=http://www.tops.lk/article35231-parliament-per-capita-income-has-doubled.html |title=Per capita income has doubled |publisher=tops.lk |year=2011 |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=20 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120320123833/http://www.tops.lk/article35231-parliament-per-capita-income-has-doubled.html |url-status=dead }}] During the same period, poverty dropped from 15.2% to 7.6%, unemployment rate dropped from 7.2% to 4.9%, [[market capitalisation]] of the [[Colombo Stock Exchange]] quadrupled, and the [[Government budget deficit|budget deficit]] doubled.[{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/PovertyIndicators2009_10.pdf |page=3 |title=Inequality drops with poverty |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=27 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110627062832/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/poverty/PovertyIndicators2009_10.pdf |url-status=live }}]
In 2016, Sri Lanka ranked 5th in the [[World Giving Index]], registering high levels of contentment and charitable behaviour in its society.[{{cite web |title=CAF world giving index 2016 |url=https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/1950a_wgi_2016_report_web_v2_241016.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |website=cafonline.org |publisher=Charities aid foundation |access-date=18 August 2019 |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025184737/https://www.cafonline.org/docs/default-source/about-us-publications/1950a_wgi_2016_report_web_v2_241016.pdf?sfvrsn=4 |url-status=live }}] In 2010, ''[[The New York Times]]'' placed Sri Lanka at the top of its list of 31 places to visit.[{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html |title=The 31 Places to Go in 2010 |work=The New York Times |date=24 January 2010 |access-date=18 February 2017 |archive-date=19 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170119022604/http://www.nytimes.com/2010/01/10/travel/10places.html |url-status=live }}] [[S&P Dow Jones Indices]] classifies Sri Lanka as a [[Frontier markets|frontier market]] as of 2018.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.indexologyblog.com/2018/04/26/a-closer-look-at-indices-country-classifications/ |title=A Closer Look at Indices Country Classifications – Indexology® Blog | S&P Dow Jones Indices |access-date=5 April 2021 |archive-date=11 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180711161138/https://www.indexologyblog.com/2018/04/26/a-closer-look-at-indices-country-classifications/ |url-status=live }}] [[List of countries by Human Development Index|Sri Lanka ranks]] well above other South Asian countries in the [[Human Development Index]] (HDI) with an index of 0.750.
[[File:Colombo city skyline at night.png|thumb|Sri Lanka's commercial capital [[Colombo|Colombo city]] at night, in 2024]]
By 2016, the country's debt soared as it was developing its infrastructure to the point of near bankruptcy which required a bailout from the [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF).[{{cite web |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2016/05/02/why-sri-lankas-economic-outlook-is-looking-less-rosy.html |title=Why Sri Lanka's economic outlook is looking less rosy |last=Shaffer |first=Leslie |date=2 May 2016 |publisher=CNBC |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote=While the government is aiming to raise its low revenue collection, partly through an increase in the value-added tax rate ... the country has a spotty record on tax collection. |archive-date=3 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120133/https://www.cnbc.com/2016/05/02/why-sri-lankas-economic-outlook-is-looking-less-rosy.html |url-status=live }}] The IMF had agreed to provide a US$1.5 billion bailout loan in April 2016 after Sri Lanka provided a set of criteria intended to improve its economy. By the fourth quarter of 2016, the debt was estimated to be $64.9 billion. Additional debt had been incurred in the past by state-owned organisations and this was said to be at least $9.5 billion. Since early 2015, domestic debt increased by 12% and external debt by 25%.[{{cite web |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/09/30/sri-lankas-debt-crisis-is-so-bad-the-government-doesnt-even-know-how-much-money-it-owes/ |title=Sri Lanka's Debt Crisis Is So Bad The Government Doesn't Even Know How Much Money It Owes |last=Shepard |first=Wade |date=30 September 2016 |work=[[Forbes]] |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote="We still don't know the exact total debt number," Sri Lanka's prime minister admitted to parliament earlier this month. |archive-date=1 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001150730/https://www.forbes.com/sites/wadeshepard/2016/09/30/sri-lankas-debt-crisis-is-so-bad-the-government-doesnt-even-know-how-much-money-it-owes/ |url-status=live }}] In November 2016, the IMF reported that the initial disbursement was larger than US$150 million originally planned, a full US$162.6 million (SDR 119.894 million). The agency's evaluation for the first tranche was cautiously optimistic about the future. Under the programme, the Sri Lankan government implemented a new Inland Revenue Act and an automatic fuel pricing formula which was noted by the IMF in its fourth review. In 2018 China agreed to bail out Sri Lanka with a loan of $1.25 billion to deal with foreign debt repayment spikes in 2019 to 2021.[{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2016/11/18/PR16515-Sri-Lanka-IMF-Completes-First-Review-of-the-Extended-Arrangement-Under-the-EFF |title=IMF Completes First Review of the Extended Arrangement Under the EFF with Sri Lanka and Approves US$162.6 Million Disbursement |author= |date=18 November 2016 |website=IMF |access-date=14 January 2017 |quote=[IMF] completed the first review of Sri Lanka's economic performance under the programme supported by a three-year extended arrangement under the Extended Fund Facility (EFF) arrangement. |archive-date=20 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161120140933/https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2016/11/18/PR16515-Sri-Lanka-IMF-Completes-First-Review-of-the-Extended-Arrangement-Under-the-EFF |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2018/06/19/Sri-Lanka-2018-Article-IV-Consultation-and-the-Fourth-Review-Under-the-Extended-Arrangement-45997 |title=Sri Lanka : 2018 Article IV Consultation and the Fourth Review Under the Extended Arrangement Under the Extended Fund Facility-Press Release; Staff Report; and Statement by the Executive Director for Sri Lanka |website=IMF |language=en |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625141232/https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/CR/Issues/2018/06/19/Sri-Lanka-2018-Article-IV-Consultation-and-the-Fourth-Review-Under-the-Extended-Arrangement-45997 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://economynext.com/China_on_track_to_bail_out_Sri_Lanka_with_US$1.25bn_in_2018-3-11431.html |title=China on track to bail out Sri Lanka with US$1.25bn in 2018 |website=economynext.com |language=en |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805112826/https://economynext.com/China_on_track_to_bail_out_Sri_Lanka_with_US$1.25bn_in_2018-3-11431.html |archive-date=5 August 2018 |url-status=dead}}]
In September 2021, Sri Lanka declared a major [[economic crisis]].[{{cite web|date=1 September 2021|title=Covid: Sri Lanka in economic emergency as food prices soar|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58390292|access-date=10 September 2021|website=BBC News|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130122230/https://www.bbc.com/news/business-58390292|url-status=live}}] The Chief of its Central Bank has stepped down amid the crisis.[{{cite web|last=Ondaatjie|first=Anusha|date=10 September 2021|title=Sri Lanka Central Bank Chief Steps Down Amid Reserves Crisis|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-10/sri-lanka-central-bank-governor-lakshman-to-step-down-sept-14|access-date=10 September 2021|website=Bloomberg L.P.|archive-date=10 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910101236/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-09-10/sri-lanka-central-bank-governor-lakshman-to-step-down-sept-14|url-status=live}}] The Parliament has declared emergency regulations due to the crisis, seeking to ban "food hoarding".[{{cite web|date=7 September 2021|title=Sri Lanka parliament approves state of emergency – Food News|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/7/sri-lanka-parliament-emergency-food-prices-economic-crisis|access-date=10 September 2021|website=Al Jazeera|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907035532/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/7/sri-lanka-parliament-emergency-food-prices-economic-crisis|url-status=live}}][{{Cite web|title=Sri Lanka parliament passes emergency regulations to seize food stocks, warehouses|date=6 September 2021|url=https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-parliament-passes-emergency-regulations-to-seize-food-stocks-warehouses-85840/|access-date=11 September 2021|archive-date=6 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210906131412/https://economynext.com/sri-lanka-parliament-passes-emergency-regulations-to-seize-food-stocks-warehouses-85840/|url-status=live}}]
Tourism, which provided the economy with an input of foreign currency, significantly declined as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic.[{{Cite web |title=SLTDA {{!}} Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority |url=https://www.sltda.gov.lk/en/weekly-tourist-arrivals-reports-2025 |access-date=2026-08-02 |website=SLTDA |language=en}}][{{Cite web |last=News |first=In |date=2026-07-29 |title=Sri Lanka tourist arrivals surpass 1.3 million in 2026 |url=https://www.newswire.lk/2026/07/29/sri-lanka-tourist-arrivals-surpass-1-3-million-in-2026/ |access-date=2026-08-02 |website=Newswire |language=en}}]
=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:UG-LK Photowalk - Colombo Harbour - 2017-03-12 (10).jpg|thumb|[[Port of Colombo|Colombo Port]] is the largest and busiest port in Sri Lanka]]
Sri Lanka has an extensive road network for inland transportation. With more than {{cvt|100,000|km}} of paved roads,[[http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSARREGTOPTRANSPORT/1812598-1130163750121/20988151/Sri_Lanka_Benchmarking_Summary_21-12-04.pdf Sri Lanka: Transport at a Glance – Core Road Performance Indicators] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114922/http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTSARREGTOPTRANSPORT/1812598-1130163750121/20988151/Sri_Lanka_Benchmarking_Summary_21-12-04.pdf |date=2 April 2015 }} World Bank] it has one of the highest road densities in the world ({{cvt|1.5|km|disp=or}} of paved roads per every {{cvt|1|km2|disp=or}} of land). The road network consists of 35 [[List of A-Grade highways in Sri Lanka|A-Grade highways]] and [[Expressways of Sri Lanka|four]] [[controlled-access highway]]s.[{{cite web |title=Southern Expressway |url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090415105137/http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/stdp.htm |archive-date=15 April 2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=Road Development Authority}}][{{cite web |title=Colombo_Katunayaka Expressway |url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/cke.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090417080550/http://www.rda.gov.lk/supported/expressways/cke.htm |archive-date=17 April 2009 |access-date=15 July 2014 |publisher=Road Development Authority}}] A and B grade roads are national (arterial) highways administered by Road Development Authority.[{{cite web |url=http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm |title=Class A, B & E Roads |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160428015938/http://www.rda.gov.lk/source/rda_roads.htm |archive-date=28 April 2016}}] C and D grade roads are provincial roads coming under the purview of the Provincial Road Development Authority of the respective province. The other roads are local roads falling under local government authorities.
The railway network, operated by the state-run National Railway operator [[Sri Lanka Railways]], spans {{convert|1447|km|mi|-1}}.[{{cite web |title=Statistics – Sri Lanka Railways |url=http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228064539/http://www.transport.gov.lk/web/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=128&Itemid=114&lang=en |archive-date=28 December 2012 |publisher=Ministry of Transport Sri Lanka}}] Sri Lanka also has three [[deep-water port]]s at [[Port of Colombo|Colombo]], [[Galle]], and [[Trincomalee]], in addition to the newest port being built at [[Ruhunu Magampura International Port|Hambantota]].
=== Transition to biological agriculture ===
In June 2021, Sri Lanka imposed a nationwide ban on inorganic fertilisers and pesticides. The programme was welcomed by its adviser [[Vandana Shiva]],[{{Cite web|date=16 June 2021|title=Sri Lanka's shift towards organic farming|url=https://navdanyainternational.org/sri-lankas-shift-towards-organic-farming/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Navdanya international|language=en-US|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905105342/https://navdanyainternational.org/sri-lankas-shift-towards-organic-farming/|url-status=live}}] but ignored critical voices from scientific and farming community who warned about possible collapse of farming,[{{Cite web|title=Opinion {{!}} The ban on chemical fertilizer and the way forward of Sri Lankan Tea Industry|url=https://agrigateglobal.com/reads/opinion/opinion-the-ban-on-chemical-fertilizer-and-the-way-forward-of-sri-lankan-tea-industry/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Agrigate Global|date=25 May 2021 |language=en-US|quote=By diverting the attention of policymakers towards pointless nonscientific arguments instead of promoting such integrated management systems and high technological fertilizer production, will be only a time-wasting effort and meanwhile, the global demand for Ceylon Tea will generate diminishing returns. At present, there are about 500,000 direct beneficiaries from the tea industry and about 600 factories are operating around the country. In general, the livelihood of about 3 million people is directly and indirectly woven around the domestic tea industry. The researchers and the experienced growers have predicted that a 50 percent reduction in the yield has to be anticipated with the ban of chemical fertilizer. The negative implication of this yield reduction is such that there is a risk of collapsing the banking sector which is centralized around the tea industry in the major tea growing areas including Ratnapura, Galle, Matara, Kaluthara, and Kegalle.|archive-date=5 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905104247/https://agrigateglobal.com/amp/reads/opinion/opinion-the-ban-on-chemical-fertilizer-and-the-way-forward-of-sri-lankan-tea-industry/|url-status=live}}][{{Cite web|title=Opinion {{!}} Inorganic Fertilizer and Agrochemicals Ban in Sri Lanka and Fallacies of Organic Agriculture|url=https://agrigateglobal.com/reads/opinion/inorganic-fertilizer-and-agrochemicals-ban-in-sri-lanka-and-fallacies-of-organic-agriculture/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Agrigate Global|date=11 May 2021 |language=en-US|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015032253/https://agrigateglobal.com/amp/reads/opinion/inorganic-fertilizer-and-agrochemicals-ban-in-sri-lanka-and-fallacies-of-organic-agriculture/|url-status=live}}][{{Cite web|date=8 June 2021|title=Sri Lanka Going Organic: Rethink the strategy; Agriculturists Write to President {{!}} The Sri Lankan Scientist|url=https://scientist.lk/2021/06/08/sri-lanka-going-organic-rethink-the-strategy-agriculturists-write-to-president/|access-date=5 September 2021|language=en-US|archive-date=19 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211119105054/https://scientist.lk/2021/06/08/sri-lanka-going-organic-rethink-the-strategy-agriculturists-write-to-president/|url-status=live}}][{{Cite web|date=30 June 2021|title=Organic Farming In Sri Lanka – Ideology Of Hitler & Sri Lankan Agri "Cults"|url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/organic-farming-in-sri-lanka-ideology-of-hitler-sri-lankan-agri-cults/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=Colombo Telegraph|language=en-US|archive-date=15 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015022319/https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/organic-farming-in-sri-lanka-ideology-of-hitler-sri-lankan-agri-cults/|url-status=live}}][{{Cite web|date=25 June 2021|title=Sri Lanka's organic push threatens to backpedal ag progress|url=https://www.agdaily.com/insights/perspective-sri-lankas-organic-push-threatens-to-backpedal-ag/|access-date=5 September 2021|website=AGDAILY|language=en-US|archive-date=3 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211003002356/https://www.agdaily.com/insights/perspective-sri-lankas-organic-push-threatens-to-backpedal-ag/|url-status=live}}] including financial crisis due to devaluation of national currency pivoted around tea industry.[{{Cite web|title=Organic food revolution in Sri Lanka threatens its tea industry|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/1/organic-food-revolution-sri-lanka-tea-industry|access-date=5 September 2021|website=aljazeera.com|language=en|archive-date=4 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210904184316/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/1/organic-food-revolution-sri-lanka-tea-industry|url-status=live}}] In September 2021 the government declared an economic emergency, as the situation was further aggravated by falling national currency exchange rate, inflation rising as a result of high food prices, and pandemic restrictions in tourism which further decreased country's income.[{{Cite news|last=Watt|first=Louise|date=21 November 2021|title=Sri Lanka abandons drive to become world's first organic country amid spiralling food prices|language=en-GB|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/11/21/sri-lanka-abandons-drive-become-worlds-first-organic-country/|url-status=live|access-date=18 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220118001307/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2021/11/21/sri-lanka-abandons-drive-become-worlds-first-organic-country/|archive-date=18 January 2022|issn=0307-1235}}] As of December 2021, the damage to agricultural production was already done, with prices having risen substantially for vegetables in Sri Lanka, and time needed to recover from the crisis. The ban on fertiliser has been lifted for certain crops, but the price of urea has risen internationally due to the price for oil and gas.[{{cite web|last1=Wipulasena|first1=Aanya|last2=Mashal|first2=Mujib|date=7 December 2021|title=Sri Lanka's Plunge Into Organic Farming Brings Disaster|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/07/world/asia/sri-lanka-organic-farming-fertilizer.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220107014029/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/07/world/asia/sri-lanka-organic-farming-fertilizer.html|archive-date=7 January 2022|access-date=19 January 2022|website=[[The New York Times]]}}] Jeevika Weerahewa, a senior lecturer at the [[University of Peradeniya]], predicted that the ban would reduce the paddy harvest in 2022 by an unprecedented 50%.[{{Cite news|last1=Wallen|first1=Joe|last2=Hewage|first2=Nishantha|date=31 January 2022|title=Sri Lankan families go hungry as cost of food skyrockets|language=en-GB|work=The Daily Telegraph|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/sri-lankan-families-go-hungry-cost-food-skyrockets/|url-status=live|access-date=1 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201045654/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/sri-lankan-families-go-hungry-cost-food-skyrockets/|archive-date=1 February 2022|issn=0307-1235}}]
===Tourism===
{{Main|Tourism in Sri Lanka}}
Sri Lanka's tourism industry is recovering, with tourism revenue reaching over $1.5 billion in the first half of 2024, a 78% increase year-on-year. Tourist arrivals also increased to 1.01 million, up 62% from the same period in 2023. This growth is attributed to the government's proactive measures and improvements from [[SriLankan Airlines]].[{{cite web | last=Bhutia | first=Peden Doma | title=Is This the Comeback of Sri Lanka's Tourism? $1.5 Billion Revenue Suggests So | website=Skift | date=10 July 2024 | url=https://skift.com/2024/07/10/is-this-the-comeback-of-sri-lankas-tourism-a-1-5-billion-revenue-suggests-so/#:~:text=Sri%20Lanka's%20tourism%20revenue%20reached,have%20played%20a%20crucial%20role. | access-date=1 January 2025}}] The government launched a global tourism marketing campaign and offered visa-free entry for visitors from several countries to encourage tourism. A free tourist visa programme was introduced for visitors from selected countries, allowing them to stay for up to 30 days.[{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/cph2011Pub/pop42.pdf |title=Sri Lanka Census of Population and Housing, 2011 – Population by Ethnicity |publisher=Department of Census and Statistics, Sri Lanka |date=20 April 2012 |access-date=10 October 2012 |archive-date=13 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113161924/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/PopHouSat/CPH2011/Pages/Activities/Reports/cph2011Pub/pop42.pdf |url-status=dead }}] [[Sri Lankan Tamils]] are the second major ethnic group in the island, with a percentage of 11.2%. [[Sri Lankan Moors|Moors]] comprise 9.2%. There are also small ethnic groups such as the [[Burgher people|Burghers]] (of mixed European descent) and [[Sri Lankan Malays|Malays]] from Southeast Asia. Moreover, there is a small population of [[Vedda people]] who are believed to be the original indigenous group to inhabit the island.[{{cite web |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |title=Early Man and the Rise of Civilisation in Sri Lanka: the Archaeological Evidence |work=lankalibrary.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=5 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140105134736/http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera2.html |url-status=live }}]{{Clear}}
===Largest cities===
{{Largest cities
| country = Sri Lanka
| stat_ref = (2012 Department of Census and Statistics enumeration)[{{cite web|title=Population of Municipal Councils and Urban Councils by sex Census 2012|url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/abstract2021/CHAP2/2.4|website=statistics.gov.lk|publisher=Department of Census and Statistics|access-date=6 July 2017|date=2012|archive-date=7 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220807014745/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/abstract2021/CHAP2/2.4|url-status=live}}]
| div_name = Province
| city_1 = Colombo | div_1 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_1 = 561,314
| city_2 = Kaduwela, Western Province{{!}}Kaduwela | div_2 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_2 = 252,041
| city_3 = Maharagama | div_3 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_3 = 196,423
| city_4 = Kesbewa | div_4 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_4 = 185,122
| city_5 = Dehiwala-Mount Lavinia | div_5 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_5 = 184,468
| city_6 = Moratuwa | div_6 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_6 = 168,280
| city_7 = Negombo | div_7 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_7 = 142,449
| city_8 = Sri Jayawardenepura Kotte | div_8 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_8 = 107,925
| city_9 = Kalmunai | div_9 = Eastern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Eastern | pop_9 = 99,893
| city_10 = Kandy | div_10 = Central Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Central | pop_10 = 98,828
| city_11 = Galle | div_11 = Southern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Southern | pop_11 = 86,333
| city_12 = Batticaloa | div_12 = Eastern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Eastern | pop_12 = 86,227
| city_13 = Jaffna | div_13 = Northern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Northern | pop_13 = 80,829
| city_14 = Matara, Sri Lanka{{!}}Matara | div_14 = Southern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Southern | pop_14 = 74,193
| city_15 = Gampaha | div_15 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_15 = 62,335
| city_16 = Katunayake | div_16 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_16 = 60,915
| city_17 = Boralesgamuwa | div_17 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_17 = 60,110
| city_18 = Kolonnawa | div_18 = Western Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Western | pop_18 = 60,044
| city_19 = Anuradhapura | div_19 = North Central Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}North Central | pop_19 = 50,595
| city_20 = Trincomalee | div_20 = Eastern Province, Sri Lanka{{!}}Eastern | pop_20 = 48,351
}}
=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of Sri Lanka}}
[[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] and [[Tamil language|Tamil]] are the two [[official language]]s.[{{cite web |url=http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm |title=Official Languages Commission |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120214143656/http://www.languagescom.gov.lk/about_us.htm |archive-date=14 February 2012}}] The constitution defines [[Sri Lankan English|English]] as the link language. English is widely used for education, scientific and commercial purposes. Members of the [[Burgher people|Burgher]] community speak variant forms of [[Portuguese Creole]] and Dutch with varying proficiency, while members of the Malay community speak a form of [[Creole language|Creole]] [[Sri Lanka Malay language|Malay]] that is unique to the island.[{{cite web |url=https://www.eva.mpg.de/lingua/conference/10-slm2010/pdf/How_unique_is_Sri_Lanka_Malay.pdf |title=How unique is Sri Lanka Malay? |work=Peter Bakker |publisher=[[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]]}}]
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Sri Lanka}}
{{Pie chart
| thumb = left
| caption = Religion in Sri Lanka (2024 census)[{{cite web |title=A3 : RELIGIOUS COMPOSITION |url=https://www.statistics.gov.lk//Resource/en/Population/CPH_2024/Population_Preliminary_Report.pdf |work=Census of Population & Housing, 2024 |publisher=Department of Census & Statistics, Sri Lanka |access-date=30 October 2025 }}]
| label1 = [[Buddhism in Sri Lanka|Buddhism]]
| value1 = 69.8
| color1 = Gold
| label2 = [[Hinduism in Sri Lanka|Hinduism]]
| value2 = 12.5
| color2 = DarkOrange
| label3 = [[Islam in Sri Lanka|Islam]]
| value3 = 10.7
| color3 = Green
| label4 = [[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]]
| value4 = 6.9
| color4 = Dodger Blue
| label5 = Others
| value5 = 0.1
| color5 = White
}}
[[Buddhism]] is the largest and is considered as an "[[Official religion]]" of Sri Lanka under Chapter II, Article 9, "The Republic of Sri Lanka shall give to Buddhism the foremost place and accordingly it shall be the duty of the State to protect and foster the Buddha Sasana".[{{cite web |url=https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/018-SLLR-SLLR-2007-V-1-ASHIK-v.-BANDULA-AND-OTHERSNoise-Pollution-Case.pdf |title=Ashik v Bandula And Others (Noise Pollution Case) |website=lawnet.gov.lk |access-date=6 January 2021 |archive-date=1 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301194734/https://www.lawnet.gov.lk/wp-content/uploads/2016/11/018-SLLR-SLLR-2007-V-1-ASHIK-v.-BANDULA-AND-OTHERSNoise-Pollution-Case.pdf |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90234.htm |title=Sri Lanka |work=International Religious Freedom Report 2007 |publisher=[[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor]] | date=14 September 2007}}]
Buddhism is practised by 69.8% of the Sri Lankan population with most being predominantly from [[Theravada]] school of thought.[{{cite web |url=http://www.peacehall.com/news/gb/english/2005/03/200503280400.shtml |title=Theravada Buddhism and Shan/Thai/Dai/Laos Regions Boxun News |publisher=Peacehall.com |date=28 March 2005}}] Sri Lanka has the longest continuous history of Buddhism of any predominantly Buddhist nation.[{{cite web |url=http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |title=Theravada: Buddhism in Sri Lankan |publisher=Buddhanet.net |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-date=21 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130221072955/http://www.buddhanet.net/e-learning/buddhistworld/lanka-txt.htm |url-status=dead }}] During periods of decline, the Sri Lankan monastic lineage was revived through contact with Thailand and Burma.[{{cite journal |last1=Claveyrolas |first1=Mathieu |last2=Goreau-Ponceaud |first2=Anthony |last3=Madavan |first3=Delon |last4=Meyer |first4=Eric |last5=Trouillet |first5=Pierre-yves |title=Hindus and Others: A Sri Lankan Perspective (Introduction) |journal=The South Asianist Journal |date=2018 |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=4 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01900123/document |access-date=4 July 2022 |publisher=University of Edinburg}}] Hinduism was the dominant religion in Sri Lanka before the arrival of Buddhism in the 2nd century BCE. Buddhism was introduced into Sri Lanka by Mahinda, the son of Emperor Ashoka, during the reign of King [[Devanampiya Tissa]];[Asian Religions in British Columbia, UBC Press 2011, p. 125.] the Sinhalese embraced Buddhism and Tamils remain Hindus in Sri Lanka. However, it was activity from across the [[Palk Strait]] that truly set the scene for [[Hinduism]]'s survival in Sri Lanka. [[Shaivism]] (devotional worship of Lord Shiva) was the dominant branch practised by the Tamil peoples, thus most of the traditional [[Hindu temple architecture]] and [[philosophy]] of Sri Lanka drew heavily from this particular strand of Hinduism. Thirugnanasambanthar mentioned the names of several Sri Lankan Hindu temples in his works.[[http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka Lecture on Hindu sculpture and architecture of Sri Lanka] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012234629/http://www.sundaytimes.lk/events/611-lecture-on-hindu-sculpture-and-architecture-of-sri-lanka |date=12 October 2012 }} Sunday Times – 29 September 2010]
[[Islam in Sri Lanka|Islam]] is the third most prevalent religion in the country, having first been brought to the island by Arab traders over the course of many centuries, starting around the mid or late 7th century CE. Most followers on the island today are [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] who follow the [[Shafiʽi school|Shafi'i school]][{{cite web |url=http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html |title=Lankan Muslims' historical links with India |publisher=Indianmuslims.info |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304060024/http://www.indianmuslims.info/history_of_muslims_in_india/lankan_muslims_historical_links_with_india.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 }}] and are believed to be descendants of Arab traders and the local women whom they married.[{{cite web |url=http://sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/the-origins-and-affinities-of-the-sri-lankan-moors.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729002356/http://sailanmuslim.com/news/wp-content/uploads/the-origins-and-affinities-of-the-sri-lankan-moors.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 July 2014 |title=Origins and Affinities of the Sri Lankan Moors}}]
[[File:ගල්ඒදණ්ඩ පුරාණ රජමහා විහාරයේ වැඩ වාසය කරන ස්වාමින්වහන්සේ.jpg|thumb|[[Bhikkhu|Buddhist monks]] in Sri Lanka represent a significant community dedicated to the [[Theravada]] tradition]]
[[Christianity in Sri Lanka|Christianity]] reached the country at least as early as the fifth century (and possibly in the first),[{{cite web |author=Pinto, Leonard |date=20 September 2013 |title=A Brief History Of Christianity In Sri Lanka |url=https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230612094839/https://www.colombotelegraph.com/index.php/a-brief-history-of-christianity-in-sri-lanka/ |archive-date=12 June 2023 |access-date=26 February 2015 |publisher=Colombo Telegraph}}] gaining a wider foothold through Western colonists who began to arrive early in the 16th century.[{{Cite book |title=The carpenter-heretic: a collection of Buddhist stories about Christianity from the 18th century Sri Lanka |year=1998 |isbn=978-955-9098-42-3 |author1=Young, R. F. |author2=Sēnānāyaka, J. E. B. |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Colombo: Karunaratne & Sons. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=axkLAAAAYAAJ}}] About 7.4% of the Sri Lankan population are Christians, of whom 82% are [[Catholic Church in Sri Lanka|Roman Catholics]] who trace their religious heritage directly to the Portuguese. Tamil Catholics attribute their religious heritage to [[Francis Xavier|St. Francis Xavier]] as well as Portuguese missionaries. The remaining Christians are evenly split between the [[Church of Ceylon|Anglican Church of Ceylon]] and other [[Protestantism|Protestant denominations]].[{{cite web |url=https://www.mongabay.com/history/sri_lanka/sri_lanka-christianity.html |title=Sri Lanka – Christianity |publisher=[[Mongabay]]}}]
There is also a small population of [[Zoroastrian]] immigrants from India ([[Parsis]]) who settled in Ceylon during the period of British rule.[{{cite web |url=http://www.rootsweb.ancestry.com/~lkawgw/parsiintro.htm |title=The Parsi Community of Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Ancestry.com]]}}] This community has steadily dwindled in recent years.[{{cite web |url=http://sundaytimes.lk/000910/plus5.html |title=Sri Lankan Parsis facing extinction? |work=The Sunday Times}}]
Religion plays a prominent role in the life and culture of Sri Lankans. The [[Buddhist]] majority observe [[Poya]] Days each month according to the [[Lunar calendar]], and [[Hindus]] and [[Muslims]] also observe their own holidays. In a 2008 [[Gallup poll]], Sri Lanka was ranked the third most religious country in the world, with 99% of Sri Lankans saying religion was an important part of their daily life.[{{cite web |url=https://www.gallup.com/poll/114211/Alabamians-Iranians-Common.aspx |title=What Alabamians and Iranians Have in Common |publisher=[[The Gallup Organization]] | date=9 February 2009}}]
=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:SLINTEC060917.jpg|thumb|The [[Sri Lanka Institute of Nanotechnology]] is a research institute specialising in the field of [[nanotechnology]].]]
With a [[literacy rate]] of 92.9%,[{{cite journal |title=Problems of Illiteracy in a Literate Developing Society: Sri Lanka |author=Gunawardena, Chandra |year=1997 |volume=43 |issue=5/6 |pages=595–609 |journal=International Review of Education |jstor=3445068 |doi=10.1023/A:1003010726149 |bibcode=1997IREdu..43..595G |s2cid=142788627}}] Its youth literacy rate stands at 98.8%,[{{cite web |title=Literacy rate, youth total (% of people ages 15-24) – Sri Lanka |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.ZS?locations=LK |publisher=World Bank | access-date=24 February 2021 |date=September 2020}}] computer literacy rate at 35%,[{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2011/07/29/cdnstory.asp?sid=20110705_01 |title=Govt targets 75% computer literacy rate by 2016 |work=The Daily News}}] and primary school enrollment rate at over 99%.[{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_statistics.html |title=Sri Lanka – Statistics |publisher=[[UNICEF]] |access-date=13 November 2010 |archive-date=30 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830142313/https://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/sri_lanka_statistics.html |url-status=dead }}] An education system which dictates nine years of [[Compulsory education|compulsory schooling]] for every child is in place.
The [[free education]] system established in 1945[{{Cite book |author=De Silva, K.M. |title=A Short History of Sri Lanka |publisher=[[University of California Press]] | year=1981 |place=Los Angeles |page=472 |isbn=978-0-520-04320-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dByI_qil26YC}}] is a result of the initiative of [[C. W. W. Kannangara]] and A. Ratnayake.[{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/06/08/fea26.asp |title=Honouring the Father of Free Education |work=The Daily News}}][{{cite web |url=http://transcurrents.com/tc/2009/10/who_was_father_of_free_educati.html |title=Who was "Father" of free education in Sri Lanka?: C.W.W. Kannangara or A. Ratnayake? |publisher=Trans Currents |access-date=21 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065821/http://transcurrents.com/tc/2009/10/who_was_father_of_free_educati.html |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=usurped }}] It is one of the few countries in the world that provide universal free education from primary to tertiary stage.[{{cite web |url=https://countrystudies.us/sri-lanka/46.htm |title=Education: Traditional and Colonial Systems |publisher=[[Library of Congress Country Studies]]}}] Kannangara led the establishment of the [[Madhya Vidyalaya]]s (central schools) in different parts of the country in order to provide education to Sri Lanka's rural children.[{{Cite web |date=28 October 2021 |title=Universities and Higher Educational Institutions established under the purview of the University Grants Commission |url=https://www.ugc.ac.lk/index.php?option=com_university&view=list&Itemid=25&lang=en |access-date=28 October 2021 |website=UGC |archive-date=28 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028134956/https://www.ugc.ac.lk/index.php?option=com_university&view=list&Itemid=25&lang=en |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.ugc.ac.lk/downloads/statistics/stat_2010/Chapter1.pdf |page=3 |title=Sri Lanka University Statistics 2010 |publisher=[[University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)|University Grants Commission]]}}] A lack of responsiveness of the education system to labour market requirements, disparities in access to quality education, lack of an effective linkage between secondary and tertiary education remain major challenges for the education sector.[{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/geography/fr/files/10905/12353682765Sri_Lanka.pdf/Sri%2BLanka.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130623172848/http://portal.unesco.org/geography/fr/files/10905/12353682765Sri_Lanka.pdf/Sri%2BLanka.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 June 2013 |pages=3–4 |title=Facing Global and Local Challenges: The New Dynamics for Higher Education – Sri Lanka Country Report |publisher=[[UNESCO]]}}] A number of private, degree awarding institutions have emerged in recent times to fill in these gaps, yet the participation at tertiary level education remains at 5.1%.[{{cite web |url=http://www.ugc.ac.lk/en/statistics/educational-indicators.html |title=Educational Indicators 1980–2009 |publisher=[[University Grants Commission (Sri Lanka)]] | url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222203802/http://www.ugc.ac.lk/en/statistics/educational-indicators.html |archive-date=22 February 2011}}] Sri Lanka was ranked 93rd in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.[{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/sri-lanka |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}][{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}]
=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Life expectancy in Sri Lanka.svg|thumb|Development of life expectancy, showing drops in 2004 due to an [[2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami|earthquake and tsunami]] and in 2009 due to [[War crimes during the final stages of the Sri Lankan civil war|civil war]]]]
Sri Lankans have a [[life expectancy]] of 75.5 years at birth, which is 10% higher than the world average.[{{cite web |url=http://www.island.lk/2008/05/31/features1.html |title=Our Pro-poor health care policy rewarded |work=The Island |access-date=7 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304074209/http://www.island.lk/2008/05/31/features1.html |url-status=dead }}] health care system adopted by the country has contributed much towards these figures.[{{cite web |url=http://www.quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html |title=Universal Health Care |publisher=quickoverview.com |access-date=15 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140412190920/http://quickoverview.com/issues/universal-healthcare-system.html |archive-date=12 April 2014 |url-status=dead}}] Sri Lanka ranks first among southeast Asian countries with respect to deaths by suicide, with 33 deaths per 100,000 persons. According to the Department of Census and Statistics, poverty, destructive pastimes, and inability to cope with stressful situations are the main causes behind the high suicide rates.[{{cite web |url=http://www.statistics.gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf |title=Social Conditions of Sri Lanka |pages=15–17 |publisher=statistics.gov.lk |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117025044/http://www.statistics.gov.lk/social/social%20conditions.pdf |archive-date=17 November 2017 |access-date=10 March 2018}}]
On 8 July 2020, the [[World Health Organization]] declared that Sri Lanka had successfully eliminated [[rubella]] and [[measles]] ahead of their 2023 target.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/southeastasia/news/detail/08-07-2020-maldives-sri-lanka-eliminate-measles-and-rubella-ahead-of-2023-target|title=Maldives, Sri Lanka eliminate measles and rubella, ahead of 2023 target|website=www.who.int}}]
[[Sexually transmitted infections]] (STIs) in Sri Lanka, including [[syphilis]] and [[genital herpes]], are predominantly reported in regions with high tourist activity and among high-risk groups.[{{cite journal |last1=Madurapperuma |first1=B. D. |last2=Nishad |first2=A. A. N. |last3=Borges |first3=J. S. |last4=Solangaarachchi |first4=D. I. K. |last5=Kangath |first5=R. V. |last6=Hewage |first6=S. A. |title=A preliminary assessment of sexual transmitted infections (STIs) in Sri Lanka: District-wise overview |journal=Sri Lanka Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology |date=2018 |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=31–38 |doi=10.4038/sljog.v40i2.7844 |url=https://sljog.sljol.info/articles/7844/files/submission/proof/7844-1-27604-1-10-20180727.pdf}}]
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Vavuniya Kavadi.JPG|thumb|Hindu devotees engaging in ''[[Kavadi]]'' at a temple in [[Vavuniya]]]]
The culture of Sri Lanka is influenced primarily by Buddhism and Hinduism.[{{cite web |url=https://www.panix.com/~kendra/tea/precolonial_history.html |title=Pre-Colonial Sri Lankan History |publisher=panix.com}}] Sri Lanka is the home to two main traditional cultures: the Sinhalese (centred in Kandy and Anuradhapura) and the Tamil (centred in Jaffna). Tamils co-existed with the Sinhalese people since then, and the early mixing rendered the two ethnic groups almost physically indistinguishable.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=97}}] Ancient Sri Lanka is marked for its genius in [[Ancient constructions of Sri Lanka#Irrigation Works|hydraulic engineering]] and [[Architecture of ancient Sri Lanka|architecture]]. The British colonial culture has also influenced the locals. The rich cultural traditions shared by all Sri Lankan cultures is the basis of the country's long life expectancy, advanced health standards, and high literacy rate.[{{Harvnb|Nubin|2002|p=94}}]
=== Visual, literary and performing arts ===
{{Main|Cinema of Sri Lanka|Music of Sri Lanka|Dances of Sri Lanka|Theatre of Sri Lanka|Sri Lankan literature}}
[[File:Two Women in Traditional Kandyan Dress Laugh While Waiting as Secretary Kerry Meets With Sri Lankan Foreign Minister Samaraweera (16720359423).jpg|thumb|Female dancers in traditional [[Kandyan dance|Kandyan dress]]]]
[[File:The landmark Nelum Pokuna (Lotus Pond) Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre.JPG|thumb|The [[Nelum Pokuna Mahinda Rajapaksa Theatre]] was constructed as a major venue for the performing arts.]]
The movie ''[[Kadawunu Poronduwa]]'' (''The Broken Promise''), produced by [[S. M. Nayagam]] of Chitra Kala Movietone, heralded the coming of Sri Lankan cinema in 1947. ''[[Ranmuthu Duwa]]'' (''Island of Treasures'') marked the transition of cinema from [[black-and-white]] to colour. In recent years, movies have featured subjects such as family melodrama, social transformation and the years of conflict between the military and the LTTE.[{{Cite book |author=Dissanayake, Wimal |year=2006 |title=Contemporary Asian cinema: popular culture in a global frame, Chapter 8 |publisher=Berg |pages=108–119 |isbn=978-1-84520-237-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9_PmysZli1cC}}] The Sri Lankan cinematic style is similar to [[Bollywood]] movies. In 1979, movie attendance rose to an all-time high but has been in a steady decline since then.[{{Cite book |author=Lakshman, W. D. |year=2000 |title=Sri Lanka's development since independence |publisher=[[Nova Publishers]] | page=253 |place=[[New York City|New York]] | isbn=978-1-56072-784-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLqmdDp3l0oC}}]
An influential filmmaker is [[Lester James Peiris]], who has directed a number of movies which led to global acclaim, including ''[[Rekava]]'' (''Line of Destiny'', 1956), ''[[Gamperaliya (film)|Gamperaliya]]'' (''The Changing Village'', 1964), ''[[Nidhanaya]]'' (''The Treasure'', 1970) and ''[[Golu Hadawatha]]'' (''Cold Heart'', 1968).[{{cite news |title=Dr. Lester James Peiris, Father of Sri Lankan Cinema, celebrates 90th Birthday |newspaper=[[Asian Tribune]] | url=http://asiantribune.com/?q=node/16540 |access-date=21 January 2021 |archive-date=9 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309042437/http://asiantribune.com/?q=node%2F16540 |url-status=dead}}] Sri Lankan-Canadian poet [[Rienzi Crusz]], is the subject of a documentary on his life in Sri Lanka. His work is published in Sinhala and English. Naturalised Canadian [[Michael Ondaatje]] is well known for his English-language novels and three films.{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}
The earliest music in Sri Lanka came from theatrical performances such as ''Kolam'', ''Sokari'' and ''Nadagam''.[{{Cite book |author=Brandon, James R. |year=1997 |title=The Cambridge guide to Asian theatre |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | pages=226–229 |place=[[Cambridge]] | isbn=978-0-521-58822-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttnH5W9qoBAC}}] Traditional music instruments such as ''Béra'', ''Thammátama'', ''Daŭla'' and ''Răbān'' were performed at these dramas. The first music album, ''Nurthi'', recorded in 1903, was released through Radio Ceylon. Songwriters like [[Mahagama Sekara]] and [[Ananda Samarakoon]] and musicians such as [[W. D. Amaradeva]], [[Victor Ratnayake]], [[Nanda Malini]] and [[Clarence Wijewardene]] have contributed much towards the progression of Sri Lankan music.[{{Cite book |author=McConnachie, James |year=2000 |title=World music: the rough guide, Volume 2 |publisher=Rough Guides |page=230 |isbn=978-1-85828-636-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QzX8THIgRjUC}}] [[Baila music]] originated among [[Sri Lanka Kaffirs|Kaffirs]] or the Afro-Sinhalese community.[{{Cite book |author=Atkinson, Brett |year=2009 |title=Lonely Planet Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] | page=50 |isbn=978-1-74104-835-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6QAgHA69_rwC}}]
[[File:Sri Lanka traditional drum.jpg|thumb|A Low Country drummer playing the traditional ''Yak Béra'']]
There are three main styles of Sri Lankan classical dance. They are, the [[Kandyan dance]]s, low country dances and [[Sabaragamuwa]] dances. Of these, the Kandyan style is most prominent. It is a sophisticated form of dance[{{cite encyclopedia |title=Kandyan dance |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] | url=https://www.britannica.com/art/Kandyan-dance}}] that consists of five sub-categories: ''Ves dance'', ''Naiyandi dance'', ''Udekki dance'', ''Pantheru dance'' and ''18 Vannam''.[{{Cite book |author=Cummings, Joe |year=2006 |title=Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Lonely Planet]] | pages=50–52 |isbn=978-1-74059-975-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pq9XaJuzwkQC}}] An elaborate headdress is worn by the male dancers, and a drum called ''Geta Béraya'' is used to assist the dancers to keep on rhythm.[{{cite web |title=Dance of Sri Lanka |publisher=lakpura.com |url=https://lakpura.com/pages/dance |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714003824/http://www.lanka.com/sri-lanka/dance-and-drama-of-sri-lanka-104.html |archive-date=14 July 2014 |date=28 July 2014}}]
The history of Sri Lankan painting and sculpture can be traced as far back as to the 2nd or 3rd century BCE.[{{cite web |title=History of painting and sculpture in Sri Lanka |publisher=lankalibrary.com |url=http://lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=3128 |access-date=20 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084513/http://lankalibrary.com/phpBB/viewtopic.php?t=3128 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead}}] The earliest mention about the art of painting on Mahāvaṃsa, is to the drawing of a palace on cloth using [[cinnabar]] in the 2nd century BCE. The chronicles have a description of various paintings in relic chambers of Buddhist stupas and in monastic residences.
Theatre came to the country when a [[Parsi theatre]] company from [[Mumbai]] introduced ''Nurti'', a blend of European and Indian theatrical conventions to the Colombo audience in the 19th century.[{{cite web |title=The Sinhala Theatre of Sri Lanka: A Form of Political Discourse |publisher=artsrilanka.org |url=http://www.artsrilanka.org/essays/theatre/index.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=14 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140114210156/http://www.artsrilanka.org/essays/theatre/index.html |url-status=dead }}] It was followed by a series of popular dramas like ''Sinhabāhu'', ''Pabāvatī'', ''Mahāsāra'', ''Muudu Puththu'' and ''Subha saha Yasa''.
Sri Lankan literature spans at least two millennia and is heir to the [[Aryan race|Aryan]] literary tradition as embodied in the hymns of the [[Rigveda]].[{{cite web |title=Challenge to Buddha Jayanthi Stamp Selection Board |work=The Island |url=http://www.island.lk/2006/05/31/opinion6.html |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304115010/http://www.island.lk/2006/05/31/opinion6.html |url-status=dead }}] Chronicles such as the ''[[Mahāvaṃsa]]'', written in the 6th century, provide vivid descriptions of Sri Lankan dynasties. According to the German philosopher [[Wilhelm Geiger]], the chronicles are based on Sinhala [[Atthakatha]] (commentary).[{{cite web |title=A survey of Sinhalese poetry from ancient times to the modern period |publisher=lankalibrary.com |url=http://www.lankalibrary.com/books/sinhala8.htm |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304114355/http://www.lankalibrary.com/books/sinhala8.htm |url-status=dead }}] The first modern-day novel, ''Meena'' by Simon de Silva appeared in 1905[{{cite web |title=Martin Wickramasinghe: An icon of world intellectual heritage |work=The Daily News |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2010/07/23/fea01.asp}}]
=== Media ===
{{Main|Media in Sri Lanka}}
The [[Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation]] (formerly [[Radio Ceylon]]) is the oldest-running radio station in Asia,[{{cite web |title=Radio Ceylon/Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation: The history of broadcasting in Sri Lanka |publisher=[[Sri Lanka Broadcasting Corporation]] | url=http://www.slbceng.org/pdf/Radio%20Ceylon-Sri%20Lanka%20Broadcasting%20Corporation.pdf |page=1 |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320060209/http://www.slbceng.org/pdf/Radio%20Ceylon-Sri%20Lanka%20Broadcasting%20Corporation.pdf |archive-date=20 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}] established in 1923 by [[Edward Harper (engineer)|Edward Harper]], just three years after broadcasting began in Europe.[{{cite web |url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/sri-lanka |title=Sri Lanka Press, Media, TV, Radio, Newspapers |publisher=Pressreference.com}}]
{{As of|2020}}, 192 newspapers (122 Sinhala, 24 Tamil, 43 English, 3 multilingual) are published and 25 TV stations and 58 radio stations are in operation.[{{cite web |url=https://www.mediasupport.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/11/ims-press-lockdown-srilanka-2008.pdf |pages=5–6 |title=Media under fire: Press freedom lockdown in Sri Lanka |publisher=International Press Freedom and Freedom of Expression Mission to Sri Lanka}}] Alleged abuse of a newspaper editor by a senior government minister[{{cite news |last=Jansz |first=Frederica |title=Gota goes berserk |url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2012/07/08/gota-goes-berserk/ |access-date=24 November 2012 |newspaper=Sunday Leader |date=8 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020203648/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/2012/07/08/gota-goes-berserk/ |archive-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}] achieved international notoriety because of the unsolved murder of the editor's predecessor, [[Lasantha Wickrematunge]],[{{cite news |title=Chronicle of a death foretold |url=https://www.economist.com/leaders/2009/01/15/chronicle-of-a-death-foretold |access-date=24 November 2012 |newspaper=The Economist |date=15 January 2009}}] who had been a critic of the government and had presaged his own death in a posthumously published article.[{{cite news |last=Wickramasinghe |first=Lasantha |title=And then they came for me |url=http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20090111/editorial-.htm |access-date=25 November 2012 |newspaper=Sunday Leader |date=11 January 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121016035116/http://www.thesundayleader.lk/20090111/editorial-.htm |archive-date=16 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}]
=== Cuisine and festivals ===
{{Main|Sri Lankan cuisine|Festivals in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:Sri Lankan Rice and Curry.jpg|thumb|Sri Lankan rice and curry]]
Dishes include rice and curry, [[puttu|pittu]], [[kiribath]], wholemeal [[roti]], [[Idiyappam|string hoppers]], [[watalappam]] (a rich pudding of Malay origin made with [[coconut milk]], jaggery, cashews, eggs, and spices including cinnamon and nutmeg), [[kottu]], and [[appam]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2025}} [[Jackfruit]] may sometimes replace rice. Traditionally food is served on a [[Plantain (cooking)|plantain leaf or lotus leaf]]. Middle Eastern influences and practices are found in traditional Moor dishes, while Dutch and Portuguese influences are found with the island's Burgher community preserving their culture through traditional dishes such as [[lamprais]] (rice cooked in stock and baked in a banana leaf), [[breudher]] (Dutch holiday biscuit), and [[Bolo fiado]] (Portuguese-style layer cake).{{Citation needed|date=February 2024}}
In April, Sri Lankans celebrate the [[Sinhalese New Year|Buddhist]] and [[Tamil New Year|Hindu]] new year festivals.[{{Cite book |author=Wickremeratne, Swarna |year=2006 |title=Buddha in Sri Lanka: remembered yesterdays |publisher=SUNY Press |page=31 |isbn=978-0-7914-6881-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QskAmQEACAAJ}}] [[Esala Perahera]] is a symbolic Buddhist festival consisting of dances and decorated elephants held in Kandy in July and August.[{{Cite book |author=Dassanayake, M. B. |year=1970 |title=The Kandy Esala perahera: Asia's most spectacular pageant |publisher=Lake House Bookshop |page=7 |place=Colombo}}] Fire dances, whip dances, Kandyan dances and various other cultural dances are integral parts of the festival. Christians celebrate [[Christmas]] on 25 December to celebrate the birth of Jesus Christ and [[Easter]] to celebrate the resurrection of Jesus. Tamils celebrate [[Thai Pongal]] and [[Maha Shivaratri]], and Muslims celebrate [[Hajj]] and [[Ramadan]].
=== Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Sri Lanka}}
[[File:The_clouds_roll_in.jpg|thumb|[[R. Premadasa Stadium]] in [[Colombo]]]]
While the [[national sport]] is [[volleyball]], by far the most popular sport in the country is [[cricket]].[{{Cite news |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2008/10/02/spo12.asp |title=Can Sri Lanka form an invincible cricket team? |author=Gurusinghe, Nimal |work=The Daily News |date=2 October 2008}}] [[Rugby union]] also enjoys extensive popularity,[{{Cite news |url=http://www.dawn.com/2011/05/25/rugby-sri-lanka-asias-little-known-rugby-haven.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120408233643/http://dawn.com/2011/05/25/rugby-sri-lanka-asias-little-known-rugby-haven/ |archive-date=8 April 2012 |title=Rugby: Sri Lanka, Asia's little-known rugby haven |work=[[Dawn (newspaper)|Dawn]] | date=25 May 2011}}] as do [[association football]], [[netball]] and [[tennis]]. Aquatic sports such as boating, surfing, swimming, kitesurfing[{{cite web |url=http://www.kitesurfingsrilanka.com/ |title=Kitesurf Sri Lanka |publisher=kitesurfingsrilanka.com |access-date=20 November 2011 |archive-date=6 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160206111947/http://www.kitesurfingsrilanka.com/ |url-status=dead }}] and [[scuba diving]] attract many Sri Lankans and foreign tourists. There are two styles of martial arts native to Sri Lanka: [[Cheena di]] and [[Angampora]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.sinhalaya.com/srilankatravelguide/ac_martial_arts_lanka.php |title=Sri Lankan martial arts |publisher=sinhalaya.com |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125023655/http://www.sinhalaya.com/srilankatravelguide/ac_martial_arts_lanka.php |archive-date=25 January 2016 |url-status=dead}}]
[[File:MUTTIAH MURALITHARAN (5155181205).jpg|right|thumb|170px|[[Muttiah Muralitharan]] holds the record for the highest number of [[Wicket#Dismissing a batsman|wickets]] in [[Test cricket]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/srilanka/content/player/49636.html|title=Player Profile: Muttiah Muralitharan|website=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|access-date=30 December 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120213191453/http://www.espncricinfo.com/srilanka/content/player/49636.html|archive-date=13 February 2012}}]|alt=Muttiah Muralitharan]]
The [[Sri Lanka national cricket team]] achieved considerable success beginning in the 1990s, rising from [[underdog]] status to winning the [[1996 Cricket World Cup]], defeating [[Australia national cricket team|Australia]] in the final on 17 March 1996.[{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/1996/mar/18/cricket.cricketworldcup2007 |title=Sri Lanka light up the world |author=Selvey, Mike |work=[[The Guardian]] | date=18 March 1996 |place=London}}] They also won the [[2014 World Twenty20|2014 ICC World Twenty20]] played in Bangladesh, beating India in the final. In addition, Sri Lanka became the runners-up of the [[Cricket World Cup]] in [[2007 Cricket World Cup|2007]][{{cite web |url=http://www.cricinfo.com/ci/engine/current/match/247507.html |title=Final: Australia v Sri Lanka at Bridgetown, Apr 28, 2007 |publisher=ESPNcricinfo |author-link=ESPNcricinfo}}] and [[2011 Cricket World Cup final|2011]],[{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/9444277.stm |title=India power past Sri Lanka to Cricket World Cup triumph |author=Sheringham, Sam |publisher=BBC |date=2 April 2011}}] and of the [[Men's T20 World Cup|ICC World Twenty20]] in [[2009 World Twenty20|2009]] and [[2012 World Twenty20|2012]].[{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wt202009/content/story/410042.html |title=Afridi fifty seals title for Pakistan |author=McGlashan, Andrew |date=21 June 2009 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}] Former Sri Lankan [[Off spin|off-spinner]] [[Muttiah Muralitharan]] has been rated as the greatest [[Test cricket|test match]] [[bowler (cricket)|bowler]] ever by ''[[Wisden Cricketers' Almanack]]'',[{{Cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/sport2/hi/cricket/2572069.stm |title=Murali 'best bowler ever' |work=[[BBC]] Sport |date=13 December 2002 |place=London}}] and four Sri Lankan cricketers ranked 2nd ([[Kumar Sangakkara|Sangakkara]]), 4th ([[Sanath Jayasuriya|Jayasuriya]]), 5th ([[Mahela Jayawardene|Jayawardene]]) and 11th ([[Tillakaratne Dilshan|Dilshan]]) highest ODI run scorers of all time, which is the second best by a team. As of June 2022, Muttiah Muralitharan has the highest aggregate wickets in Test Cricket with a record 800 wickets, a feat he achieved in a Test Match against India in July 2010 that Sri Lanka had won by 10 Wickets.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.espncricinfo.com/series/india-tour-of-sri-lanka-2010-455238/sri-lanka-vs-india-1st-test-456669/match-report|title=Murali gets 800, Sri Lanka win by ten wickets|website=[[ESPNcricinfo]]|first=Sriram|last=Veera|date=22 July 2010}}][{{Cite web|url=https://www.timesofsports.com/cricket/highest-test-wicket-takers/|title=Top 50 Highest Test Wicket Takers in Cricket History|website=[[Times of Sports]]|date=13 March 2023 }}] Sri Lanka has won the [[Asia Cup]] in 1986,[{{cite web |url=https://www.cricketarchive.co.uk/Archive/Scorecards/47/47039.html |title=John Player Gold Leaf Trophy (Asia Cup) 1985/86 (Final) |date=6 April 1986 |publisher=cricketarchive.co.uk}}] 1997,[{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/wisdenalmanack/content/story/151650.html |title=Pepsi Asia Cup, 1997–98 |author=Thawfeeq, Sa'adi |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}] 2004,[{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/ci/content/story/134815.html |title=Sri Lanka win the Asia Cup |author=Vasu, Anand |date=1 August 2004 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]]}}] 2008,[{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/asiacup/content/current/series/298014.html |title=Asia Cup 2008 |date=6 July 2008 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-date=7 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160307220216/http://www.espncricinfo.com/asiacup/content/current/series/298014.html |url-status=dead }}] 2014.[{{cite news |url=http://www.espncricinfo.com/asia-cup-2014/content/current/series/671665.html |title=Asia Cup 2014 |date=8 March 2014 |publisher=[[ESPNcricinfo]] |access-date=4 August 2014 |archive-date=21 September 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140921144658/http://www.espncricinfo.com/asia-cup-2014/content/current/series/671665.html |url-status=dead }}] and 2022.[{{cite web |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/news/2788151 |title=Brilliant Sri Lanka clinch Asia Cup 2022 title|access-date=12 September 2022 |work=International Cricket Council}}] Sri Lanka once held the highest team score in all three formats of cricket.[{{cite web |url=http://www.exzoon.com/sri_lanka_national_cricket_team.html |title=Sri Lanka National Cricket Team |publisher=exzoon.com |access-date=15 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101040927/http://www.exzoon.com/sri_lanka_national_cricket_team.html |archive-date=1 November 2013 |url-status=usurped}}] The country co-hosted the Cricket World Cup in 1996 and [[2011 Cricket World Cup|2011]] and hosted the 2012 ICC World Twenty20.
Sri Lankans have won two medals at [[Olympic Games]]: one silver, by [[Duncan White]] at the [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948 London Olympics]] for men's [[400 metres hurdles]];[{{cite web |url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2008/06/12/spo09.asp |title=Duncan White – the greatest Sri Lankan athlete |date=12 June 2008 |work=The Daily News}}] and one silver by [[Susanthika Jayasinghe]] at the [[2000 Summer Olympics|2000 Sydney Olympics]] for women's [[200 metres]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/susanthika-jayasinghe |title=Athlete Susanthika Jayasinghe |publisher=International Olympic Committee |date=20 June 2016}}] In 1973, [[Muhammad Lafir]] won the [[IBSF World Billiards Championship|World Billiards Championship]], the highest feat by a Sri Lankan in a [[Cue sports|Cue sport]].[{{cite web |url=http://print.dailymirror.lk/editorial/106-editorial/12395.html |title=LKY's prejudice |date=7 June 2010 |work=Daily Mirror |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131218191441/http://print.dailymirror.lk/editorial/106-editorial/12395.html |archive-date=18 December 2013 }}] Sri Lanka has also won the Carrom World Championship titles twice in 2012, [[2016 Carrom World Championship|2016]][{{cite web |url=https://www.thepapare.com/sri-lanka-mens-champions-carrom-world-championship-2016/ |title=Sri Lanka emerged as world champions |date=10 November 2016 |work=Prepare}}] and 2018, the men's team becoming champions and the women's team winning second place. The [[Sri Lankan National Badminton Championships]] was annually held between 1953 and 2011.
Sri Lanka is ranked 6th in the ICC Men's Test Team Rankings 2025 with rating 86.[{{Cite web |last=icc |title=ICC Men's Test Team Rankings |url=https://www.icc-cricket.com/rankings/team-rankings/mens/test |access-date=8 March 2025 |website=icc |language=en}}]
[[Sri Lanka national football team]] also won the prestigious [[1995 SAARC Gold Cup|1995 South Asian Gold Cup]].[{{Cite web |url=https://saffederation.org/saff-gold-cup-1995/ |title=SAFF Website |access-date=21 July 2023 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918095651/https://saffederation.org/saff-gold-cup-1995/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web|url=https://globalsportsarchive.com/competition/soccer/saff-gold-cup-1995-sri-lanka/semi-finals/17371/|title=1995 SAFF Championship;globalsport archive.com|access-date=24 May 2021}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.11v11.com/competitions/south-asian-football-federation-(saff)-championship/1995/|title=1995 SAFF Championship|access-date=24 May 2021}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.rsssf.org/tabless/saffgold95.html|title=1995 SAFF Championship;RSSSF.com|access-date=24 May 2021}}][{{cite web|url=http://archives.dailynews.lk/2009/04/04/spo03.asp|title=Lanka hopes to regain supremacy|access-date=27 May 2021}}]
== See also ==
{{Portal|Sri Lanka|Islands|Asia}}
* [[Outline of Sri Lanka]]
* [[List of cities in Sri Lanka]]
{{Clear}}
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist
| refs =
[{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vTOJiGQ2mLIC |author1=Corea, Gamani |author2=Kelegama, Saman |name-list-style=amp |title=Economic policy in Sri Lanka: Issues and debates |publisher=SAGE |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7619-3278-9 |pages=405–406}}]
}}
===Sources and further reading===
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book|last=Codrington|first=H.W.|title=A Short History of Ceylon|publisher=Macmillan & Co.|orig-year=1926|date=1970|location=London|isbn=978-0-8369-5596-5|oclc=2154168|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4hyiaAXhNd8C}}
* {{cite book|last1=Buswell|first1=R.E.|last2=Lopez|first2=D.S.|title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism|publisher=Princeton University Press|year=2013|isbn=978-0-691-15786-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-fWKngEACAAJ|access-date=29 May 2021}}
* Ganguly, Sumit. "Ending the Sri Lankan civil war." ''Dædalus'' 147.1 (2018): 78–89. [https://direct.mit.edu/daed/article-pdf/147/1/78/1831032/daed_a_00475.pdf online]
* {{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Iudi2JJLaUAC|last=Nubin|first=Walter|title=Sri Lanka: Current issues and historical background|publisher=[[Nova Publishers]]|year=2002|isbn=978-1-59033-573-4}}
* Peebles, Patrick. ''The History of Sri Lanka'' (Greenwood, 2005).
* {{cite web|url=http://www.usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/The%20Theri%20Arahant%20Sanghamitta.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Theri Sanghamitta and the Bodhi Tree|last=Paw|first=Maung|website=usamyanmar.net|access-date=15 September 2011|archive-date=24 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724120135/http://www.usamyanmar.net/Buddha/Article/The%20Theri%20Arahant%20Sanghamitta.pdf}}
* {{cite book|last=De Silva|first=K. M.|title=A history of Sri Lanka|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dByI_qil26YC|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1981|isbn=978-0-520-04320-6}}
{{refend}}
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|voy=Sri Lanka|d=Q854|Sri Lanka}}
{{EB1911 poster|Ceylon}}
===Government===
* [https://www.gov.lk/ Official Sri Lankan Government Web Portal], a gateway to government sites.
* [http://www.parliament.lk/ Official website] of the [[Parliament of Sri Lanka]].
* [http://www.news.lk/ Official Government News Portal]
* [http://www.president.gov.lk/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725214707/http://www.president.gov.lk/ |date=25 July 2011 }} of the [[President of Sri Lanka]].
* [http://www.pmoffice.gov.lk/ Official website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181113000513/http://www.pmoffice.gov.lk/ |date=13 November 2018 }} of the [[Prime Minister of Sri Lanka]] / [[Prime Minister's Office (Sri Lanka)|Prime Minister's Office]].
* [https://www.cabinetoffice.gov.lk/ Official website] of the Office of the [[Cabinet of Sri Lanka|Cabinet of Ministers of Sri Lanka]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190810153706/http://www.supremecourt.lk/ Official website] of the [[Supreme Court of Sri Lanka]].
===Overviews and data===
* {{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Sri Lanka}}
* [http://www.statistics.gov.lk/ Official site] of the Department of Census and Statistics.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111201012336/http://www.treasury.gov.lk/reports/annualreport/AnnualReport2010-eng.pdf Annual Report 2010] from the Ministry of Finance and Planning.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120829212335/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/srilanka.htm Sri Lanka] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''.
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-11999611 Sri Lanka profile] from the [[BBC News]].
* [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/561906/Sri-Lanka Sri Lanka] in the [[Encyclopædia Britannica]].
* [http://www.lonelyplanet.com/sri-lanka Introducing Sri Lanka] Overview of the country from [[Lonely Planet]].
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=LK Key Development Forecasts for Sri Lanka] from [[International Futures]].
===History===
* [https://lakdiva.org/mahavamsa/chapters.html Mahavamsa] an ancient Sri Lankan chronicle written in the 6th century.
* [https://www.gutenberg.org/files/13325/13325-h/13325-h.htm Sketches of the Natural History of Ceylon] by Sir [[James Emerson Tennent]], 1861.
===Maps===
* {{Wikiatlas|Sri Lanka}}
* {{OSM relation|536807}}
* [https://maps.google.com/maps?q=sri+lanka Sri Lanka Map] in [[Google Maps]].
* [https://merhav.nli.org.il/primo-explore/search?query=any,contains,sri%20lanka&tab=default_tab&search_scope=Local&sortby=lso01&vid=NLI&mfacet=rtype,include,Maps,1&mfacet=tlevel,include,online_resources,2&lang=iw_IL&offset=0&came_from=sort Old maps of Sri Lanka], Eran Laor Cartographic Collection, [[National Library of Israel|The National Library of Israel]]
===Trade===
* [https://wits.worldbank.org/CountryProfile/Country/LKA/Year/2012/Summary World Bank Summary Trade Statistics Sri Lanka]
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