{{Short description|Country in Southern and Western Europe}}
{{About|the country|other uses|Spain (disambiguation)}}
{{Redirect|España|other uses|España (disambiguation)}}
{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Spain
| common_name = Spain
| native_name = {{lang|es|Reino de España}}
| image_flag = Flag of the Kingdom of Spain.svg
| image_coat = Escudo de España (mazonado).svg
| national_motto = {{Lang|la|[[Plus ultra]]}} ([[Latin]])
(English: 'Further Beyond')
| national_anthem = {{native name|es|[[Marcha Real]]|icon=yes}}[{{cite web|url=http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/10/11/pdfs/A29594-29600.pdf|title=Real Decreto 1560/1997, de 10 de octubre, por el que se regula el Himno Nacional|author=Presidency of the Government|work=[[Boletín Oficial del Estado]] núm. 244|date=11 October 1997|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924034615/http://www.boe.es/boe/dias/1997/10/11/pdfs/A29594-29600.pdf|archive-date=24 September 2015|author-link=Government of Spain}}]
(English: 'Royal March')
{{center|[[File:Marcha Real-Royal March by US Navy Band.ogg]]}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:EU-Spain (orthographic projection) (with de jure territory).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:EU-Spain.svg|frameless]]|Show map of Europe|default=1}}
| map_width = 250px
| map_caption = {{legend|#218439|Location of Spain}}
{{legend|#C6DEBD|Spain within the [[European Union]]}}
{{legend|#5b92e5|[[Western Sahara]] (''de jure'' under Spanish administration){{efn|{{Spain–Western Sahara note}}}}}}
| image_map2 =
| capital = [[Madrid]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|40|26|N|3|42|W|type:city}}
| largest_city = [[Madrid]]
| official_languages = [[Spanish language|Spanish]][{{cite web|url=http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/IDIOMAS/9/Espana/LeyFundamental/titulo_preliminar.htm|title=Preliminary Title|publisher=Lamoncloa.gob.es|quote=1. Castilian is the official Spanish language of the State. All Spaniards have the duty to know it and the right to use it.|access-date=26 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205212626/http://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/IDIOMAS/9/Espana/LeyFundamental/titulo_preliminar.htm|archive-date=5 December 2013 |language=es}}]
| regional_languages = {{hlist|[[Aranese]]|[[Basque language|Basque]]|[[Catalan language|Catalan]]||[[Galician language|Galician]]||[[Valencian language|Valencian]]}}
{{efn|Spain shares [[Official languages of Spain|co-official regional languages]] with Spanish (Castilian) in several [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]]. These unique linguistic rights are protected under the [[Constitution of Spain|Spanish Constitution]] and regional statutes of autonomy.[{{cite book | last1=Vila | first1=F. Xavier | last2=Lasagabaster | first2=David | last3=Ramallo | first3=Fernando | title=Bilingual and Multilingual Education | chapter=Bilingual Education in the Autonomous Regions of Spain | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | date=2016 | isbn=978-3-319-02324-3 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_28-1 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-319-02324-3_28-1 | access-date=August 22, 2026 | page=1–13}}]}}
| ethnic_groups = {{ubl|85.2% [[Spaniards]]|14.8% [[Immigration to Spain|other]]}}
| ethnic_groups_year = 2026
| ethnic_groups_ref = [{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/en/ECP1T26.htm|title=Continuous Population Statistics (CPS) 1 April 2026. Provisional data|website=ine.es|date=7 May 2026}}]
| religion = {{unbulleted list
|55.4% [[Catholic Church in Spain|Roman Catholicism]]
|15.3% [[Atheism|atheist]]
|13.4% [[Agnosticism|agnostic]]
|12% [[Irreligion in Spain|indifferent or irreligious]]
|3.2% [[Religion in Spain|other religion]]
|0.7% unanswered}}
| religion_ref = [{{cite book |title=Barómetro de enero 2026: Estudio nº 3540 |date=2026 |publisher=[[Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas]] |url=https://www.cis.es/documents/20117/13725027/es3540mar.pdf/6f9d09a5-9bae-6598-1eb8-6bcf767a7e89?version=1.0&t=1769765313367 |access-date=21 January 2026 |language=es}}, 4.006 respondents. The question was {{lang|es|¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religión, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?}}.]
| religion_year = 2026
| demonym = {{hlist|Spaniard|Spanish}}
| government_type = Unitary [[parliamentary constitutional monarchy]]
| leader_title1 = [[Monarchy of Spain|Monarch]]
| leader_name1 = [[Felipe VI]]
| leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Spain|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2 = [[Pedro Sánchez]]
| leader_title3 = [[President of the Congress of Deputies]]
| leader_name3 = [[Francina Armengol]]
| leader_title4 = [[President of the Senate of Spain|President of the Senate]]
| leader_name4 = [[Pedro Rollán]]
| legislature = {{Lang|es|[[Cortes Generales]]|italic=no}}
| upper_house = [[Senate of Spain|Senate]]
| lower_house = [[Congress of Deputies]]
| sovereignty_type = [[History of Spain|Formation]]
| established_event1 = [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Dynastic union]]
| established_date1 = 20 January 1479
| established_event2 = [[Habsburg Spain|Sole sovereign]]
| established_date2 = 14 March 1516
| established_event3 = [[Nueva Planta decrees|Centralised state]]
| established_date3 = 9 June 1715
| established_event4 = [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|First constitution]]
| established_date4 = 19 March 1812
| established_event5 = {{nowrap|[[Constitution of Spain|Current constitution]]}}
| established_date5 = 29 December 1978
| area_km2 = 506,030[{{cite web|title=Geography of Spain|url=https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/espana/historyandculture/geography/paginas/index.aspx|website=www.lamoncloa.gob.es|access-date=8 August 2025|language=es}}]
| area_rank = 50th
| area_sq_mi = 195,364
| percent_water = 0.89[{{cite web|title=Surface water and surface water change|access-date=11 October 2020|publisher=[[OECD|Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development]] (OECD)|url=https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|archive-date=24 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210324133453/https://stats.oecd.org/Index.aspx?DataSetCode=SURFACE_WATER|url-status=live}}]
| population_census_year = July 2026
| population_census = {{IncreaseNeutral}} 49,801,559[{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735572981|title=INEbase / Continuous Population Statistics (CPS). 1st July 2026. Provisional data|website=ine.es|access-date=8 August 2026}}]
| population_estimate_year = 2026
| population_estimate_rank = 31st
| population_density_km2 = 98
| population_density_sq_mi = 253
| population_density_rank = 116th
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $2.978 trillion[{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=14 April 2026 |access-date=18 April 2026}}]
| GDP_PPP_year = 2026
| GDP_PPP_rank = 15th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $59,187[{{cite web|url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/tessi190/default/table?lang=en|title=Gini coefficient of equivalised disposable income – EU-SILC survey|publisher=[[Eurostat]]|website=ec.europa.eu|access-date=14 February 2025}}]
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0.918
| HDI_year = 2023
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref = [{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}]
| HDI_rank = 28th
| currency = [[Euro]]{{efn|The [[Spanish peseta|Peseta]] before 2002}} ([[Euro sign|€]])
| currency_code = EUR
| time_zone = [[Western European Time|WET]] and [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = ±0 to +1
| DST_note = Note: most of Spain observes CET/CEST, except the [[Canary Islands]] which observe WET/WEST.
| time_zone_DST = [[Western European Summer Time|WEST]] and [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| utc_offset_DST = +1 to +2
| date_format = [[Date format|DD/MM/YYYY]]
| calling_code = [[+34]]
| cctld = [[.es]]{{efn|name=e|The [[.eu]] domain is also used, as it is shared with other [[European Union]] member states. Also, the [[.cat]] domain is used in [[Catalonia]], [[.gal]] in [[Galiza|Galicia]] and [[.eus]] in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque-Country]] autonomous regions.}}
| today =
}}
'''Spain''',{{efn|{{langx|es|España|links=no}}, {{IPA|es|esˈpaɲa||Es-España.ogg|help=no}}}} officially the '''Kingdom of Spain''',{{efn|{{langx|es|Reino de España|links=no}}[{{cite web |url=https://www.boe.es/buscar/act.php?id=BOE-A-2014-12326 |title=Ley 25/2014, de 27 de noviembre, de Tratados y otros Acuerdos Internacionales.|website=Boletín Oficial del Estado |publisher=Government of Spain |date=27 November 2014 |access-date=12 August 2025 |language=es |quote=Artículo 8. Denominación del Estado español. La denominación oficial del Estado español en los tratados internacionales será «Reino de España».}}]}} is a country in [[Southern Europe|Southern]] and [[Western Europe]] with territories in [[North Africa]].{{efn|See [[List of transcontinental countries]].}} Featuring the southernmost point of [[continental Europe]], it is the largest country in Southern Europe and the fourth-most populous [[European Union]] (EU) member state. Spanning the majority of the [[Iberian Peninsula]], its territory also includes the [[Canary Islands]], in the Eastern [[Atlantic Ocean]]; the [[Balearic Islands]], in the Western [[Mediterranean Sea]]; and the autonomous cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], in mainland Africa. Peninsular Spain is bordered to the north by [[France]], [[Andorra]], and the [[Bay of Biscay]]; to the east and south by the Mediterranean Sea, [[Gibraltar]] and [[Morocco]] (the latter being through its exclaves in North Africa); and to the west by [[Portugal]] and the Atlantic Ocean. Spain's capital and [[List of largest cities in Spain|largest city]] is [[Madrid]]; other major [[List of metropolitan areas in Spain|urban areas]] include [[Barcelona]], [[Valencia]], [[Zaragoza]], [[Seville]], [[Bilbao]], [[Málaga]], [[Murcia]], [[Palma de Mallorca]] and [[Las Palmas]].
In early antiquity, the Iberian Peninsula was inhabited by [[Iberians]], [[Celts]], and other [[List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula|pre-Roman peoples]]. The [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula]] created the province of [[Hispania]], which became deeply [[Romanization (cultural)|Romanised]] and later [[Christianization|Christianised]]. After the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]], the peninsula was conquered by tribes from Central Europe, among them the [[Visigoths]], who established the [[Visigothic Kingdom]] centred on [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]]. In the early 8th century, most of the peninsula was [[Umayyad conquest of Hispania|conquered by the Umayyad Caliphate]], with [[Al-Andalus]] centred on [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]. The northern Christian kingdoms of Iberia launched the so-called ''[[Reconquista]]'', gradually repelling and ultimately expelling Islamic rule from the peninsula, culminating with the fall of the [[Emirate of Granada|Nasrid Kingdom of Granada]]. The dynastic union of the [[Crown of Castile]] and the [[Crown of Aragon]] in 1479 under the [[Catholic Monarchs]] is often seen as the ''de facto'' unification of Spain as a [[nation state]].
During the [[Age of Discovery]], Spain led the [[European colonization of the Americas|exploration and conquest]] of the [[New World]], completed the [[first circumnavigation of the globe]], and established [[Spanish Empire|one of the largest empires in history]], which fostered a global trade system driven by [[precious metal]]s. In the 18th century, the [[Nueva Planta decrees]] centralised Spain under the Bourbons, strengthening royal authority. The 19th century witnessed the victorious [[Peninsular War]] (1808–1814) against Napoleonic forces and the [[Spanish American wars of independence|loss of most American colonies]] amid liberal–absolutist conflicts. These struggles culminated in the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–1939) and the [[Francoist Spain|Francoist dictatorship]] (1939–1975). With the restoration of democracy and entry into the EU, Spain experienced [[Spanish miracle|a major economic boom]] and social transformation.
Spain is a secular [[parliamentary democracy]] and a [[constitutional monarchy]], with [[King of Spain|King]] [[Felipe VI]] as [[head of state]]. A [[developed country]], it has a [[List of countries by GDP (nominal) per capita|high nominal GDP per capita globally]] and [[Economy of Spain|an advanced economy]] that ranks among the [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|largest in the world]] and the [[Economy of the European Union#Nominal GDP|fourth-largest]] in the EU. The [[Official languages of Spain|official language]] at the national level is [[Spanish language|Spanish]], the world's [[List of languages by number of native speakers|second-most spoken native language]], although other regional languages have co-official status in their respective [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]].
== Etymology ==
The name of Spain ({{lang|es|España}}) comes from {{lang|la|[[Hispania]]}}, the name used by the [[Ancient Romans]] for the [[Iberian Peninsula]] during the [[Roman Republic]] and the [[Roman Empire]]. The etymology of the term {{lang|la|Hispania}} remains uncertain.[{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.es/espana/20140829/abci-donde-procede-palabra-espana-201408281811.html|title="I-span-ya", el misterioso origen de la palabra España|last=ABC|date=28 August 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113170715/http://www.abc.es/espana/20140829/abci-donde-procede-palabra-espana-201408281811.html|archive-date=13 November 2016 |language=es}}]
The [[Phoenicians]] referred to the region as {{tlit|phn|i-shphan-im}}, possibly meaning 'land of [[European rabbit|rabbits]] or [[hyraxes]]',[{{cite book | last=Castro | first=María Cruz Fernández | editor-last=Linch |editor-first=John |title=La Península Ibérica en época prerromana | publisher=El Pais | publication-place=Madrid | date=2007 | series=Historia de España |isbn=978-84-9815-764-2 | language=es |volume=2 |page=40 |chapter=La etimología de España; ¿tierra de conejos?}}] 'land of metals',[{{cite journal |last1=Arechaga |first1=Juan |title=Science in Hispania: Spain and Portugal on the main route again |journal=The International Journal of Developmental Biology |date=2009 |volume=53 |issue=8–10 |pages=1119–1122 |doi=10.1387/ijdb.093019ja|pmid=19924620 }}] or 'northern island'.[{{cite book | last1=Dietler | first1=Michael | last2=López-Ruiz | first2=Carolina | title=Colonial Encounters in Ancient Iberia | publisher=University of Chicago Press | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-226-14847-2 |page=274, n. 53}}] [[Roman coins]] struck in the region from the reign of [[Hadrian]] show a female figure with a rabbit at her feet,[{{cite book|last = Burke|first = Ulick Ralph|title = A History of Spain from the Earliest Times to the Death of Ferdinand the Catholic, Volume 1|publisher=Longmans, Green & Co|year = 1895|location = London|page = 12|hdl = 2027/hvd.fl29jg?urlappend=%3Bseq=36}}] and [[Strabo]] called it the 'land of the rabbits'.[{{CathEncy|wstitle=Spain}}]
== History ==
{{Main|History of Spain}}
=== Prehistory and Iberian peoples ===
{{Main|Prehistoric Iberia}}
[[File:2014 Castro de Santa Trega. Galiza-2.jpg|thumb|Celtic castro in Galicia]]
Archaeological research at [[Archaeological site of Atapuerca|Atapuerca]] indicates the Iberian Peninsula was populated by [[hominid]]s 1.3 million years ago.[{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6256356.stm|title='First west Europe tooth' found|publisher=BBC|date=30 June 2007|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091021003923/http://encarta.msn.com/text_761575057___0/Spain.html|archive-date=21 October 2009}}]
[[Human|Modern human]]s first arrived in Iberia from the north about 35,000 years ago.[{{Cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=William D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kWj4tnHCj04C |title=A Concise History of Spain |last2=Phillips |first2=Carla Rahn |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-60721-6 |page=12 |language=en}}] The best-known artefacts of these prehistoric human settlements are the paintings in the [[Altamira (cave)|Altamira cave]] of Cantabria in northern Iberia, which were created from 35,600 to 13,500 [[Anno Domini|BC]] by [[Cro-Magnon]].[{{cite journal|last1=Pike|first1=A. W. G.|last2=Hoffmann|first2=D. L.|last3=Garcia-Diez|first3=M.|last4=Pettitt|first4=P. B.|last5=Alcolea|first5=J.|last6=De Balbin|first6=R.|last7=Gonzalez-Sainz|first7=C.|last8=de las Heras|first8=C.|last9=Lasheras|first9=J. A.|last10=Montes|first10=R.|last11=Zilhao|first11=J.|title=U-Series Dating of Paleolithic Art in 11 Caves in Spain|journal=Science|volume=336|issue=6087|year=2012|pages=1409–1413|issn=0036-8075|doi=10.1126/science.1219957|pmid=22700921|bibcode=2012Sci...336.1409P|s2cid=7807664|url=https://durham-repository.worktribe.com/output/1498254 }}][{{cite journal|last1=Bernaldo de Quirós Guidolti|first1=Federico|last2=Cabrera Valdés|first2=Victoria|journal=Complutum|volume=5|year=1994|title=Cronología del arte paleolítico|url=http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=164330&orden=1&info=link|access-date=17 November 2012|issn=1131-6993|pages=265–276|format=PDF|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033428/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/CMPL/article/view/CMPL9494120265A|url-status=live}}] Archaeological and genetic evidence suggests that the Iberian Peninsula acted as one of several major refugia from which northern Europe was repopulated following the end of the [[Quaternary glaciation|last ice age]].
Before the [[Roman conquest of the Iberian Peninsula|Roman conquest]] the major cultures along the Mediterranean coast were the [[Iberians]], the [[Celtiberians|Celts]] in the interior and north-west, the [[Lusitanians]] in the west, and the [[Tartessos|Tartessians]] in the southwest. The seafaring [[Phoenicians]], [[Carthaginians]], and [[Greeks]] successively established trading settlements along the eastern and southern coast. The [[paleohispanic script|development of writing in the peninsula]] took place after the arrival of early Phoenician settlers and traders, tentatively dated 9th century BC or later.[{{cite journal|page=117|title=Origin and development of the Paleohispanic scripts: the orthography and phonology of the Southwestern alphabet|first=Miguel|last=Valério|journal=Revista portuguesa de arqueologia|issn=0874-2782|volume=11|issue=2|year=2008|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3339686.pdf}}][{{cite web |last1=History of Spain |title=THE HISTORY OF SPAIN |url=https://historyofspain.es/en/video/the-history-of-spain/#:~:text=In%20Hispania%20before%20the%20Romans,which%20in%20Greek%20is%20Iber. |website=historyofspain.es |date=29 January 2019 |access-date=19 June 2025}}]
The south of the peninsula was rich in archaic Phoenician colonies, unmatched by any other region in the central-western Mediterranean. They were small and densely packed settlements. The colony of [[Gadir]]—which sustained strong links with its metropolis of [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]]—stood out from the rest of the network of colonies, also featuring a more complex sociopolitical organization.[{{Cite journal |last=Aubet |first=María Eugenia |author-link=María Eugenia Aubet |date=2006 |title=El sistema colonial fenicio y sus pautas de organización |journal=Mainake |issue=28 |pages=36–37, 44–45 |issn=0212-078X |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/2582158.pdf}}] [[Archaic Greece|Archaic Greeks]] arrived on the Peninsula by the late 7th century BC. They founded [[Greek colonies]] such as [[Empúries|Emporion]] (570 BC).[{{cite book |last=Blázquez |first=José María |year=1988 |chapter=Los griegos en la Península Ibérica, siglos VII-V a.C. Analogías con la colonización griega en el Mar Negro (Cólquida) |title=Homenaje a García y Bellido 5. Anejos de Gerión |pages=9–18 |url=http://www.cervantesvirtual.com/descargaPdf/los-griegos-en-la-pennsula-ibrica-siglos-viiv-ac-analogas-con-la-colonizacin-griega-en-el-mar-negro-clquida-0/ |via=[[Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes]]}}]
After the defeat of [[Carthage]] in the [[First Punic War]], the Carthaginian general [[Hamilcar Barca]] led an expedition to Iberia, where he hoped to gain a new empire for Carthage to compensate for territorial losses. In eight years, by force of arms and diplomacy, Hamilcar secured an extensive territory, covering around half of the Iberian Peninsula. Hamilcar's premature death in battle (228 BC) prevented him from completing the conquest of the Iberian Peninsula.[{{Cite journal |last=Feeney |first=Denis |date=July 2017 |title=Carthage and Rome: Introduction |journal=Classical Philology |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=301–311 |doi=10.1086/692440 |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/full/10.1086/692440 |access-date=2024-05-15}}]
=== Roman Hispania and the Visigothic Kingdom ===
{{Main|Hispania|Visigothic Kingdom}}
{{See also|Celtic migration to Galicia in the Middle Ages}}
[[File:Teatro de Mérida, España, 2017 18.jpg|thumb|The [[Roman Theatre (Mérida)|Roman Theatre]] in [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]]]]
[[File:Leon (San Isidoro, panteón).jpg|thumb|Royal Pantheon of San Isidoro, [[Kingdom of León]]]]
During the [[Second Punic War]], roughly between 210 and 205 BC, the expanding [[Roman Republic]] captured Carthaginian trading colonies along the Mediterranean coast. It took the Romans nearly two centuries to complete the [[Roman conquest of the Iberian peninsula|conquest of the Iberian Peninsula]]. They retained control of it for over six centuries. Roman rule was bound together by law, language, and the [[Roman road]].[{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 1 Ancient Hispania|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}] The cultures of the pre-Roman populations were gradually [[Romanization of Hispania|Romanised]] (Latinised) at different rates depending on what part of the peninsula they lived in, with local leaders being admitted into the Roman aristocratic class.{{efn|The ''[[latifundia]]'' (sing., ''latifundium''), large estates controlled by the aristocracy, were superimposed on the existing Iberian landholding system.}}[{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain. Chapter 1 – Hispania|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0014)|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922143456/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+es0014%29|archive-date=22 September 2008 }}]
Hispania, the Roman name for the Iberian Peninsula, served as a granary for the Roman market, and its harbours exported gold, [[wool]], [[olive oil]], and wine. Agricultural production increased with the introduction of irrigation projects, some of which remain in use. Emperors [[Hadrian]], [[Trajan]], [[Theodosius I]], and the philosopher [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] were born in Hispania.{{efn|The poets [[Martial]], [[Quintilian]] and [[Lucan]] were also born in Hispania.}} Christianity was introduced into Hispania in the 1st century AD, and it became popular in the cities in the 2nd century.[{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://repositorio.iaph.es/bitstream/11532/327602/1/Contribuci%C3%B3n%20al%20estudio%20de%20las%20invasiones%20mauritanas.pdf|chapter=Contribución al estudio de las invasiones mauritanas de la Bética en el siglo II|first=Carlos|last=Alonso Villalobos|year=1984|publisher=Sociedad Española de Estudios Clásicos|title=Actas del II Congreso Andaluz deEstudios Clásicos|volume=II|access-date=5 July 2022|archive-date=5 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705191228/https://repositorio.iaph.es/bitstream/11532/327602/1/Contribuci%C3%B3n%20al%20estudio%20de%20las%20invasiones%20mauritanas.pdf|url-status=live}}]
The [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]] [[Suebi]] and [[Vandals]], together with the [[Sarmatian]] [[Alans]], entered the peninsula after 409, weakening the Western Roman Empire's jurisdiction over Hispania. The Suebi established a kingdom in north-western Iberia. The Vandals established themselves in the south of the peninsula by 420, before crossing over to North Africa in 429. As the western Roman Empire disintegrated, the social and economic base became greatly simplified. The successor regimes maintained many of the institutions and laws of the late empire, including Christianity and assimilation into the evolving Roman culture. The [[Byzantine]]s established an occidental province, [[Spania]], in the south, with the intention of reviving Roman rule throughout Iberia. Eventually Hispania was reunited under [[Visigothic Kingdom|Visigothic rule]].[{{cite book |last1=Phillips |first1=William D. |edition=2nd |last2=Phillips |first2=Carla Rahn |title=A Concise History of Spain |year=2015 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-10971-1 |pages=59–67}}]
=== Muslim era and ''Reconquista'' ===
{{See also|Umayyad conquest of Hispania|Al-Andalus|Reconquista}}
From 711 to 718, as part of the expansion of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] which had [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|conquered North Africa]] from the [[Byzantine Empire]], nearly all of the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by Muslims from across the Strait of Gibraltar, resulting in the collapse of the Visigothic Kingdom. Only a small area in the mountainous north of the peninsula stood out of the territory seized during the initial invasion. The [[Kingdom of Asturias|Kingdom of Asturias-León]] consolidated upon this territory. Other Christian kingdoms, such as [[kingdom of Navarre|Navarre]] and [[kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] in the mountainous north, eventually surged upon the consolidation of counties of the Carolingian ''[[Marca Hispanica]]''.[{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – Castile and Aragon|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0016)|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=22 September 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080922142215/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+es0016)|url-status=live}}] For several centuries, the fluctuating frontier between the [[Muslim]] and Christian-controlled areas of the peninsula was along the [[Ebro]] and [[Douro]] valleys.
Conversion to [[Islam]] proceeded at an increasing pace. The ''[[Muwallad|muladíes]]'' (Muslims of ethnic Iberian origin) are believed to have formed the majority of the population of Al-Andalus by the end of the 10th century.[{{cite web |url=http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm |title= Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages. Chapter 5: Ethnic Relations |author= Thomas F. Glick |date= |publisher= The Library of Iberian Resources Online (LIBRO) |access-date= 3 March 2026 |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170403051916/http://libro.uca.edu/ics/ics5.htm |archive-date= 3 April 2017 }}][{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 2 Al-Andalus|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}] A series of [[Viking]] incursions raided the coasts of the Iberian Peninsula in the 9th and 10th centuries.[{{Cite journal|title=Viking raids on the spanish peninsula|first=Rolf|last=Scheen|journal=Militaria. Revista de Cultura Militar|issue=8|year=1996|url=https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/MILT/article/download/MILT9696110067A/3416/0|pages=67–73|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=13 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413040655/https://revistas.ucm.es/index.php/MILT/article/download/MILT9696110067A/3416/0|url-status=live}}] In the 11th century, the Caliphate of Córdoba collapsed, fracturing into a series of petty kingdoms (''[[Taifa]]s''),[{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|title=Handbook of Medieval Culture|first=Albrecht|last=Classen|date=31 August 2015|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG|via=Google Books|isbn=978-3-11-026730-3|access-date=10 December 2018|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033453/https://books.google.com/books?id=3RtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237|url-status=live}}] often subject to the payment of a form of [[protection racket|protection money]] (''[[Parias]]'') to the Northern Christian kingdoms, which otherwise undertook a southward territorial expansion. The capture of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]] in 1085 marked a significant shift in the balance of power in favour of the Christian kingdoms.[{{Cite book |last1=Lansing |first1=Carol |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Re-1YpI9ObsC |title=A Companion to the Medieval World |last2=English |first2=Edward D. |date=2012 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-118-49946-7 |page=323 |language=en}}] The arrival from North Africa of the Islamic ruling sects of the [[Almoravids]] and the [[Almohads]] achieved temporary unity upon the Muslim-ruled territory, with a stricter, less tolerant application of Islam, and partially reversed some Christian territorial gains.
[[File:Ferdinand of Aragon, Isabella of Castile (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Catholic Monarchs of Spain]]]]
The [[Kingdom of León]] was the strongest Christian kingdom for centuries. In 1188, a form of modern parliamentary session was held in [[León (Spain)|León]] ([[Cortes of León]]), restricted to the bishops, the magnates, and 'the elected citizens of each city'.[{{Cite journal |last1=VAN ZANDEN |first1=JAN LUITEN |last2=BURINGH |first2=ELTJO |last3=BOSKER |first3=MAARTEN |date=29 July 2011 |title=The rise and decline of European parliaments, 1188–1789 |journal=The Economic History Review |volume=65 |issue=3 |pages=835–861 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x |s2cid=154956049 |issn=0013-0117 |hdl=10.1111/j.1468-0289.2011.00612.x |hdl-access=free }}] The [[Kingdom of Castile]], formed from Leonese territory, was its successor as the strongest kingdom. The kings and the nobility fought for power and influence in this period. The example of the Roman emperors influenced the political objective of the Crown, while the nobles benefited from [[feudalism]].
Muslim strongholds in the [[Guadalquivir Valley]] such as Córdoba (1236) and [[Seville]] (1248) fell to Castile in the 13th century. The [[County of Barcelona]] and the [[Kingdom of Aragon]] entered into a dynastic union and gained territory and power in the Mediterranean. In 1229, [[Mallorca]] was conquered, as was [[Valencia]] in 1238. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the North-African [[Marinid]]s established some enclaves around the Strait of Gibraltar. Upon the conclusion of the [[Granada War]], the [[Kingdom of Granada|Nasrid Sultanate of Granada]] (the remaining Muslim-ruled polity in the Iberian Peninsula after 1246) capitulated in 1492 to the military strength of the [[Catholic Monarchs]], and it was integrated from then on in the Crown of Castile.[{{Cite book|publisher=[[Brill (publisher)|Brill]]|chapter-url=https://brill.com/view/book/9789004443594/BP000014.xml|title=The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada between East and West|first=Roser|last=Salicrú i Lluch|chapter=Granada and Its International Contacts |pages=124–125|doi=10.1163/9789004443594_006|year=2020|isbn=978-90-04-44359-4|s2cid=243153050|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=13 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220413053115/https://brill.com/view/book/9789004443594/BP000014.xml|url-status=live}}]
=== Spanish Empire ===
{{Main|Spanish Empire}}
[[File:La sevilla del sigloXVI.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Late 16th-century Seville, the harbour enjoying the exclusive right to trade with the New World]]
In 1469, the crowns of the Christian kingdoms of Castile and Aragon were united by the marriage of their monarchs, Isabella I and Ferdinand II, respectively. In 1492, as part of the [[Spanish Inquisition]], Jews were forced to choose between conversion to Catholicism or expulsion;[{{cite web|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16200-spanish-inquisition-left-genetic-legacy-in-iberia.html|title=Spanish Inquisition left genetic legacy in Iberia|work=New Scientist|date=4 December 2008|access-date=18 January 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328024905/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn16200-spanish-inquisition-left-genetic-legacy-in-iberia.html|archive-date=28 March 2014 }}] as many as 200,000 Jews were [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|expelled from Castile and Aragon]]. The year 1492 also marked the arrival of [[Christopher Columbus]] in the [[New World]], during a voyage funded by Isabella. Columbus's first voyage crossed the Atlantic and reached the Caribbean Islands, beginning the European exploration and conquest of the Americas.
The [[Treaty of Granada]] guaranteed religious tolerance towards Muslims,[{{cite web|url=http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.html|title=The Treaty of Granada, 1492|publisher=Islamic Civilisation|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080924075453/http://www.cyberistan.org/islamic/treaty1492.html|archive-date=24 September 2008}}] for a few years before Islam was outlawed in 1502 in Castile and 1527 in Aragon, leading the remaining Muslim population to become nominally Christian ''[[Morisco]]s''. About four decades after the [[War of the Alpujarras]] (1568–1571), over 300,000 [[Expulsion of the Moriscos|''moriscos'' were expelled]], settling primarily in North Africa.[{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – The Golden Age|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|archive-date=9 August 2008 }}]
[[File:Spanish Empire (diachronic).svg|thumb|upright=1.2|A diachronic map of the Spanish Empire]]
The unification of the crowns of Aragon and Castile by the marriage of their sovereigns laid the basis for modern Spain and the Spanish Empire, although each kingdom of Spain remained a separate country socially, politically, legally, and in currency and language.[{{cite web|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/Imperial.html|title=Imperial Spain|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=University of Calgary|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080629000351/http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/eurvoya/Imperial.html|archive-date=29 June 2008}}][{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&pg=PA472|title=Handbook of European History|publisher=Penguin Random House Grupo Editorial España|isbn=90-04-09760-0|year=1994|access-date=4 January 2022|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033400/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y84wAgaXxo4C&pg=PA472|url-status=live}}]
[[Habsburg Spain]] was one of the leading world powers throughout the 16th century and most of the 17th century, a position reinforced by trade and wealth from colonial possessions and became the world's leading [[Spanish Navy|maritime power]]. It reached its apogee during the reigns of the first two Spanish Habsburgs—[[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V/I]] (1516–1556) and [[Philip II of Spain|Philip II]] (1556–1598). This period saw the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire|Spanish conquest of the Aztec]] and [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Inca]] empires, the [[Italian Wars]], the [[Schmalkaldic War]], the [[Dutch Revolt]], the [[War of the Portuguese Succession]], clashes with the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Ottomans]], intervention in the [[French Wars of Religion]], and the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War]].[{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 13 The Spanish Empire|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}]
[[File:Principales Rutas Comerciales del Imperio Español.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The main trade routes of the Spanish Empire]]
Through exploration and conquest or royal marriage alliances and inheritance, the [[Spanish Empire]] expanded across vast areas in the Americas, the Indo-Pacific, Africa as well as the European continent, including holdings in the Italian Peninsula, the [[Low Countries]] and the [[Franche-Comté]]. The so-called [[Age of Discovery]] featured explorations by sea and by land, the opening-up of new [[trade route]]s across oceans, conquests and the beginnings of European [[colonialism]]. [[Precious metal]]s, spices, luxuries, and previously unknown plants brought to the metropole played a leading part in transforming the European understanding of the globe.[{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Hugh|author-link=Hugh Thomas (writer)|title = Rivers of gold: the rise of the Spanish Empire|publisher=George Weidenfeld & Nicolson|year=2003|location=London|page=passim|isbn=978-0-297-64563-4}}]
[[File:Plaza Mayor de Madrid 06.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Plaza Mayor, Madrid|Plaza Mayor of Madrid]], built in 1619 during the reign of Philip III.]]
The cultural efflorescence witnessed during this period is now referred to as the [[Spanish Golden Age]]. The expansion of the empire caused immense upheaval in the Americas as the collapse of societies and empires and new diseases from Europe devastated American indigenous populations. The rise of [[humanism]], the [[Counter-Reformation]] and new geographical discoveries and conquests raised issues that were addressed by the intellectual movement now known as the [[School of Salamanca]], which developed the first modern theories of what are now known as [[international law]] and human rights.
Spain's 16th-century maritime supremacy was demonstrated by the victory over the [[Ottoman Empire]] at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] in 1571 and over Portugal at the [[Battle of Vila Franca do Campo|Battle of Ponta Delgada]] in 1582, and then after the setback of the [[Spanish Armada]] in 1588, in a series of victories against [[England]] in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604)|Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604]]. In the middle decades of the 17th century, Spain's maritime power went into a long decline with mounting defeats against the [[Dutch Republic]] ([[Battle of the Downs]]) and then England in the [[Anglo-Spanish War (1654–1660)|Anglo-Spanish War of 1654–1660]]. By the 1660s, Spain was struggling to defend its overseas possessions from pirates and privateers.
The [[Protestant Reformation]] increased Spain's involvement in religiously charged wars, forcing ever-expanding military efforts across Europe and in the Mediterranean.[{{cite web|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|title=The Seventeenth-Century Decline|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=The Library of Iberian resources online|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921003150/http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/payne15.htm|archive-date=21 September 2013}}] By the middle decades of a war- and [[Great Plague of Seville|plague]]-ridden 17th-century Europe, the Spanish Habsburgs had enmeshed Spain in continent-wide religious-political conflicts. These conflicts drained Spain of resources and undermined the economy generally. Spain managed to hold on to most of the scattered Habsburg empire, and help the imperial forces of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] reverse a large part of the advances made by Protestant forces.[{{cite web|last=Payne|first=Stanley G.|title=A History of Spain and Portugal; Ch. 14 Spanish Society and Economics in the Imperial Age|publisher=The Library of Iberian Resources Online|year=1973|url=http://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-date=8 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008122627/https://libro.uca.edu/payne1/spainport1.htm|url-status=live}}]
Spain was finally forced to recognise the [[Portuguese Restoration War|separation of Portugal]] and the United Provinces (Dutch Republic), and eventually suffered some serious military reverses to France in the latter stages of the immensely destructive, Europe-wide [[Thirty Years' War]].[{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – Spain in Decline|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|archive-date=9 August 2008 }}]
During this war, a new dynasty originating in France, the [[House of Bourbon|Bourbons]], was installed. The Crowns of Castile and Aragon had been long united only by the Monarchy and the common institution of the Inquisition's [[Spanish Inquisition|Holy Office]].[{{Cite journal|page=75|journal=Revista de Dret Històric Català|volume=18|year=2019|publisher=Societat Catalana d'Estudis Jurídics|issn=1578-5300|doi=10.2436/20.3004.01.119|title=Una aproximación a la Corona de Aragón de Fernando el Católico|first=Josep|last=Serrano Daura|issue=18 }}] A number of reform policies, the so-called [[Bourbon Reforms]], were pursued by the Monarchy with the overarching goal of centralised authority and administrative uniformity.[{{Cite book|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|title=A Concise History of Spain|first1=William D.|last1=Phillips|first2=Carla Rahn|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-84513-7|last2=Phillips|page=175}}] They included the abolishment of many of the old regional privileges and laws,[{{cite web|last1=Rinehart|first1=Robert|last2=Seeley|first2=Jo Ann Browning|title=A Country Study: Spain – Bourbon Spain|publisher=Library of Congress Country Series|year=1998|url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080809003309/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/estoc.html|archive-date=9 August 2008 }}] as well as the customs barrier between the Crowns of Aragon and Castile in 1717, followed by the introduction of new property taxes in the Aragonese kingdoms.[{{Cite book|title=Early Modern Spain: A Social History|first=James|last=Casey|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-13813-0|page=83}}]
The 18th century saw a gradual recovery and an increase in prosperity through much of the Spanish empire. The predominant economic policy was interventionist, with the State driving infrastructure development, abolishing internal customs, and reducing export tariffs.[{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5589876.pdf|chapter=El Despotismo Ilustrado en España: entre la continuidad y el cambio|author-link=Carlos Martínez Shaw|first=Carlos|last=Martínez Shaw|title=El Siglo de las Luces: III Centenario del Nacimiento de José de Hermosilla (1715–1776)|year=2016|isbn=978-84-608-8037-0|page=14|publisher=Sociedad Extremeña de Historia|access-date=13 April 2022|archive-date=19 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220419023430/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/5589876.pdf|url-status=live}}] Projects of agricultural colonisation with new settlements took place in the south of [[mainland Spain]].{{Sfn|Martínez Shaw|2016|pp=14; 23}} [[Enlightenment in Spain|Enlightenment]] ideas began to gain ground among some of the kingdom's elite and monarchy.
=== Liberalism and nation state ===
{{Main|Contemporary history of Spain|Mid-19th-century Spain|Spanish American wars of independence|Spanish–American War|Anarchism in Spain|Second Spanish Republic}}
[[File:Monumento a la Constitución de 1812, Cádiz, España, 2015-12-08, DD 80.JPG|thumb|[[Monument to the Constitution of 1812]] in [[Cádiz]]]]
[[File:Fusilamiento de Torrijos (Gisbert).jpg|thumb|[[Execution of Torrijos and his Companions on the Beach at Málaga|Execution of Torrijos and his men]] in 1831, [[Málaga]]. Ferdinand VII took [[Ominous Decade|repressive measures]] against the liberal forces in his country.]]
[[File:01 eibar.jpg|thumb|Women voting in [[Éibar]] in 1933, after [[women's suffrage]] was approved. Deputy [[Clara Campoamor]] was a key figure for the right to be granted.]]
In 1793, Spain went to war against the revolutionary [[First French Republic|French Republic]] as a member of [[War of the First Coalition|the first Coalition]]. The subsequent [[War of the Pyrenees]] polarised the country in a reaction against the [[Francization|gallicised]] elites and following defeat in the field, peace was made with France in 1795 at the [[Peace of Basel]] in which Spain lost control over two-thirds of the island of [[Hispaniola]]. In 1807, a secret treaty between [[Napoleon I of France|Napoleon]] and the unpopular prime minister led to a new declaration of war against Britain and Portugal. French troops entered the country to invade Portugal but instead occupied Spain's major fortresses. The Spanish king abdicated and a puppet kingdom satellite to the French Empire was installed with [[Joseph Bonaparte]] as king.
The [[Dos de Mayo Uprising|2 May 1808 revolt]] was one of many uprisings across the country against the French occupation.[{{cite web |first=David A. |last=Bell |date=7 March 2007 |url=https://historynet.com/napoleons-total-war/ |title=Napoleon's Total War |website=historynet.com}}] These revolts marked the beginning of a devastating [[Peninsular War|war of independence]] against the Napoleonic regime,{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=20}} which resulted in an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 Spanish dead. Further military action by Spanish armies, [[guerrilla]] warfare and an Anglo-Portuguese allied army, combined with [[Napoleon's Invasion of Russia|Napoleon's failure on the Russian front]], led to the retreat of French imperial armies from the Iberian Peninsula in 1814, and the return of [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|King Ferdinand VII]].{{sfn|Gates|2001|p=467}}
During the war, in 1810, a revolutionary body, the [[Cortes of Cádiz]], was assembled to coordinate the effort against the Bonapartist regime and to prepare a constitution.[{{cite book|last=Alvar Ezquerra |first=Jaime|title=Diccionario de historia de España|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l4JQIkW1yrsC&pg=PA209|date=2001|publisher=[[Ediciones Akal]]|isbn=978-84-7090-366-3|page=209}} Cortes of Cádiz (1812) was the first parliament of Spain with sovereign power] It met as one body, and its members represented the entire Spanish empire.[{{cite book|title=Independence of Spanish America|last=Rodríguez|first=Jaime E.|date=2013|publisher=Cambridge University Press|doi=10.1017/CBO9780511721137 |isbn=978-0-521-62298-1 }}] In 1812, a [[Spanish Constitution of 1812|constitution]] for universal representation under a constitutional monarchy was declared, but after the fall of the Bonapartist regime, the Spanish king dismissed the Cortes Generales, set on ruling as an [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarch]].
The French occupation of mainland Spain created an opportunity for overseas [[Criollo people|''criollo'']] elites who resented the privilege towards [[Peninsulars|Peninsular elites]] and demanded [[retroversion of the sovereignty to the people]]. Starting in 1809 the American colonies began a series of revolutions and declared independence, leading to the [[Spanish American wars of independence]] that put an end to the metropole's grip over the [[Spanish Main]]. [[Reconquista (Spanish America)|Attempts to re-assert control]] proved futile with opposition not only in the colonies but also in the Iberian peninsula and army revolts followed. By the end of 1826, the only American colonies Spain held were [[Captaincy General of Cuba|Cuba]] and [[Captaincy General of Puerto Rico|Puerto Rico]].
The Napoleonic War left Spain economically ruined, deeply divided and politically unstable. In the 1830s and 1840s, [[Carlism]], a reactionary legitimist movement supportive of an alternative Bourbon branch, fought against the government forces supportive of Queen [[Isabella II of Spain|Isabella II]]'s dynastic rights in the [[Carlist Wars]]. Government forces prevailed, but the conflict between [[Progressive Party (Spain)|''progressives'']] and ''[[Moderate Party (Spain)|moderates]]'' ended in a weak early constitutional period. The 1868 [[Glorious Revolution (Spain)|Glorious Revolution]] was followed by the 1868–1874 progressive ''[[Sexenio Democrático]]'' (including the short-lived [[First Spanish Republic]]), which yielded to a stable monarchic period, the [[Restoration (Spain)|Restoration]] (1875–1931).[{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eX7cXu4N2AUC&pg=PA33|page=33|title=Elecciones y cultura política en España e Italia (1890–1923)|editor-first=Rosa Ana|editor-last=Gutiérrez|editor-first2=Rafael|editor-last2=Zurita|editor-first3=Renato|editor-last3=Camurri|publisher=[[University of Valencia|Universitat de València]]|location=Valencia|year=2003|isbn=84-370-5672-1|chapter=Caciquismo y mundo rural durante la Restauración|first=Salvador|last=Cruz Artacho|access-date=13 September 2020|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033420/https://books.google.com/books?id=eX7cXu4N2AUC&pg=PA33|url-status=live}}]
In the late 19th century, nationalist movements arose in the Philippines and Cuba. In 1895 and 1896, the [[Cuban War of Independence]] and the [[Philippine Revolution]] broke out, both were conflicts that eventually involved the United States. The [[Spanish–American War]] was fought from April to August 1898 and resulted in Spain losing the last of its once vast colonial empire outside of North Africa. ''El Desastre'' (the Disaster), as the war became known in Spain, gave added impetus to the [[Generation of '98]].
Although the period around the turn of the century was one of increasing prosperity, the 20th century brought little social peace. Spain played a minor part in the [[scramble for Africa]]. It remained neutral [[Spain during World War I|during World War I]]. The heavy losses suffered by the colonial troops in conflicts in northern Morocco against [[Riffians|Riffian]] tribes brought discredit to the government and undermined the monarchy.
Industrialisation, the development of railways, and incipient capitalism took place in several areas of the country, particularly in [[Barcelona]], alongside the growth of the [[labour movement]] and the spread of socialist and anarchist ideas. The [[1870 Barcelona Workers' Congress]] and the [[1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition]] are good examples of this. In 1879, the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party]] was founded. A trade union linked to this party, [[Unión General de Trabajadores]], was founded in 1888. In the anarcho-syndicalist trend of the labour movement in Spain, [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] was founded in 1910 and [[Federación Anarquista Ibérica]] in 1927.[{{cite book|title=Oligarquía y caciquismo, Colectivismo agrario y otros escritos: (Antología)|last=Costa|first=Joaquín|author-link=Joaquín Costa}}]
[[Catalan nationalism|Catalanism]] and [[Basque nationalism|Vasquism]], alongside [[National and regional identity in Spain|other nationalisms and regionalisms]], arose during this period; the [[Basque Nationalist Party]] formed in 1895 and [[Regionalist League of Catalonia]] in 1901. Political corruption and repression weakened the democratic system of the constitutional monarchy of a two-parties system.[{{cite book|title=Oligarquía y caciquismo, Colectivismo agrario y otros escritos: (Antología)|last=Costa|first=Joaquín|author-link=Joaquín Costa}}] The July 1909 [[Tragic Week (Spain)|Tragic Week]] events and repression exemplified the social instability of the time. The [[La Canadiense strike]] in 1919 led to the first law limiting the working day to eight hours.[{{cite book|title=The Revolutionary Left in Spain, 1914–1923|last=Meaker|first=Gerald H.|date=1974|publisher=[[Stanford University Press]]|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RM6rAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA158 159] ff|isbn=0-8047-0845-2}}]
After a period of Crown-supported dictatorship from 1923 to 1931, the first elections since 1923, largely understood as a plebiscite on Monarchy, took place: the [[1931 Spanish local elections|12 April 1931 municipal elections]]. These gave a resounding victory to the Republican-Socialist candidacies in large cities and provincial capitals, with a majority of monarchist councilors in rural areas. The king left Spain and the proclamation of the Republic on 14 April ensued, with the formation of a provisional government. In October 1931, Spain's [[Spanish Constitution of 1931|1931 Constitution]] was passe following the [[1931 Spanish general election|June 1931 Constituent general election]]. A series of cabinets presided by [[Manuel Azaña]] supported by republican parties and the [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|PSOE]] followed.
In the 1933 election, the right triumphed, and in 1936, the left. During the [[Second Spanish Republic|Second Republic]] there was a great political and social upheaval, marked by a sharp radicalisation of the left and the right. Instances of political violence during this period included the burning of churches, the [[Sanjurjada|1932 failed coup d'état led by José Sanjurjo]], the [[Revolution of 1934]] and numerous attacks against rival political leaders. It is also during the Second Republic when important reforms to modernise Spain were initiated: a democratic constitution, agrarian reform, restructuring of the army, political decentralisation and [[Women's suffrage|women's right to vote]].
=== Civil War and Francoist dictatorship ===
{{Main|Spanish Civil War|Spanish Revolution of 1936|Francoist Spain}}
[[File:Reemplazo republicano.jpg|thumb|Republican volunteers at [[Teruel]], 1936]]
[[File:Meeting at Hendaye (en.wiki).jpg|thumb|right|Spanish leader [[Francisco Franco]] and [[Adolf Hitler]] at the [[Meeting at Hendaye]], 1940]]
The Spanish Civil War broke out in 1936. On 17 and 18 July, part of the military [[Spanish coup of July 1936|carried out a coup d'état]] took control of parts of Spain. Spain was divided into two zones: one [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|under the authority of the Republican government]], that counted on outside support from the [[Soviet Union]] and [[Mexico]] (and from [[International response to the Spanish Civil War#International Brigades|International Brigades]]), and the other controlled by the putschists (the [[Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War)|Nationalist or rebel faction]]), most critically supported by [[Nazi Germany]] and [[Fascist Italy (1922–1943)|Fascist Italy]]. The Republic was not supported by the Western powers due to the British-led policy of [[non-intervention]]. General [[Francisco Franco]] was sworn in as the supreme leader of the rebels in October 1936. An uneasy relationship between the Republican government and the grassroots anarchists who had initiated a partial [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|social revolution]] also ensued.
The civil war was viciously fought and there were [[Spanish Civil War#Atrocities|many atrocities committed by all sides]]. The [[Spanish Civil War|war]] claimed the lives of over 500,000 people and caused the flight of up to a half-million citizens from Spain.[[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_corrisedrespondent/2809025.stm Spanish Civil War fighters look back]{{Dead link|date=December 2021 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}, BBC News, 23 February 2003][{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/3998443/Relatives-of-Spaniards-who-fled-Franco-granted-citizenship.html|title=Relatives of Spaniards who fled Franco granted citizenship|work=The Daily Telegraph|date=28 December 2008|access-date=18 January 2014|location=London|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723074619/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/3998443/Relatives-of-Spaniards-who-fled-Franco-granted-citizenship.html|archive-date=23 July 2013 }}] On 1 April 1939, five months before the beginning of [[World War II]], the rebel side led by Franco emerged victorious, imposing a dictatorship over the whole country. Thousands were imprisoned after the civil war in [[Francoist concentration camps]]. Between 1939 and 1943, approximately 200,000 people in Spain died from [[famine]].[{{cite web |title=Between 1939 and 1943, 200,000 people died of hunger in Spain and it was a political decision |date=29 December 2025 |url=https://en.ara.cat/culture/between-1939-and-1943-200-000-people-died-of-hunger-in-spain-and-it-was-political-decision_1_5604764.html}}]
The regime remained nominally "[[neutrality (international relations)|neutral]]" for much of the Second World War, although it was [[Spain in World War II|sympathetic]] to [[Axis Powers|the Axis]] and provided the Nazi [[Wehrmacht]] with [[Blue Division|Spanish volunteers in the Eastern Front]]. The only legal party under Franco's dictatorship was the [[Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las JONS]] (FET y de las JONS), formed in 1937 upon the merging of the Fascist [[Falange Española de las JONS]] and the Carlist traditionalists and to which the rest of right-wing groups supporting the rebels also added. The name of "[[Movimiento Nacional]]", sometimes understood as a wider structure than the FET y de las JONS proper, largely imposed over the latter's name in official documents in the 1950s.
After the war, Spain was politically and economically isolated, and was kept out of the United Nations. This changed in 1955, during the [[Cold War]] period, when it became strategically important for the US to establish a military presence on the Iberian Peninsula as a counter to any possible move by the Soviet Union into the Mediterranean basin. US Cold War strategic priorities included the dissemination of American educational ideas to foster modernisation and expansion.[{{cite journal |last1=Óscar |first1=Martín García |title=Soft Power, Modernization, and Security: US Educational Foreign Policy Toward Authoritarian Spain in the Cold War |journal=History of Education Quarterly |date=May 2023 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=198–220 |doi=10.1017/heq.2023.5|s2cid=258190145 |hdl=10251/201668 |hdl-access=free | issn = 0018-2680 }}] In the 1960s, Spain had an [[Spanish miracle|unprecedented rate of economic growth]], propelled by [[Spanish miracle#Industrialization|industrialisation]], a mass internal migration from rural areas to [[Madrid]], [[Barcelona]] and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] and the creation of a mass tourism industry. Franco's rule was also characterised by [[Francoist Spain#Fascism and authoritarianism|authoritarianism]], [[Francoist Spain#Spanish nationalism|promotion of a unitary national identity]], [[National Catholicism]], and [[Language policies of Francoist Spain|discriminatory language policies]].
=== Restoration of democracy ===
{{Main|Spanish transition to democracy|Spanish society after the democratic transition}}
[[File:De proclamatie en beëdiging van Prins Juan Carlos tot Koning van Spanje tijdens , Bestanddeelnr 254-9763.jpg|thumb|Juan Carlos I before the Cortes Españolas, during his proclamation as King on 22 November 1975]]
[[File:Felipe González firma el Tratado de Adhesión de España a la Comunidad Económica Europea en el Palacio Real de Madrid. Pool Moncloa. 12 de junio de 1985.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Felipe González]] signing the treaty of accession to the [[European Economic Community]] on 12 June 1985]]
In 1962, a group of politicians involved in the opposition to Franco's regime inside Spain and in exile met in the congress of the [[European Movement]] in Munich, where they made a resolution in favour of democracy.[{{cite news|url=http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339259231_174858.html|title=El contubernio que preparó la democracia|work=EL PAÍS|date=9 June 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405102702/http://politica.elpais.com/politica/2012/06/09/actualidad/1339259231_174858.html|archive-date=5 April 2013|last1=Villena|first1=Miguel Ángel}}][{{cite web|url=http://www.movimientoeuropeo.org/area-prensa/actividades/Contubernio-Munich-50-aniversario.php|title=Contubernio de Múnich: 50 años|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021124653/http://www.movimientoeuropeo.org/area-prensa/actividades/Contubernio-Munich-50-aniversario.php|archive-date=21 October 2014 }}][{{cite web|url=http://www.lavanguardia.com/hemeroteca/20120605/54303390132/contubernio-munich-politica-oposicion-antifranquista-movimiento-europeo.html|title=El contubernio de Munich|work=La Vanguardia|date=4 June 2012|access-date=17 September 2014|archive-date=26 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141026212625/http://www.lavanguardia.com/hemeroteca/20120605/54303390132/contubernio-munich-politica-oposicion-antifranquista-movimiento-europeo.html|url-status=live}}] With Franco's death in November 1975, [[Juan Carlos I of Spain|Juan Carlos]] succeeded to the position of [[King of Spain]] and [[head of state]] in accordance with the Francoist law. With the approval of the new [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]] and the [[Spanish transition to democracy|restoration of democracy]], the State [[devolution|devolved]] much authority to the regions and created an internal organisation based on [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]]. The [[Spanish 1977 Amnesty Law]] let people of Franco's regime continue inside institutions without consequences, even perpetrators of some crimes during transition to democracy like the [[Massacre of 3 March 1976 in Vitoria]] or [[1977 Massacre of Atocha]].
In the Basque Country, moderate [[Basque nationalism]] coexisted with a [[Basque Conflict|radical nationalist movement]] led by the armed organisation [[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]] until ETA's dissolution in May 2018.[{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presidents/president-fontaine/speeches/en/sp0066.htm|title=Speech by Mrs Nicole FONTAINE, President of the European Parliament on the occasion of the presentation of the Sakharov Prize 2000 to Basta ya!|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161002164901/http://www.europarl.europa.eu/former_ep_presidents/president-fontaine/speeches/en/sp0066.htm|archive-date=2 October 2016}}] ETA was formed in 1959 during Franco's rule, but continued to wage its violent campaign even after the restoration of democracy and the return of a large measure of regional autonomy.
On 23 February 1981, rebel elements among the security forces seized the Cortes in an attempt to impose [[23-F|a military-backed government]]. King Juan Carlos took personal command of the military and successfully ordered the coup plotters, via national television, to surrender.[{{cite news|title=King Orders army to crush coup|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/1981/feb/23/spain.fromthearchive|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=23 February 1981|archive-date=5 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171005013653/https://www.theguardian.com/world/1981/feb/23/spain.fromthearchive|url-status=live}}]
In the 1980s the democratic restoration made possible a growing open society. New cultural movements based on freedom appeared, like [[La Movida Madrileña]]. In May 1982, Spain joined [[NATO]], followed by [[1986 Spanish NATO membership referendum|a 1986 referendum]] after a strong social opposition. In 1986, the [[Spanish Socialist Workers Party]] (PSOE) came to power, the first left-wing government in 43 years. In 1986, Spain joined the [[European Economic Community]], which later became the [[European Union]]. In 1996, the PSOE was replaced in government by the [[People's Party (Spain)|Partido Popular]] (PP) after scandals around participation of the government of [[Felipe González]] in the [[GAL (paramilitary group)|Dirty war against ETA]].
===Economic prosperity and crash===
On 1 January 2002, Spain fully adopted the [[euro]], and Spain experienced strong economic growth, well above the EU average during the early 2000s. However, well-publicised concerns issued by many economic commentators at the height of the boom warned that extraordinary property prices and a high foreign trade deficit were likely to lead to a painful economic collapse.[{{cite news|author=Pfanner, Eric|date=11 July 2002|title=Economy reaps benefits of entry to the 'club': Spain's euro bonanza|work=International Herald Tribune |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/11/business/worldbusiness/11iht-a10_18.html?scp=1&sq=Economy%20reaps%20benefits%20of%20entry%20to%20the%20%27club%27%20:%20Spain%27s%20euro%20bonanza&st=cse|access-date=9 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-date=1 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501090321/http://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/11/business/worldbusiness/11iht-a10_18.html?scp=1&sq=Economy%20reaps%20benefits%20of%20entry%20to%20the%20%27club%27%20:%20Spain%27s%20euro%20bonanza&st=cse}} See also: {{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9118701|title=Spain's economy / Plain sailing no longer|newspaper=The Economist|date=3 May 2007|access-date=9 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080613212911/http://www.economist.com/displayStory.cfm?story_id=9118701|archive-date=13 June 2008|url-status=live}}]
[[File:Madrid October15.jpg|thumb|A demonstration against the crisis and high youth unemployment in Madrid, 15 October 2011]]
In 2002, the [[Prestige oil spill]] occurred with big ecological consequences along Spain's Atlantic coastline. In 2003 [[José María Aznar]] supported US president [[George W. Bush]] in the [[Iraq War]], and a strong movement against war rose in Spanish society. In March 2004 a local [[Islamist]] terrorist group inspired by [[Al-Qaeda]] carried out the largest terrorist attack in Western European history when they killed 191 people and wounded more than 1,800 others by [[2004 Madrid train bombings|bombing commuter trains]] in Madrid.[{{cite news|title=Al-Qaeda 'claims Madrid bombings'|date=14 March 2004|publisher=BBC|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509426.stm|access-date=13 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060624220502/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509426.stm|archive-date=24 June 2006|url-status=live}} See also: {{cite news|publisher=BBC|title=Madrid bombers get long sentences|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm|access-date=13 August 2008|date=31 October 2007|archive-date=14 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114145049/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7070827.stm|url-status=live}}] Though initial suspicions focused on the Basque terrorist group [[ETA (separatist group)|ETA]], evidence of Islamist involvement soon emerged. Because of the proximity of the [[2004 Spanish general election]], the issue of responsibility quickly became a political controversy, with the main competing parties, the [[People's Party (Spain)|PP]] (People's Party) and [[Spanish Socialist Workers' Party|PSOE]] (Spanish Socialist Workers' party) exchanging accusations over the handling of the incident.[{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509744.stm|publisher=BBC|title=Spain votes under a shadow |access-date=13 August 2008|date=14 March 2004|first=Dominic|last=Bailey|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040825175335/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3509744.stm|archive-date=25 August 2004}}] The PSOE won the election, led by [[José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero]].[{{cite news|title=An election bombshell|url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2004/03/18/an-election-bombshell|access-date=19 March 2020|newspaper=The Economist|date=18 March 2004|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233628/https://www.economist.com/europe/2004/03/18/an-election-bombshell|url-status=live}}]
In the early 2000s, the proportion of [[Immigration to Spain#Currently|Spain's foreign born population]] increased rapidly during its economic boom but then declined due to the [[2008 financial crisis]].[{{cite news|last1=Ortiz|first1=Fiona|title=Spain's population falls as immigrants flee crisis|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain-population/spains-population-falls-as-immigrants-flee-crisis-idUSBRE93L0J620130422|access-date=2 September 2017|work=Reuters|date=22 April 2013|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902102026/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-spain-population/spains-population-falls-as-immigrants-flee-crisis-idUSBRE93L0J620130422|archive-date=2 September 2017}}] In 2005, the Spanish government legalised [[Same-sex marriage in Spain|same sex marriage]], becoming the third country worldwide to do so.[{{cite news|title=Spain legalises gay marriage|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jun/30/gayrights.spain|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=30 June 2005|archive-date=21 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200221223432/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/jun/30/gayrights.spain|url-status=live}}] Decentralisation was supported with much resistance of Constitutional Court and conservative opposition, so did gender politics like quotas or the law against gender violence. Government talks with ETA happened, and the group announced its permanent cease of violence in 2010.[{{cite news|last1=Tremlett|first1=Giles|title=Basque separatists Eta announce ceasefire|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/05/eta-announces-ceasefire|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=5 September 2010|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233632/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/sep/05/eta-announces-ceasefire|url-status=live}}]
The bursting of the [[Spanish property bubble]] in 2008 led to the [[2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis]]. High levels of unemployment, cuts in government spending and corruption within the [[Royal family]] and the People's Party served as a backdrop to the [[2011–12 Spanish protests]].[{{cite news|title=Spain's Indignados protest here to stay|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18070246|access-date=19 March 2020|work=BBC News|date=15 May 2012|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319235526/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-18070246|url-status=live}}] The [[Catalan independence movement]] also gained traction. In 2011, [[Mariano Rajoy]]'s conservative People's Party won the election with 44.6% of votes.[{{cite news|title=Rajoy ahoy|url=https://www.economist.com/newsbook/2011/11/21/rajoy-ahoy|access-date=19 March 2020|newspaper=The Economist|date=21 November 2011|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233630/https://www.economist.com/newsbook/2011/11/21/rajoy-ahoy|url-status=live}}] As prime minister, he implemented austerity measures for the EU bailout, the EU Stability and Growth Pact.[{{cite news|last1=Tremlett|first1=Giles|title=Mariano Rajoy announces €65bn in austerity measures for Spain|url=https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/11/mariano-rajoy-spain-65bn-cuts|access-date=19 March 2020|work=The Guardian|date=11 July 2012|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319233631/https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/jul/11/mariano-rajoy-spain-65bn-cuts|url-status=live}}] On 19 June 2014, the monarch, Juan Carlos, abdicated in favour of his son, who became [[Felipe VI]].[{{cite news|title=Spain king: Juan Carlos signs his abdication|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27910104|access-date=19 March 2020|work=BBC News|date=18 June 2014|archive-date=19 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319235805/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-27910104|url-status=live}}]
===Constitutional issues===
[[File:01.10.2017 Referendum 1-OCT (4).jpg|thumb|Catalans casting their votes in [[Barcelona]] during the [[2017 Catalan independence referendum]]]]
In October 2017 a [[2017 Catalan independence referendum|Catalan independence referendum]] was held and the [[Parliament of Catalonia]] voted to unilaterally declare [[2017 Catalonia declaration of independence|independence from Spain]] to form a Catalan Republic[{{cite news|last1=Alandete|first1=David|title=Análisis. Is Catalonia independent?|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/10/27/inenglish/1509117264_660083.html|work=[[El País]]|date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028042504/https://elpais.com/elpais/2017/10/27/inenglish/1509117264_660083.html|archive-date=28 October 2017}}][{{cite news |last1=Ríos |first1=Pere |last2=Piñol |first2=Àngels |title=El Parlament de Cataluña aprueba la resolución para declarar la independencia|url=https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/10/27/catalunya/1509105810_557081.html|work=[[El País]]|date=27 October 2017|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029185252/https://elpais.com/ccaa/2017/10/27/catalunya/1509105810_557081.html|archive-date=29 October 2017}}] on the day the [[Senate of Spain|Spanish Senate]] was discussing approving direct rule over Catalonia as called for by the Spanish Prime Minister.[{{cite news|date=26 October 2017|title=Catalan crisis: Regional MPs debate Spain takeover bid|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41760832|publisher=BBC|access-date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171026144624/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41760832|archive-date=26 October 2017}}][{{cite news|date=27 October 2017|title=Catalan crisis: Spain PM Rajoy demands direct rule|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41771294|publisher=BBC|access-date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029003630/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41771294|archive-date=29 October 2017}}] On the same day the Senate granted the power to impose direct rule and Mariano Rajoy dissolved the Catalan parliament and called a new election.[{{cite news|date=27 October 2017|title=Catalonia independence: Rajoy dissolves Catalan parliament|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41783289|work=BBC News|location=Barcelona, Madrid|access-date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171028072348/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-41783289|archive-date=28 October 2017 }}] No country recognised Catalonia as a separate state.[{{cite news|last1=Sandford|first1=Alasdair|title=Catalonia: what direct rule from Madrid could mean|url=http://www.euronews.com/2017/10/27/catalonia-what-direct-rule-from-madrid-could-mean|access-date=27 October 2017|work=euronews|date=27 October 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171027201407/http://www.euronews.com/2017/10/27/catalonia-what-direct-rule-from-madrid-could-mean|archive-date=27 October 2017}}]
In June 2018, the [[Congress of Deputies]] passed a [[2018 vote of no confidence in the government of Mariano Rajoy|motion of no-confidence against Rajoy]] and replaced him with the PSOE leader [[Pedro Sánchez (politician)|Pedro Sánchez]].[{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/world/europe/spain-mariano-rajoy-no-confidence.html |title=Spain's Prime Minister, Mariano Rajoy, Is Ousted in No-Confidence Vote |newspaper=The New York Times |date=June 2018 |access-date=18 June 2018 |last1=Minder |first1=Raphael |archive-date=19 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619012814/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/06/01/world/europe/spain-mariano-rajoy-no-confidence.html |url-status=live }}] In 2019, the first ever coalition government in Spain was formed, between PSOE and [[Unidas Podemos]] (now Sumar). Between 2018 and 2024, Spain faced an [[2018–2023 Spanish institutional crisis|institutional crisis]] surrounding the mandate of the [[General Council of the Judiciary]] (CGPJ), until the mandate got renovated.[{{Cite news |title=Spanish institutional crisis triggered by legal block of judicial reform |url=https://www.irishtimes.com/world/europe/2022/12/20/spanish-institutional-crisis-triggered-by-legal-block-of-judicial-reform/ |access-date=4 August 2023 |newspaper=The Irish Times |language=en |archive-date=4 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230804144518/https://www.irishtimes.com/world/europe/2022/12/20/spanish-institutional-crisis-triggered-by-legal-block-of-judicial-reform/ |url-status=live }}] In January 2020, the [[COVID-19]] virus was confirmed to have [[COVID-19 pandemic in Spain|spread to Spain]], causing life expectancy to drop by more than a year.[{{Cite journal|last1=Woolf|first1=Steven H.|last2=Masters|first2=Ryan K.|last3=Aron|first3=Laudan Y.|date=24 June 2021|title=Effect of the covid-19 pandemic in 2020 on life expectancy across populations in the USA and other high income countries: simulations of provisional mortality data|journal=BMJ|language=en|volume=373|article-number=n1343|doi=10.1136/bmj.n1343|issn=1756-1833|pmid=34162598|pmc=8220857|doi-access=free}}] The European Commission economic recovery package [[Next Generation EU]] was created to support the EU member states to recover from the COVID-19 pandemic, and will be in use in the period 2021–2026. In March 2021, Spain became the sixth nation in the world to make [[Legality of euthanasia|active euthanasia legal]].[{{cite web|last=Borraz|first=Marta|date=18 March 2021|title=Luz verde definitiva: la ley de eutanasia ya es una realidad en España tras superar su último trámite en el Congreso|url=https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/luz-verde-definitiva-ley-eutanasia-supera-ultimo-tramite-congreso-entrara-vigor-tres-meses_1_7320129.html|access-date=19 March 2021|website=ElDiario.es|language=es|archive-date=18 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210318233215/https://www.eldiario.es/sociedad/luz-verde-definitiva-ley-eutanasia-supera-ultimo-tramite-congreso-entrara-vigor-tres-meses_1_7320129.html|url-status=live}}]
Following the [[2023 Spanish general election|general election on 23 July 2023]], Prime Minister Pedro Sánchez again formed a coalition government, this time with [[Sumar (electoral platform)|Sumar]], the successor of [[Unidas Podemos]].[{{Cite news |last=Bayer |first=Lili |date=16 November 2023 |title=Socialist leader Pedro Sánchez wins new term as Spanish PM following election gamble – as it happened |language=en-GB |work=the Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/nov/16/spain-acting-prime-minister-pedro-sanchez-expected-win-backing-for-new-term-europe-latest-updates |access-date=7 December 2023 |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=7 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231207213108/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2023/nov/16/spain-acting-prime-minister-pedro-sanchez-expected-win-backing-for-new-term-europe-latest-updates |url-status=live }}]
In 2024, the first non-independentist Catalan regional president in over a decade, [[Salvador Illa]], was elected, normalising the constitutional and institutional relations between the national and the regional administrations. In 2024,[{{cite web | url=https://www.newtral.es/sentimiento-catalan-espanol/20240501/ | title=La mitad de los catalanes se siente tan español como catalán, un 8,4% más desde las elecciones de 2012 | date=May 2024 }}] only 17.3% of Catalans feel themselves as "only Catalan". 46% of Catalans would answer "as Spanish as Catalan", while 21.8% "more Catalan than Spanish".[{{cite web | url=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20230113/encuesta-independencia-catalunya-icps-uab-81112066 | title=El apoyo a la independencia de Catalunya baja del 40%, según una encuesta del ICPS | date=13 January 2023 }}]
== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Spain}}
[[File:Reliefkarte Spanien mit Kanaren.png|thumb|A topographic map of Spain]]
At {{convert|505992|km2|sqmi|0|abbr=on}}, Spain is the world's [[List of countries and outlying territories by area|fiftieth largest country]] and [[Area and population of European countries|Europe's fourth largest country]]. At {{convert|3715|m|abbr=on}}, Mount [[Teide]] ([[Tenerife]]) is the highest mountain peak in Spain and is the third largest volcano in the world from its base. Spain is a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]], having territory in both [[Europe]] and [[Africa]].
Spain lies between latitudes [[27th parallel north|27°]] and [[44th parallel north|44° N]], and longitudes [[19th meridian west|19° W]] and [[5th meridian east|5° E]].
On the west, Spain is bordered by [[Portugal]]; on the south, it is bordered by [[Gibraltar]] and [[Morocco]], through its [[exclave]]s in North Africa ([[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]], and the peninsula of [[Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera|de Vélez de la Gomera]]). On the northeast, along the [[Pyrenees]] mountain range, it is bordered by [[France]] and [[Andorra]]. Along the Pyrenees in [[province of Girona|Girona]], a small exclave town called [[Llívia]] is surrounded by France.
Extending to {{convert|1214|km|mi|abbr=on}}, the [[Portugal–Spain border]] is the [[List of countries and territories by land borders|longest uninterrupted border]] within the [[European Union]].[Medina García, Eusebio (2006). [http://www.dip-badajoz.es/cultura/ceex/reex_digital/reex_LXII/2006/T.%20LXII%20n.%202%202006%20mayo-ag/RV000827.pdf «Orígenes históricos y ambigüedad de la frontera {{Not a typo|hispano-lusa}} (La Raya)»] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185331/http://www.dip-badajoz.es/cultura/ceex/reex_digital/reex_LXII/2006/T.%20LXII%20n.%202%202006%20mayo-ag/RV000827.pdf|date=25 May 2017 }}. ''Revista de Estudios Extremeños''. Tomo LXII (II Mayo-Agosto). {{ISSN|0210-2854}}, pp. 713–723.]
=== Islands ===
{{Main|List of islands of Spain}}
[[File:View of the bay at Calo des Moro, Mallorca (Spain) (23899506181).jpg|thumb|Caló d'es Moro, [[Mallorca]] island]]
Spain also includes the [[Balearic Islands]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]], the [[Canary Islands]] in the Atlantic Ocean and a number of uninhabited islands on the Mediterranean side of the [[Strait of Gibraltar]], known as {{lang|es|[[plazas de soberanía]]}} ("places of sovereignty", or territories under Spanish sovereignty), such as the [[Chafarinas Islands]] and [[Peñón de Alhucemas|Alhucemas]]. The peninsula of [[Peñón de Vélez de la Gomera|de Vélez de la Gomera]] is also regarded as a ''plaza de soberanía''. The isle of [[Alboran Island|Alborán]], located in the Mediterranean between Spain and North Africa, is also administered by Spain, specifically by the municipality of [[Almería]], Andalusia. The little [[Pheasant Island]] in the River [[Bidasoa]] is a Spanish-French [[condominium (international law)|condominium]].
There are eleven major islands in Spain, all of which have their own governing bodies ([[Cabildo insular|Cabildos insulares]] in the Canaries, [[Balearic Islands#Administration|Consells insulars]] in Baleares). These islands are specifically mentioned by the Spanish Constitution, when fixing its Senatorial representation (Ibiza and Formentera are grouped, as they together form the [[Pityusic Islands|Pityusic islands]], part of the Balearic archipelago). These islands include [[Tenerife]], [[Gran Canaria]], [[Lanzarote]], [[Fuerteventura]], [[La Palma]], [[La Gomera]] and [[El Hierro]] in the Canarian archipelago and [[Mallorca]], [[Ibiza]], [[Menorca]] and [[Formentera]] in the Balearic archipelago.
=== Mountains and rivers ===
[[File:Roque Cinchado und Teide.jpg|thumb|[[Teide]], an [[active volcano]] in [[Tenerife]], Canary Islands, is the tallest peak in Spain.]]
Mainland Spain is a rather [[mountainous]] landmass, dominated by high [[plateau]]s and mountain chains. After the Pyrenees, the main mountain ranges are the [[Cantabrian Mountains|Cordillera Cantábrica]] (Cantabrian Range), [[Sistema Ibérico]] (Iberian System), [[Sistema Central]] (Central System), [[Montes de Toledo]], [[Sierra Morena]] and the [[Sistema Bético]] (Baetic System) whose highest peak, the {{convert|3478|m|ft|adj=mid|abbr=off|-high}} [[Mulhacén]], located in [[Sierra Nevada (Spain)|Sierra Nevada]], is the highest elevation in the Iberian Peninsula. The highest point in Spain is the [[Teide]], a {{convert|3718|m|ft|adj=on}} active [[volcano]] in the Canary Islands. The [[Meseta Central]] (often translated as 'Inner Plateau') is a vast plateau in the heart of peninsular Spain split in two by the Sistema Central.
There are several major [[rivers in Spain]] such as the [[Tagus]] (''Tajo''), [[Ebro]], [[Guadiana River|Guadiana]], [[Douro]] (''Duero''), [[Guadalquivir]], [[Júcar River|Júcar]], [[Segura (river)|Segura]], [[Turia River|Turia]] and [[Minho River|Minho]] (''Miño''). [[Alluvial plain]]s are found along the coast, the largest of which is that of the Guadalquivir in [[Andalusia]].
=== Climate ===
{{Main|Climate of Spain}}
[[File:Spain Köppen.svg|thumb|A [[Köppen climate classification]] map of Spain]]
[[File:Urriellu desde el Pozo de La Oracion.jpg|thumb|Urriellu peak ([[Naranjo de Bulnes]]) from Pozo de La Oracion, [[Picos de Europa]]]]
Three main climatic zones can be separated, according to geographical situation and [[orography|orographic]] conditions:[{{cite web|url=http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf|title=World Map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification updated – (see p.3)|access-date=30 April 2011|archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412021016/http://www.schweizerbart.de/resources/downloads/paper_free/55034.pdf|url-status=live}}]
* The [[Mediterranean climate]] is characterised by warm or hot and dry summers and is the predominant climate in the country. It has two varieties: ''Csa'' and ''Csb,'' according to the [[Köppen climate classification]].
** The ''Csa'' zone is associated with areas with hot summers. It is predominant in the Southern Mediterranean (except southeastern) and Southern Atlantic coast and inland throughout [[Andalusia]], Extremadura and much of the centre of the country. Some areas of Csa, mainly those inland, such as some areas of [[Castilla–La Mancha|Castilla-La-Mancha]], [[Extremadura]], Madrid and some parts of Andalusia, have cool winters with some continental influences, while the regions with a Mediterranean climate close to the sea have mild winters.
** The ''Csb'' zone has warm rather than hot summers, and extends to additional cool-winter areas not typically associated with a Mediterranean climate, such as much of central and northern-central of Spain (e.g. western [[Castile and León|Castile–León]], northeastern Castilla-La Mancha and northern Madrid) and into much rainier areas (notably [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]).
* The [[semi-arid climate]] (''BSk'', ''BSh'') is predominant in the southeastern quarter of the country, but is also widespread in other areas of Spain. It covers most of the [[Region of Murcia]], southern and central-eastern [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], eastern Andalusia, various areas of Castilla-La-Mancha, Madrid and some areas of Extremadura. Further to the north, it is predominant in the upper and mid reaches of the [[Ebro]] valley, which crosses southern [[Navarre]], central [[Aragon]] and western [[Catalonia]]. It is also found in a small area in northern Andalusia and in a small area in central Castilla-León. Precipitation is limited with the dry season extending beyond the summer and average temperature depending on altitude and latitude.
* The [[oceanic climate]] (''Cfb'') is located in the northern quarter of the country, especially in the Atlantic region ([[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], [[Cantabria]], [[Asturias]], and partly Galicia and Castile–León). It is also found in northern Navarre, in most highlands areas along the [[Sistema Ibérico|Iberian System]] and in the [[Pyrenees|Pyrenean]] valleys, where a humid subtropical variant (''Cfa'') also occurs. Winter and summer temperatures are influenced by the ocean, and have no seasonal drought.
Apart from these main types, other sub-types can be found, like the [[alpine climate]] in areas with very high altitude, the [[humid subtropical climate]] in areas of northeastern Spain and the [[continental climate]]s (''Dfc'', ''Dfb'' / ''Dsc'', ''Dsb'') in the [[Pyrenees]] as well as parts of the [[Cordillera Cantábrica|Cantabrian Range]], the [[Sistema Central|Central System]], [[Sierra Nevada (Spain)|Sierra Nevada]] and the [[Sistema Ibérico|Iberian System]], and a typical [[desert climate]] (''BWk'', ''BWh'') in the zone of [[Almería]], [[Murcia]] and eastern [[Canary Islands]]. Low-lying areas of the Canary Islands average above {{convert|18.0|C|1}} during their coolest month, thus having influences of [[tropical climate]], although they cannot properly be classified as tropical climates, as according to AEMET, their aridity is high, thus belonging to an arid or semi-arid climate.[{{Cite web |title=Evolucion de los climas de Koppen en España: 1951–2020 |url=https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/NT_37_AEMET/NT_37_AEMET.pdf |access-date=8 February 2024 |website=[[Agencia Estatal de Meteorologia]] |archive-date=13 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213184548/https://www.aemet.es/documentos/es/conocermas/recursos_en_linea/publicaciones_y_estudios/publicaciones/NT_37_AEMET/NT_37_AEMET.pdf |url-status=live }}]
Spain is one of the countries that is most affected by [[Climate change in Spain|climate change]] in Europe. In Spain, which already has a hot and dry climate, extreme events such as [[Heat wave|heatwaves]] are becoming increasingly frequent.[{{Cite web|title=World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal|url=https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/|access-date=17 August 2021|website=World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal|language=en}}][{{Cite web|last1=Medina |first1=Miguel Ángel |first2=Elisa |last2= Tasca|date=12 August 2021|title=Weather experts on Spain's heatwave: 'A summer like this will be considered cold in 30 years' time'|url=https://english.elpais.com/society/2021-08-12/weather-experts-on-spains-heatwave-a-summer-like-this-will-be-considered-cold-in-30-years-time.html|access-date=17 August 2021|website=EL PAÍS|language=en}}] The country is also experiencing more episodes of drought and increased severity of these episodes.[{{Cite web |first1=Fred|last1= Pleitgen|first2=Claudia|last2=Otto |first3=Laura|last3=Paddison |date=2 May 2023 |title=Disappearing lakes, dead crops and trucked-in water: Drought-stricken Spain is running dry |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/02/europe/spain-drought-catalonia-heat-wave-climate-intl/index.html |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=CNN |language=en}}] [[Water resources]] will be severely affected in various [[climate change]] scenarios.[{{cite journal |author=T. Estrela |author2=M.A. Pérez-Martin |author3=E. Vargas |title=Impacts of climate change on water resources in Spain |journal=Hydrological Sciences Journal |year=2012 |volume=57 |issue=6 |pages=1154–1167 |doi=10.1080/02626667.2012.702213 |doi-access=|bibcode=2012HydSJ..57.1154E |hdl=10251/47415 }}] To mitigate the [[effects of climate change]], Spain is promoting an [[energy transition]] to [[renewable energy|renewable energies]], such as [[Solar power|solar]] and [[wind energy]].[{{cite web |title=Renewable energies in Spain |website=Institute for the Diversification and Saving of Energy |url=https://www.idae.es/articulos/renewable-energies-spain}}]
=== Fauna and flora ===
{{main|Wildlife of Spain}}
[[File:Iberian Wolf AdF 001.jpg|thumb|The [[Iberian wolf]] in [[Castile and León]]. The region has 25% of the land covered by [[Natura 2000]] protected natural spaces.]]
The [[fauna]] presents a wide diversity that is due in large part to the geographical position of the Iberian peninsula between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean and between Africa and [[Eurasia]], and the great diversity of habitats and [[biotopes]], the result of a considerable variety of climates and well differentiated regions.
The vegetation of Spain is varied due to several factors including the diversity of the terrain, the climate and [[latitude]]. Spain includes different [[phytogeographic]] regions, each with its own floral characteristics resulting largely from the interaction of climate, topography, soil type and fire, and [[Biotic component|biotic]] factors. The country had a 2019 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 4.23/10, ranking it 130th globally out of 172 countries.[{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|display-authors=1|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}]
Within the European territory, Spain has the largest number of plant species (7,600 vascular plants) of all European countries.[{{Cite web |title=Biodiversity in Spain |url=https://www.climatechangepost.com/spain/biodiversity/ |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Climatechangepost.com |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924231535/https://www.climatechangepost.com/spain/biodiversity/ |url-status=live }}]
In Spain there are 17.804 billion trees and an average of 284 million more grow each year.[{{Cite web |last=Biodiversidad |first=Fundación |date=18 February 2014 |title=The Foundation |url=https://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/en/about-us |access-date=24 September 2022 |website=Fundación Biodiversidad |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924231544/https://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es/en/about-us }}]
== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Spain|Elections in Spain}}
{{See also|Spanish Constitution of 1978}}
{{multiple image
| align = right
| total_width = 300
| image1 = Daiga Mieriņa tiekas ar Spānijas karali - 53814974005 (cropped)-2.jpg
| caption1 = [[Felipe VI]]
[[Monarchy of Spain|King]]
| image2 = Pedro Sánchez in 2026.jpg
| caption2 = [[Pedro Sánchez]]
[[Prime Minister of Spain|Prime Minister]]
| caption_align = center
}}
The constitutional history of Spain dates back to the constitution of 1812. In June 1976, Spain's new King [[Juan Carlos]] dismissed [[Carlos Arias Navarro]] and appointed the reformer [[Adolfo Suárez]] as Prime Minister.[John Hooper, ''The New Spaniards'', 2001, ''From Dictatorship to Democracy''][[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7171971.stm Spain's fast-living king turns 70] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100106025042/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7171971.stm|date=6 January 2010 }} BBC News Friday, 4 January 2008 Extracted 18 June 2009] The resulting [[1977 Spanish general election|general election in 1977]] convened the ''[[Constituent Cortes]]'' (the Spanish Parliament, in its capacity as a constitutional assembly) for the purpose of drafting and approving the constitution of 1978.{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978}} After a national referendum on 6 December 1978, 88% of voters approved of the new constitution. As a result, Spain successfully transitioned from a [[Francoist Spain|one-party personalist dictatorship]] to a [[multiparty]] [[parliamentary democracy]] composed of seventeen [[autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] and two [[autonomous communities of Spain#Autonomous cities|autonomous cities]]. These regions enjoy varying degrees of autonomy thanks to the Spanish Constitution, which nevertheless explicitly states the indivisible unity of the Spanish nation.
According to [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|International IDEA]]'s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Spain performs in the high range on overall democratic measures, with particular strengths in inclusive suffrage and access to justice.[{{Cite web |title=Spain {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/spain |access-date=6 October 2025 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}}]
=== Governance ===
====The Crown====
[[File:Palacio Real de Madrid Julio 2016 (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Royal Palace of Madrid]]]]
The [[Constitution of Spain|Spanish Constitution]] provides for a [[separation of powers]] between five [[branches of government]], which it refers to as "basic State institutions".{{Efn|Those nationwide institutions are the Crown, the Cortes Generales, the Government, the Judiciary, and the Constitutional Tribunal.}}[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s548|title=Section 86, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://www.lamoncloa.gob.es/lang/en/espana/spanishinstitutions/Paginas/index.aspx|title=Institutions of Spain|publisher=La Moncloa, the Office of the President of the Government|access-date=15 April 2024}}] Foremost amongst these institutions is the Crown (''La Corona''), the symbol of the Spanish state and its permanence.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s318|title=Section 56 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] Spain's "parliamentary monarchy" is a [[constitutional monarchy|constitutional]] one whereby the reigning [[Monarchy of Spain|king or queen]] is the [[Legal personality|living embodiment]] of the Crown and thus [[head of state]].{{Efn|Most [[List of Spanish monarchs|Spanish monarchs]] have been kings. However, a [[queen regnant]] – while uncommon – is possible due to Spain's adherence to [[male-preference primogeniture]]. [[Leonor, Princess of Asturias]], would be Spain's first queen regnant since [[Isabella II]], who reigned from 1833 to 1868, should she someday succeed her father [[Felipe VI]] as expected.}}[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s11|title=Section 1 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}][{{cite book|author=Shelley, Fred M.|title=Governments around the World: From Democracies to Theocracies|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wui6CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|date=2015|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-1-4408-3813-2|page=197|access-date=2 October 2018|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033901/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wui6CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA197|url-status=live}}]
Unlike in some other constitutional monarchies, namely the likes of [[Monarchy of Belgium|Belgium]], [[Monarchy of Denmark|Denmark]], [[Monarchy of Luxembourg|Luxembourg]], [[Monarchy of the Netherlands|The Netherlands]], [[Monarchy of Norway|Norway]], or the [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|United Kingdom]], the monarch is not the fount of [[Sovereignty|national sovereignty]] or even the ''nominal'' [[Executive authority|chief executive]]. Rather, the Crown, as an institution, "...arbitrates and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions..." of the Spanish state.[{{Cite book|last=Sodré |first=Nelson Werneck |title=Panorama do Segundo Império |edition=2 |location=Rio de Janeiro |publisher=Graphia |year=2004|page=91 |language=pt}}][{{Cite book |last=Torres |first=João Camilo de Oliveira |url=https://bd.camara.leg.br/bd/bitstream/handle/bdcamara/36281/democracia_coroada_camilo.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y |title=A democracia coroada |edition= |location=Brasília |publisher=Câmara dos Deputados |year=2017|pages=105–106 |isbn=978-85-402-0667-0 |language=pt}}][{{Cite book|last=Sousa |first=Galvão |title=História do Direito Político Brasileiro |edition=2 |location=São Paulo |publisher=Saraiva |year=1962|pages=125–126 |language=pt}}][{{Cite book|last=Faoro |first=Raymundo |title=Os Donos do Poder |location= |publisher=Globo |year=2001 |url=http://www.usp.br/cje/anexos/pierre/FAORORaymundoOsDonosdoPoder.pdf|pages=343–344 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160804114059/http://www.usp.br/cje/anexos/pierre/FAORORaymundoOsDonosdoPoder.pdf |archive-date=4 August 2016 |language=pt}}]
In these respects, the Crown constitutes a fifth [[Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)|moderating branch]] that does not make [[public policy]] or administer [[public services]], functions which rightfully rest with Spain's duly elected legislatures and governments at both the national and regional level. Instead, the Crown personifies the democratic Spanish state, sanctions legitimate authority, ensures the legality of means, and guarantees the execution of the public will.[{{cite speech|last=McCaughey|first=J. Davis|title=The Crown at State Level|event=Hugo Wolfsohn Memorial Lecture|date=1993 |location=Melbourne, Victoria, Australia|publisher=La Trobe University|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/veiled-sceptre/rejection-of-advice-to-act-illegally-or-unconstitutionally/86BBD8142954446646630418C1291A12|access-date=15 April 2024|language=Australian English}}][{{Cite book|editor=Arthur Bousfield & Gary Toffoli|title=Royal Observations: Canadians and Royalty|publisher=Dundurn Press|location=Toronto, Ontario, Canada|year=1991}}]
{{quote box| width=250px| border=1px| bgcolor=#F5F5DC| quote=The independence of the Crown, its political neutrality and its wish to embrace and reconcile the different ideological standpoints enable it to contribute to the stability of our political system, facilitating a balance with the other constitutional and territorial bodies, promoting the orderly functioning of the State and providing a channel for cohesion among Spaniards.[{{Cite web| url=https://www.casareal.es/EN/Paginas/home.aspx|title=HM The King's address to the Cortes Generales on the occasion of his accession|date=19 June 2014|publisher=Casa de Su Majestad El Rey}}]| align=left| source=[[Felipe VI|King Felipe VI]], 2014}}
Put another way, the monarch fosters national unity at home, represents Spaniards abroad (especially with regard to [[Organization of Ibero-American States|nations of their historical community]]), facilitates the orderly operation and continuity of the [[machinery of government|Spanish government]], defends [[representative democracy]], and upholds the [[rule of law]].[{{Cite journal|title=Monarchy and Democracy: The Political Role of King Juan Carlos in the Spanish Transicion|author=Walther L. Bernecker|journal=Journal of Contemporary History|volume=33|issue=1|date=January 1998|pages=65–84|doi=10.1177/003200949803300104 |jstor=260997 }}]{{Efn|Former king [[Juan Carlos I]]'s intervention and foiling of the [[1981 Spanish coup attempt]] is but one example of the Crown exercising its influence as the moderating branch to defend democracy and uphold the rule of law.[{{Cite magazine|url=https://www.csmonitor.com/Commentary/the-monitors-view/2019/0604/The-Spanish-king-who-set-then-saved-democracy|title=The Spanish king who set, then saved, democracy
|author=The Monitor's Editorial Board|magazine=Christian Science Monitor
|publisher=Christian Science Monitor|publication-date=4 June 2019|access-date=17 August 2024}}]}} This stabilising role is in keeping with the monarch's [[Oath of office|solemn oath]] upon [[Enthronement#Spain|accession]] "...to faithfully carry out [my] duties, to obey the Constitution and the laws and ensure that they are obeyed, and to respect the rights of citizens and the Self-governing Communities."[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s354|title=Section 61 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
A number of constitutional powers, duties, rights, responsibilities, and functions are assigned to the monarch in their capacity as head of state. However, the Crown enjoys [[inviolability]] in the performance of these [[Royal prerogative#Spain|prerogatives]] and [[Sovereign immunity|cannot be prosecuted]] in the very courts which administer justice in its name.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s318|title=Section 56 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] For this reason, every official act done by the monarch requires the [[countersignature]] of the [[Prime Minister of Spain|prime minister]] or, when appropriate, the [[president of the Congress of Deputies]] to have the force of law. The countersigning procedure or ''refrendo'' in turn transfers political and legal liability for the royal prerogative to the attesting parties.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s388|title=Section 64, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] This provision does not apply to the [[Royal Household of Spain|Royal Household]], over which the monarch enjoys absolute control and supervision, or to membership in the [[Order of the Golden Fleece]], which is a [[dynastic order]] in the personal gift of the [[Spanish royal family|House of Bourbon-Anjou]].[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s393|title=Section 65, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
The royal prerogatives may be classified by whether they are ministerial functions or reserve powers. Ministerial functions are those royal prerogatives that are, pursuant to the [[constitutional convention (political custom)|convention]] established by [[Juan Carlos I]], performed by the monarch after soliciting the [[Advice (constitutional law)|advice]] of the Government, the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, the General Council of the Judiciary, or the Constitutional Tribunal, as the case may be. On the other hand, the [[reserve powers]] of the Crown are those royal prerogatives which are exercised in the monarch's personal discretion.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (a), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s576|title=Section 91, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#[[Writ of summons|Summon]] the Cortes Generales into [[Legislative session|session]] following a general election, [[Dissolution of parliament|dissolve]] the same upon the expiration of its four-year term, and [[Proclamation|proclaim]] the [[Elections in Spain|election]] of the next Cortes. These functions are performed in accordance with the strictures of the Spanish Constitution.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (b), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s414|title=Section 68 (4), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s428|title=Section 69 (6), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s715|title=Section 116 (5), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1191|title=Section 168, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Appoint and dismiss [[Spanish government departments|ministers of state]] on the advice of the prime minister.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (e), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Appoint the president of the [[Supreme Court of Spain|Supreme Court]] on the advice of the General Council of the Judiciary.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s763|title=Section 123 (2), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Appoint the president of the [[Constitutional Court of Spain|Constitutional Tribunal]] from among its members, on the advice of the full bench, for a term of three years.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1148|title=Section 160, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Appoint the [[Spanish Attorney General|Fiscal General]], who leads the [[Prosecution Ministry]], on the advice of the Government. Before tendering advice, the Government is required to consult the General Council of the Judiciary.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s768|title=Section 124 (4), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Appoint the [[President (Autonomous Community of Spain)|presidents]] of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous communities]] as elected by their respective parliaments.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1082|title=Section 152 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Issue [[decrees]] approved in the Council of Ministers, confer [[General State Administration|civil service]] and [[Commissioned officer|military appointments]], and award [[Orders, decorations, and medals of Spain|honours]] and [[Spanish nobility|distinctions]] in the gift of the state. These functions are performed on the advice of the prime minister or another minister designated thereby.{{Efn|The Spanish state honours system comprises the [[Order of Charles III]], the [[Order of Isabella the Catholic]], the [[Order of Civil Merit]], the [[Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise]], the [[Order of Saint Raymond of Peñafort]], and the [[Order of Constitutional Merit]], among other orders, decorations and medals. The prime minister is [[ex officio]] chancellor of the Order of Charles III. On the other hand, the ministers of [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Spain)|foreign affairs]], [[Ministry of Education (Spain)|education]], and [[Ministry of Justice (Spain)|justice]] are the corresponding chancellors for the orders of Isabella the Catholic and of Civil Merit, the Civil Order of Alfonso X, the Wise, and the orders of Saint Raymond of Peñafort and of Constitutional Merit, respectively.}}[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (f), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Exercise [[Commander-in-chief|supreme command and control]] over the [[Spanish Armed Forces|Armed Forces]], on the advice of the prime minister.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (h), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#[[Declaration of war|Declare war]] and [[Peace treaty|make peace]] on the advice of the prime minister and with the prior authorization of the Cortes Generales.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381|title=Section 63 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#[[Ratification|Ratify]] [[treaties]], on the advice of the prime minister.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381|title=Section 63 (2), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Accredit Spanish [[ambassadors]] and [[Envoy (title)|ministers]] to foreign states and [[Agrement|receive]] the [[Letters of credence|credentials]] of [[Foreign relations of Spain|foreign]] [[Diplomatic rank|diplomats]] to Spain, on the advice of the prime minister.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s381|title=Section 63 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Exercise the [[Pardon|right of clemency]], but without the authority to grant [[Amnesty|general pardons]], on the advice of the prime minister.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (i), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
#Patronise the Royal Academies.{{Efn|These being the [[Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando]], the [[Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas]], the [[Royal Academy of Engineering of Spain]], the [[Real Academia de la Historia]], the [[Royal Academy of Jurisprudence and Legislation]], the [[Royal Academy of Pharmacy]], the [[Royal Spanish Academy]], and the [[Spanish Royal Academy of Sciences]]}}[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (j), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
The aforesaid limitations do not apply to the exercise of the Crown's reserve powers, which may be invoked by the monarch when [[Doctrine of necessity|necessary]] to maintain the continuity and stability of state institutions.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.casareal.es/EN/corona/Paginas/la-corona-hoy_papel-jefe.aspx|title=Functions of the Head of State|publisher=Royal Household of Spain|access-date=15 April 2024}}] For example, the monarch has the right to be kept informed on affairs of state through regular [[Audience (meeting)|audience]]s with the Government. For this purpose, the monarch may preside at any time over meetings of the Council of Ministers, but only when requested by the prime minister.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1082|title=Section 62 (g), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] The monarch may prematurely dissolve the Congress of Deputies, the Senate, or both houses of the Cortes in their entirety before the expiration of their four-year term and, in consequence thereof, concurrently call for [[snap election]]s. The monarch exercises this prerogative on the request of the prime minister, after the matter has been discussed by the Council of Ministers. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse the request.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s708|title=Section 115, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] The monarch may also order national referendums on the request of the prime minister, but only with the prior authorisation of the Cortes Generales. Again, the monarch may choose to accept or refuse the prime minister's request.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s578|title=Section 92, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
The Crown's reserve powers further extend into [[Judicial interpretation|constitutional interpretation]] and the [[administration of justice]]. The monarch appoints the twenty members of the [[General Council of the Judiciary]]. Of these counselors, twelve are nominated by the supreme, appellate and trial courts, four are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, and four are nominated by the Senate with the same majority. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s756|title=Section 122 (3), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] In a similar vein, the monarch appoints the twelve magistrates of the [[Constitutional Court of Spain|Constitutional Tribunal]]. Of these magistrates, four magistrates are nominated by the Congress of Deputies by a majority of three-fifths of its members, four magistrates are nominated by the Senate with the same majority, two magistrates are nominated by the Government, and two magistrates are nominated by the General Council of the Judiciary. The monarch may choose to accept or refuse any nomination.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s1136|title=Section 159 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
It is the monarch's reserve powers concerning [[Government formation]] that are perhaps the most frequently exercised. The monarch nominates a candidate for [[Prime Minister of Spain|prime minister]] and, as the case may be, appoints or removes them from office based on the prime minister's ability to maintain the [[Motions of no confidence in Spain|confidence]] of the [[Congress of Deputies]].[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s359|title=Section 62 (d), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] If the Congress of Deputies fails to give its confidence to a new Government within two months, and is incapable of governing as a result of parliamentary gridlock, the monarch may dissolve the Cortes Generales and call for fresh elections. The monarch makes use of these reserve powers in their own deliberative judgment after consulting the president of the Congress of Deputies.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625|title=Section 99, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}]
====Cortes Generales====
[[File:Solemne apertura de la XIV Legislatura 04.jpg|thumb|The hemicycle of the [[Congress of Deputies]]]]
[[Legislative branch|Legislative authority]] vests in the {{Lang|es|[[Cortes Generales]]}} ({{langx|en|Spanish Parliament|lit=General Courts}}), a democratically elected [[bicameral parliament]] that serves as the supreme representative body of the Spanish people. Aside from the Crown, it is the only basic State institution that enjoys inviolability.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s400|title=Section 66, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}] It comprises the [[Congress of Deputies]] (''Congreso de los Diputados''), a [[lower house]] with 350 deputies, and the [[Spanish Senate|Senate]] (''Senado''), an [[upper house]] with 266 senators.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s414|title=Section 68, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s428|title=Section 69, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}]
Deputies are elected by [[election|popular vote]] on [[closed list]]s via [[proportional representation]] to serve four-year terms.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.congreso.es/en/cem/func|title=Functions|publisher=Congress of Deputies of Spain|access-date=11 April 2024}}] 208 senators are directly elected by popular vote using a [[limited voting]] method, with the remaining 58 senators appointed by the [[List of Spanish regional legislatures|regional legislatures]] to also serve four-year terms.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.senado.es/web/conocersenado/temasclave/composicionsenadoelecciones/index.html|title=Composition of the Senate|publisher=Senate of Spain|access-date=11 April 2024}}]
====Government====
[[Executive branch|Executive authority]] rests with the [[Government of Spain|Government]] (''Gobierno de España''), which is [[Cabinet collective responsibility|collectively responsible]] to the Congress of Deputies.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614|title=Section 97, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}][{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s677|title=Part V. Relations Between the Government and the Cortes Generales, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}] It consists of the [[Prime Minister of Spain|prime minister]], one or more [[Deputy Prime Minister of Spain|deputy prime ministers]], and the [[Spanish government departments|ministers of state]].[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s616|title=Section 98 (1), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}] These characters together constitute the [[Council of Ministers of Spain|Council of Ministers]] which, as Spain's [[Central government|central executive authority]], conducts the business of the Government and administers the [[General State Administration|civil service]].[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614|title=Section 97, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=15 April 2024}}] The Government remains in office so long as it can maintain the [[Motions of no confidence in Spain|confidence]] of the Congress of Deputies.
The prime minister, as [[head of government]], has primacy over the other ministers by virtue of their ability to [[Advice (constitutional law)|advise]] the monarch as to their appointment and dismissal.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s636|title=Section 100, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}] The prime minister has plenary authority conferred by the Spanish Constitution to direct and coordinate the Government's policies and administrative actions.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s616|title=Section 98 (2), Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}] The Spanish monarch [[Prime Minister of Spain#Royal nomination and congressional confirmation|nominates]] the prime minister after consulting representatives from the different parliamentary groups and appoints them to office upon a vote of investiture in the Congress of Deputies.[{{Cite web|url=https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625|title=Section 99, Spanish Constitution|publisher=Constitute Project|access-date=11 April 2024}}]
Some political [[corruption in Spain]] has been found.[{{cite journal | last1=Borrella-Mas | first1=Miguel Ángel | last2=Rode | first2=Martin | title=Love is blind: partisan alignment and political corruption in Spain | journal=SERIEs | volume=12 | issue=3 | date=2021 | issn=1869-4187 | doi=10.1007/s13209-021-00228-6 | pages=423–451 | url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/s13209-021-00228-6 | access-date=2026-04-24}}]
=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|History of the territorial organization of Spain|Political divisions of Spain}}
==== Autonomous communities ====
{{Main|Autonomous communities of Spain}}
{{See also|Nationalities and regions of Spain}}
{{Autonomous regions of Spain|float=right}}
Spain's autonomous communities are the first level administrative divisions of the country. They were created after the 1978 constitution came into effect in recognition of the right to self-government of the "[[nationalities and regions of Spain|''nationalities'' and regions of Spain]]".{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 143}} The autonomous communities were to comprise adjacent provinces with common historical, cultural, and economic traits. This territorial organisation, based on [[devolution]], is known in Spain as the "State of Autonomies" (''Estado de las Autonomías'').{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 147}}
The basic institutional law of each autonomous community is the [[Statute of Autonomy]]. The Statutes of Autonomy establish the name of the community according to its historical and contemporary identity, the limits of its territories, the name and organisation of the institutions of government and the rights they enjoy according to the constitution.{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 147}} This ongoing process of devolution means that, while officially a [[unitary state]], Spain is nevertheless one of the most [[decentralised]] countries in Europe, along with [[federation]]s like [[Belgium]], [[Germany]], and [[Switzerland]].[{{cite news|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vote/index.html|publisher=CNN|title=Catalonians vote for more autonomy|date=18 June 2006|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080604012034/http://edition.cnn.com/2006/WORLD/europe/06/18/catalonia.vote/index.html|archive-date=4 June 2008}} See also: {{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/document/57/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html|title=Economic Survey: Spain 2005|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080417005653/http://www.oecd.org/document/57/0,2340,en_2649_201185_34578361_1_1_1_1,00.html|archive-date=17 April 2008}} and {{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/topics/spain?folder=Profile-FactSheet|title=Country Briefings: Spain|access-date=9 August 2008|newspaper=The Economist|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014000013/http://www.economist.com/topics/spain?folder=Profile-FactSheet|archive-date=14 October 2012}} and {{cite web|url=http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decentralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf|title=Swiss Experience With Decentralized Government|access-date=13 August 2008|publisher=The World Bank|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191608/http://www1.worldbank.org/wbiep/decentralization/Swiss%20Expertise/Muralt.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2008}}]
Catalonia, Galicia and the Basque Country, which identified themselves as ''nationalities'', were granted self-government through a rapid process. Andalusia also identified itself as a nationality in its first Statute of Autonomy, even though it followed the longer process stipulated in the constitution for the rest of the country. Progressively, other communities in revisions to their Statutes of Autonomy have also taken that denomination in accordance with their historical and modern identities, such as the Valencian Community,[{{cite web|url=http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.pdf|title=Estatut|language=es|access-date=20 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326021746/http://www.trobat.com/recursos/estatut-valencia.pdf|archive-date=26 March 2009}}] the Canary Islands,[{{cite web|url=http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/novedades.html#pre|title=Nuevo Estatuto de Autonomía de Canarias|publisher=.gobiernodecanarias.org|access-date=30 April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110120074716/http://www2.gobiernodecanarias.org/tuestatuto/novedades.html|archive-date=20 January 2011}}] the Balearic Islands,[{{cite web|url=http://www.caib.es/webcaib/govern_illes/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf|title=BOCAe32.QXD|language=ca|access-date=20 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090711090828/http://www.caib.es/webcaib/govern_illes/estatut_autonomia/doc/estatut2007.ca.pdf|archive-date=11 July 2009}}] and Aragon.[{{cite web|url=http://narros.congreso.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatutos.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1|title=Estatuto de Autonomía de Aragón|publisher=Narros.congreso.es|access-date=20 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211225055/http://narros.congreso.es/constitucion/estatutos/estatutos.jsp?com=64&tipo=2&ini=1&fin=10&ini_sub=1&fin_sub=1|archive-date=11 December 2009 }}]
The autonomous communities have wide legislative and executive autonomy, with their own elected parliaments and governments as well as their own dedicated [[Public Administration of Spain|public administrations]]. The distribution of powers may be different for every community, as laid out in their Statutes of Autonomy, since devolution was intended to be asymmetrical. For instance, only two communities—the Basque Country and Navarre—have full fiscal autonomy based on ancient [[fuero|foral]] provisions. Each autonomous community is responsible for healthcare and education, among other public services.[{{Cite web|url=https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/spain/main-executive-and-legislative-bodies|title=Spain: Main executive and legislative bodies|publisher=European Commission|access-date=16 April 2024|archive-date=14 April 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240414085105/https://eurydice.eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-education-systems/spain/main-executive-and-legislative-bodies}}]
Beyond these competencies, the ''nationalities''—[[Andalusia]], the [[Pais Vasco|Basque Country]], [[Catalonia]], and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]—were also devolved more powers than the other communities, among them the ability of the regional president to dissolve the parliament and call for elections at any time. In addition, the Basque Country, the [[Canary Islands]], Catalonia, and [[Navarre]] each have autonomous police corps of their own: ''[[Ertzaintza]]'', ''[[Policía Canaria]]'', ''[[Mossos d'Esquadra]]'', and ''[[Policía Foral]]'' respectively. Other communities have shared units with the [[National Police Corps (Spain)|National Police Corps]] or no regional police forces at all.{{Efn|See [[Law enforcement in Spain]].}}
==== Provinces and municipalities ====
{{Main|Local government in Spain|Provinces of Spain|Municipalities of Spain}}
Autonomous communities are divided into [[Provinces of Spain|provinces]], which serve as their territorial building blocks. Provinces are divided into [[municipalities of Spain|municipalities]]. The existence of both the provinces and the municipalities is guaranteed and protected by the constitution, not necessarily by the Statutes of Autonomy themselves. Municipalities are granted autonomy to manage their internal affairs. Provinces are the territorial divisions designed to carry out the activities of the State.[[https://web.archive.org/web/20071026020151/http://www.constitucion.es/constitucion/lenguas/ingles.html#8 Articles 140 and 141]. Spanish Constitution of 1978]
The current provincial division structure is based—with minor changes—on the [[1833 territorial division of Spain|1833 territorial division]] by [[Javier de Burgos]].[{{cite web|url=https://www.juntadeandalucia.es/institutodeestadisticaycartografia/atlasterritorio/at/pdf/16_ladivisionprovincialde1833.pdf|title=La división provincial de 1833|website=[[Regional Government of Andalusia]]|language=es|access-date=21 January 2026}}] The Spanish territory is divided into 50 provinces. The communities of Asturias, Cantabria, La Rioja, the Balearic Islands, Madrid, Murcia and Navarre are the only communities that comprise a single province, which is coextensive with the community itself. In these cases, the administrative institutions of the province are replaced by the governmental institutions of the community.[{{cite web|url=https://mptmd.gob.es/portal/politica-territorial/local|website=mptmd.gob.es|title=Política local|language=es|access-date=21 January 2026}}]
=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Spain}}
[[File:Barcelona_Palau_Reial_de_Pedralbes_(51135781861).jpg|thumb|The [[Royal Palace of Pedralbes]] in Barcelona, headquarters of the [[Union for the Mediterranean]]]]
After the return of democracy following the death of [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in 1975, Spain's [[foreign policy]] priorities were to break out of the diplomatic isolation of the [[Spain under Franco|Franco years]] and expand [[diplomatic relations]], enter the [[European Union|European Community]], and define security relations with the West.
As a member of [[NATO]] since 1982, Spain has established itself as a participant in multilateral international security activities. Spain's EU membership represents an important part of its foreign policy. On a wide range of issues, Spain often prefers to coordinate its efforts with its EU partners through the European political cooperation mechanisms. In addition to being represented via EU membership, Spain is a permanently invited guest to all [[G20]] summits.[{{cite journal |last1=Henley|first1=Peter H.|last2=Blokker|first2=Niels M.|title=The Group of 20: A Short Legal Anatomy |url=http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbJIL/2013/18.pdf |journal=Melbourne Journal of International Law |volume=14|page=568|access-date=23 October 2018 |quote=Spain's peculiar but seemingly secure position within the G20 also appears to have facilitated their greater participation in the G20's work: Spain is the only outreach participant to have made policy commitments comparable to those of G20 members proper at summits since Seoul. Spain therefore appears to have become a de facto member of the G20. |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517045501/http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MelbJIL/2013/18.pdf |archive-date=17 May 2017 |url-status=live }}]
Spain has maintained its special relations with [[Hispanic America]] and the [[Philippines]]. Its policy emphasises the concept of an [[Ibero-America]]n community, essentially the renewal of the concept of ''"[[Hispanidad]]"'' or ''"[[Hispanism]]o"'', as it is often referred to in English, which has sought to link the Iberian Peninsula with Hispanic America through language, commerce, history and culture. It is fundamentally "based on shared values and the recovery of democracy."[Garcia Cantalapiedra, David, and Ramon Pacheco Pardo, ''Contemporary Spanish Foreign Policy'' (Routledge, 2014). Pg. 126]
Spain is involved in a number of [[Foreign relations of Spain#Disputes|territorial disputes]]. [[Disputed status of Gibraltar|Spain claims Gibraltar]], an [[British Overseas Territories|Overseas Territory of the United Kingdom]], in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula.[{{cite web
|url = http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement
|title = Resolution 2070: Question of Gibraltar
|date = 16 December 1965
|format = PDF
|publisher = United Nations
|access-date = 19 February 2010
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183726/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/218/33/IMG/NR021833.pdf?OpenElement
|archive-date = 3 May 2011
}}][{{cite web
|url=http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement
|title=Resolution 2231: Question of Gibraltar
|date=20 December 1966
|format=PDF
|publisher=United Nations
|access-date=19 February 2010
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110503183729/http://daccess-dds-ny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/005/34/IMG/NR000534.pdf?OpenElement
|archive-date=3 May 2011
}}][{{cite web|url=http://www.maec.es/subwebs/Embajadas/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20Título.%20Prefacio.Índice.%20Informe%20(27.02.08).doc|title=La cuestión de Gibraltar|publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation of Spain|date=January 2008|access-date=3 January 2010|language=es|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090529192351/http://www.maec.es/subwebs/Embajadas/Londres/es/MenuPpal/Gibraltar/Documents/000.001.002.003%20T%C3%ADtulo.%20Prefacio.%C3%8Dndice.%20Informe%20%2827.02.08%29.doc|archive-date=29 May 2009 }}] Another dispute surrounds the [[Savage Islands]]; Spain claims that they are rocks rather than islands, and therefore does not accept the Portuguese [[Exclusive Economic Zone]] (200 nautical miles) generated by the islands.[{{citation|url=https://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/prt44_09/esp_re_prt2013.pdf|title=Spain's letter to the UN|publisher=UN|date=September 2013|language=es|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185334/http://www.un.org/Depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/prt44_09/esp_re_prt2013.pdf|archive-date=25 May 2017}}][[http://www.theportugalnews.com/news/spain-disputes-portugal-islands/29269 "Spain disputes Portugal islands"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130908225016/http://www.theportugalnews.com/news/spain-disputes-portugal-islands/29269|date=8 September 2013 }} ''[[The Portugal News]]''. Retrieved 9 September 2013.] Spain claims sovereignty over the [[Perejil Island]], a small, uninhabited rocky [[islet]] located in the South shore of the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. It was the subject of an armed incident between Spain and Morocco in 2002. Morocco claims the Spanish cities of [[Ceuta]] and [[Melilla]] and the ''[[plazas de soberanía]]'' islets off the northern coast of Africa. Portugal does not recognise Spain's sovereignty over the territory of [[Olivenza]].[{{Cite journal|title=La cuestión de Olivenza, a la luz del Derecho internacional público|last=Fernández Liesa|first=Carlos R.|publisher=Ayuntamiento de Olivenza|year=2004|pages=234–235|journal=Encuentros: Revista luso-española de investigadores en Ciencias humanas y sociales. Separatas|issue=4|format=PDF|url=http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/17476/cuestion_fernandez_E_2004.pdf?sequence=1|issn=1138-6622|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140829092427/http://e-archivo.uc3m.es/bitstream/handle/10016/17476/cuestion_fernandez_E_2004.pdf?sequence=1|archive-date=29 August 2014}}]
=== Military ===
{{Main|Spanish Armed Forces}}
[[File:El Rey Juan Carlos I (L-61).jpg|thumb|[[Amphibious assault ship]]-[[aircraft carrier]] {{ship|Spanish ship|Juan Carlos I||2}}]]
The [[Spanish Armed Forces]] are divided into three branches: [[Spanish Army|Army (''Ejército de Tierra'')]]; [[Spanish Navy|Navy (''Armada'')]]; and [[Spanish Air and Space Force|Air and Space Force (''Ejército del Aire y del Espacio'')]].{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 8}}
The armed forces of Spain are known as the Spanish Armed Forces (''Fuerzas Armadas Españolas''). Their [[commander-in-chief]] is the King of Spain, [[Felipe VI of Spain|Felipe VI]].{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=Article 62}} The next military authorities in line are the Prime Minister and the Minister of Defence. The fourth military authority of the State is the [[Chief of the Defence Staff (Spain)|Chief of the Defence Staff]] (JEMAD).[{{cite web|url=https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20161106/411623401633/el-jefe-del-estado-mayor-del-ejercito-de-tierra-y-11-tenientes-generales-aspiran-a-jemad.html|website=[[La Vanguardia]]|date=6 November 2016|title=El jefe del Estado Mayor del Ejército de Tierra y 11 tenientes generales aspiran a JEMAD|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201044144/https://www.lavanguardia.com/vida/20161106/411623401633/el-jefe-del-estado-mayor-del-ejercito-de-tierra-y-11-tenientes-generales-aspiran-a-jemad.html|url-status=live}}] The [[Defence Staff (Spain)|Defence Staff]] (''Estado Mayor de la Defensa'') assists the JEMAD as auxiliary body.
The Spanish armed forces are a professional force with a strength in 2017 of 121,900 active personnel and 4,770 reserve personnel. Spain also has the 77,000 strong [[Civil Guard (Spain)|Civil Guard]] which comes under the control of the Ministry of defence in times of a national emergency. In 2015, the Spanish defence budget was 5.71 billion euros (US$7.2 billion), with a 1% increase. The increase comes because of security concerns.[{{cite web|url=http://www.janes.com/article/43968/update-spain-to-increase-defence-spending|title=Update: Spain to increase defence spending|work=janes.com|access-date=8 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518073610/http://www.janes.com/article/43968/update-spain-to-increase-defence-spending|archive-date=18 May 2015|url-status=live}}] Military conscription ended in 2001.[{{Cite journal|url=https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20160309/supresion-mili-servicio-militar-2001-aniversario-4962193|journal=[[El Periódico de Catalunya|El Periódico]]|title=Señores, se acabó la mili|date=9 March 2016|first=Rafa|last=Julve|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201043203/https://www.elperiodico.com/es/politica/20160309/supresion-mili-servicio-militar-2001-aniversario-4962193|url-status=live}}]
According to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]], Spain is the 23rd most peaceful country in the world.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf|title=2024 Global Peace Index}}]
=== Human rights ===
{{Main|Human rights in Spain}}
{{See also|LGBT rights in Spain}}
The [[Spanish Constitution of 1978]] "protect all Spaniards and all the peoples of Spain in the exercise of human rights, their cultures and traditions, languages and institutions".{{sfn|Spanish Constitution|1978|loc=preamble}} According to [[Amnesty International]] (AI), government investigations of alleged police abuses are often lengthy and punishments were light.[[https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/spain/report-spain Spain 2015/2016] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160808081615/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/europe-and-central-asia/spain/report-spain/|date=8 August 2016 }} Amnesty International. Retrieved 22 June 2016.] Violence against women was a problem, which the Government took steps to address.[{{cite web|url=http://justiciadegenero.com/en/analysis-of-8-years-of-gender-violence-law-in-spain/|title=Analysis of 8 years of Gender Violence Law in Spain {{!}} Gender violence and justice|date=4 March 2015|publisher=justiciadegenero.com|access-date=9 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185333/http://justiciadegenero.com/en/analysis-of-8-years-of-gender-violence-law-in-spain/|archive-date=25 May 2017}}][{{Cite news|url=http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/11/25/inenglish/1448449401_599926.html|title=The successes and failures of Spain's fight against domestic abuse|last=Rincón|first=Reyes|date=25 November 2015|work=EL PAÍS|access-date=9 May 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525190421/http://elpais.com/elpais/2015/11/25/inenglish/1448449401_599926.html|archive-date=25 May 2017}}] Spain provides one of the highest degrees of liberty in the world for its [[LGBT]] community. Among the countries studied by [[Pew Research Center|Pew Research]] in 2013, Spain is rated first in acceptance of homosexuality, with 88% of those surveyed saying that homosexuality should be accepted.[{{cite web|url=http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-homosexuality/|title=Global Acceptance of Homosexuality|date=4 June 2013|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110051728/http://www.pewglobal.org/2013/06/04/global-acceptance-of-homosexuality/|archive-date=10 November 2014}}]
The Cortes Generales approved the ''Gender Equality Act'' in 2007 aimed at furthering [[gender equality|equality between genders]] in Spanish political and economic life.[{{cite web|url=http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/03/spain-no-turning-back-from-path-to-gender-equality/|title=SPAIN: No Turning Back from Path to Gender Equality|publisher=Ipsnews.net|date=15 March 2007|access-date=5 May 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140419015814/http://www.ipsnews.net/2007/03/spain-no-turning-back-from-path-to-gender-equality/|archive-date=19 April 2014 }}] According to [[Inter-Parliamentary Union]] data for September 2018, 137 of the 350 members of the Congress were women (39.1%), while in the Senate, there were 101 women out of 266 (39.9%), placing Spain 16th on their list of countries ranked by proportion of women in the [[Lower House|lower]] (or [[Unicameral|single]]) House.[{{cite web|url=http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm|title=Women in National Parliaments|publisher=Ipu.org|date=28 February 2010|access-date=1 May 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140328105108/http://www.ipu.org/wmn-e/classif.htm|archive-date=28 March 2014 }}] In 2008, the [[Gender Empowerment Measure]] of Spain in the United Nations [[Human Development Report]] was 0.794, 12th in the world.[{{cite web|url=http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|title=Human Development Report 2007/2008|date=January 2008 |page=330|publisher=Hdr.undp.org|access-date=18 January 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429033726/http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_EN_Complete.pdf|archive-date=29 April 2011 }}]
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Spain}}
[[File:20140404193229!Cuatro Torres Business Area (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Cuatro Torres Business Area]] in [[Madrid]]]]
[[File:Torre_Glòries,_Barcelona_(51351746585).jpg|thumb|[[Torre Glòries]] and the [[22@]] business district in [[Barcelona]]]]
Spain has a [[mixed economy]] that [[Social market economy|combines elements]] of [[Free-market capitalist|free-market capitalism]] with [[Welfare spending|social welfare]] and [[Market intervention|state intervention]]. It is one of [[Trillion dollar club (macroeconomics)|21 countries]] with a [[Nominal GDP|nominal]] [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) exceeding $1 [[Trillion (short scale)|trillion]] per year, ranking [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|12th largest]] worldwide and [[List of sovereign states in Europe by GDP (nominal)|fourth largest]] both in the [[European Union]] and within the [[eurozone]]. Spain is classified as a [[World Bank high-income economy|high-income economy]] by the [[World Bank]] and an [[advanced economy]] by the [[International Monetary Fund]]. As of 2024, it is the fastest growing major advanced economy in the world,[{{Cite web |last=Lluch |first=Jorge |title=The real reason Spain's economy is bucking the trend of European decline |url=https://fortune.com/europe/2024/11/26/real-reason-spain-economy-bucking-trend-european-decline-starrtups-tech/ |access-date=14 December 2024 |website=Fortune Europe |language=en}}] growing nearly four times higher than the eurozone average.[{{Cite news |title=Spain shows Europe how to keep up with America's economy |url=https://www.economist.com/europe/2024/12/12/spain-shows-europe-how-to-keep-up-with-americas-economy |access-date=14 December 2024 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}]
Spain began [[Industrialisation|industrialising]] in the late 18th century, albeit more gradually and unevenly than other European countries; industry was limited mostly to Catalonia (primarily textile manufacturing) and the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] (iron and steel production).[{{Cite web |date=11 December 2024 |title=Spain - Migration, Immigration, Emigration {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain/Migration#ref70285 |access-date=14 December 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}] Overall economic growth was slower than in most major western European countries, and Spain remained relatively underdeveloped by the early 20th century.[{{Cite web |last1=Jopson |first1=Barney |last2=Romei |first2=Valentina |date=27 January 2026 |title=Spain's unemployment rate falls to lowest level since 2008 |url=https://www.ft.com/content/ee2b05f2-3cf1-4d45-874d-3552a5f43555 |access-date=2026-01-28 |website=Financial Times}}] It stood at 9.93% in January 2026,[{{cite web|title=Economically Active Population Survey (EAPS). Fourth Quarter 2025.|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976595|website=INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística |access-date=27 January 2026}}] the lowest since 2008.[{{cite web|title=Economically Active Population Survey. Fourth Quarter 2024.|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176918&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735976595|website=INE Instituto Nacional de Estadística |access-date=29 January 2025}}] Perennial weak points of Spain's economy include a large [[informal economy]];[{{cite book|title=Invisible Factories: The Informal Economy and Industrial Development in Spain|publisher=SUNY Press|author=Benton, Lauren A. |date=1990}}][Roberto A. Ferdman, [https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/07/spains-black-market-economy-is-worth-20-of-its-gdp/277840/ Spain's Black Market Economy Is Worth 20% of Its GDP: One million Spanish people have jobs in the underground economy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911114536/https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2013/07/spains-black-market-economy-is-worth-20-of-its-gdp/277840/|date=11 September 2017 }}, ''The Atlantic'' (16 July 2013)][Angel Alañón & M. Gómez-Antonio, [Estimating the size of the shadow economy in Spain: a structural model with latent variables], ''Applies Economics'', Vol 37, Issue 9, pp. 1011–1025 (2005).] an education system that performs poorly compared to most developed countries;[{{cite web|url=http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf|title=OECD report for 2006|access-date=9 August 2008|publisher=OECD|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191607/http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/51/21/37392840.pdf|archive-date=19 August 2008}}] and low rates of private sector investment.[{{cite book | author=OECD | title=Society at a Glance 2024: OECD Social Indicators, Figure 4.1 Median income varies by a factor eight across OECD countries | publisher=OECD | date=20 June 2024 | url=https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/2024/06/society-at-a-glance-2024_08001b73/full-report/component-12.html#indicator-d1e8404-8cd0a55a48 | page=}}]
Since the 1990s, which saw a wave of [[privatization|privatisations]],[{{Cite journal |last=Salmon |first=K. |date=2001 |title=Privatisation of state-owned enterprises in Spain: redefining the political economy |url=https://uhra.herts.ac.uk/handle/2299/4282 |journal=International Journal of Iberian Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=136–147 |doi=10.1386/ijis.14.3.136 |issn=1364-971X|url-access=subscription }}] several Spanish companies have reached multinational status; they maintain a strong and leading presence in Latin America—where Spain is the second largest foreign investor after the United States—but have also expanded into Asia, especially China and India.[{{cite news|date = 30 April 2009|access-date = 14 May 2009|title = A good bet?|newspaper = The Economist|series = Business|place = Madrid|url = http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579705|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090504012604/http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13579705|archive-date = 4 May 2009 }}] As of 2023, Spain was home to [[List of largest Spanish companies|eight of the 500 largest companies]] in the world by annual revenue, according to the ''Fortune Global 500;'' these include [[Banco Santander]], the [[List of largest banks|14th-largest banking institution]] in the world; [[electric utility]] [[Iberdrola]], the world's largest renewable energy operator;[{{cite news|url=https://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/05/25/afx5046256.html|work=Forbes|title=Spain's Iberdrola signs investment accord with Gulf group Taqa|date=25 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607172216/http://www.forbes.com/feeds/afx/2008/05/25/afx5046256.html|archive-date=7 June 2010}}] and {{Lang|es|[[Telefónica]]|italic=no}}, [[List of telephone operating companies|one of the largest telephone operators]] and [[List of mobile network operators|mobile network providers]]. Twenty Spanish companies are listed in the [[Forbes Global 2000|2023 ''Forbes'' Global 2000]] ranking of the 2,000 largest public companies, reflecting diverse sectors such as construction ([[ACS Group]]), aviation ([[ENAIRE]]), pharmaceuticals ([[Grifols]]), and transportation ([[Ferrovial]]).[{{cite news|date = 8 April 2009|access-date = 14 May 2009|title = Big in America?|newspaper = The Economist|series = Business|place = Madrid|url = http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13447445|url-status=live|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090412092504/http://www.economist.com/business/displaystory.cfm?story_id=13447445|archive-date = 12 April 2009 }}] Additionally, one of Spain's largest private sector entities is [[Mondragon Corporation]], the world's largest [[Worker cooperative|worker-owned cooperative]].
The [[automotive industry in Spain|automotive industry]] is one of the largest employers in the country and a major contributor to economic growth, accounting for one-tenth of [[gross domestic product]] and 18% of total exports (including vehicles and auto-parts). In 2023, Spain produced 2.45 million automobiles—of which over 2.1 million were exported abroad—ranking eighth in the world and second in Europe (after [[Germany]]) by total number.[{{Cite news|url=https://www.investinspain.org/en/industries/automotive-mobility|title=Spain is the 2nd largest automaker in Europe and the 8th largest in the world|newspaper=ICEX-Invest in Spain|date=22 July 2024|via=investinspain.org}}] In total, 89% of vehicles and 60% of auto-parts manufactured in Spain were exported worldwide in 2023; the total external trade surplus of vehicles alone reached €18.8bn in 2023. Overall, the automotive industry supports nearly two million jobs, or nine percent of the labour force.[{{cite web |url=https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=23984 |title=Tourist Movement on Borders |publisher=[[National Statistics Institute (Spain)]] |date=3 February 2025 |access-date=3 February 2025}}][{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/spain-tourism-record-housing-crisis-c9ef4af335ac6194dc4a71f73c4af4eb |title=Spain sets a new record with 94 million international tourists last year |publisher=[[Associated Press]] |date=15 January 2025 |access-date=27 January 2025}}] The international tourist expenditure in 2024 was around 126 billion euros.[{{cite web |url=https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=23994 |title=Touristic expenditure |publisher=[[National Statistics Institute (Spain)]] |date=3 February 2025 |access-date=3 February 2025}}] The headquarters of the [[World Tourism Organization]] are located in Madrid.
Spain's geographic location, popular coastlines, diverse landscapes, historical legacy, vibrant culture, and excellent infrastructure have made the country's international tourist industry among the largest in the world. Tourism in Spain is a major contributor to national economic life, with foreign and domestic tourism contributing to 12.3% of Spain's [[GDP]] in 2023.[{{cite web |url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736169169&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735576863 |title=Tourism Satellite Account of Spain. Year 2023. |publisher=[[National Statistics Institute (Spain)]]|website=ine.es}}]
[[Castile and León]] is the Spanish leader in [[rural tourism]] linked to its environmental and architectural heritage[{{cite news |title=CyL se mantiene como líder en turismo rural en 2024, pero Palencia pierde un 10 % de viajeros |work=Palencia en la Red |url=https://www.palenciaenlared.es/cyl-se-mantiene-como-lider-en-turismo-rural-en-2024-pero-palencia-pierde-un-10-de-viajeros/ |date=31 January 2025 |access-date=20 June 2025}}] which it has kept since 2020.[{{cite news |title=Castilla y León consolida cinco años de liderazgo en turismo rural |author=Ricardo García |date=2 January 2024 |work=Diario de Castilla y León |url=https://www.diariodecastillayleon.es/castilla-y-leon/240102/11839/castilla-leon-consolida-cinco-anos-liderazgo-turismo-rural.html}}]
=== Energy ===
{{Main|Energy in Spain}}
[[File:PS20andPS10.jpg|thumb|The [[Solucar Complex]], with the [[PS10 Solar Power Plant]] in the foreground and the [[PS20 solar power plant|PS20]] in the background]]
In 2010 Spain became the [[solar power in Spain|solar power]] world leader when it overtook the United States with a massive power station plant called [[Alvarado I|La Florida]], near [[Badajoz|Alvarado, Badajoz]].[{{cite news|url=https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128532115|title=Spain Is World's Leader in Solar Energy|newspaper=NPR.org|publisher=NPR|date=15 July 2010|access-date=4 September 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100919210041/http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=128532115|archive-date=19 September 2010 }}][{{cite web|url=http://www.europeanfutureenergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader|title=Spain becomes solar power world leader|publisher=Europeanfutureenergyforum.com|date=14 July 2010|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124024231/http://europeanfutureenergyforum.com/renewable-energy-news/spain-becomes-solar-power-world-leader|archive-date=24 November 2010 }}] Spain is also Europe's main producer of wind energy.[{{cite web|url=https://phys.org/news/2018-05-spain-bilbao-european-power-sector.html|title=Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector|first=Alvaro|last=Villalobos|date=6 May 2018|access-date=6 July 2018|work=[[Phys.org]]|language=es|archive-date=24 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221224013552/https://phys.org/news/2018-05-spain-bilbao-european-power-sector.html|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.thelocal.es/20180506/spains-bilbao-fights-to-lead-european-wind-power-sector|title=Spain's Bilbao fights to lead European wind power sector|author=AFP|author-link=Agence France-Presse|date=6 May 2018|access-date=6 July 2018|work=[[The Local]]|language=es|archive-date=6 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706161819/https://www.thelocal.es/20180506/spains-bilbao-fights-to-lead-european-wind-power-sector|url-status=live}}] In 2010 its wind turbines generated 16.4% of all electrical energy produced in Spain.[{{cite web|url=http://www.eolicenergynews.org/?p=4082|title=Spain becomes the first European wind energy producer after overcoming Germany for the first time|publisher=Eolic Energy News|date=31 December 2010|access-date=30 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427085056/http://www.eolicenergynews.org/?p=4082|archive-date=27 April 2011 }}][{{cite web|url=https://www.aeeolica.org/en|title=Asociación Empresarial Eólica – Spanish Wind Energy Association – Energía Eólica|publisher=Aeeolica|access-date=28 September 2018|archive-date=20 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211020220021/https://aeeolica.org/en/}}][{{cite news|last=Méndez|first=Rafael|url=http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/produccion/electrica/elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes|title=La eólica supera por primera vez la mitad de la producción eléctrica|language=es|date=9 November 2009|work=El País|publisher=Ediciones El País|access-date=8 August 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110513064239/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/eolica/supera/primera/vez/mitad/produccion/electrica/elpepusoc/20091109elpepisoc_2/Tes|archive-date=13 May 2011 }}]
In November 2010, wind power reached a historic peak, covering 53% of mainland electricity demand[{{cite web|url=http://www.renovablesmadeinspain.es/noticia/pagid/205/titulo/La%20e%C3%B3lica%20en%20Espa%C3%B1a%20bate%20de%20nuevo%20su%20marca%20de%20potencia%20instant%C3%A1nea/len/en/|title=Wind power in Spain breaks new instantaneous power record|publisher=renovablesmadeinspain.es|date=9 November 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111214141437/http://www.renovablesmadeinspain.es/noticia/pagid/205/titulo/La%20e%C3%B3lica%20en%20Espa%C3%B1a%20bate%20de%20nuevo%20su%20marca%20de%20potencia%20instant%C3%A1nea/len/en/|archive-date=14 December 2011}}] and generating 14.2 GW of power, equivalent to that of fourteen [[nuclear reactor]]s.[{{cite news|url=https://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/reactores/nucleares/movidos/viento/elpepusoc/20101109elpepusoc_4/Tes|title=14 reactores nucleares movidos por el viento|work=El País|date=9 November 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033952/https://elpais.com/sociedad/2010/11/09/actualidad/1289257204_850215.html|url-status=live}}] Other renewable energies used in Spain are [[hydroelectric power plant|hydroelectric]], [[gasification of biomass|biomass]] and [[marine energy|marine]].[{{cite web|url=http://revista.consumer.es/web/es/20050501/medioambiente/69696.php|title=La Fuerza del Mar|publisher=revista.consumer.es|access-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110826034707/http://revista.consumer.es/web/es/20050501/medioambiente/69696.php|archive-date=26 August 2011}}]
Non-renewable energy sources used in Spain are [[nuclear power plant|nuclear]] (eight operative reactors), [[natural gas power plant|gas]], [[coal power plant|coal]], and [[oil power plant|oil]]. Fossil fuels together generated 58% of Spain's electricity in 2009, just below the OECD mean of 61%. Nuclear power generated another 19%, and wind and hydro about 12% each.[Energy in Sweden, Facts and figures, The Swedish Energy Agency, (in Swedish: Energiläget i siffror), Table for figure 49. Source: IEA/OECD [http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=/Broschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131016045634/http://webbshop.cm.se/System/TemplateView.aspx?p=Energimyndigheten&view=default&cat=%2FBroschyrer&id=e0a2619a83294099a16519a0b5edd26f|date=16 October 2013}}]
=== Science and technology ===
{{Main|Science and technology in Spain}}
[[File:Grantelescopio.jpg|thumb|The [[Gran Telescopio Canarias]] at sunset]]
The [[Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas]] (CSIC) is the leading public agency dedicated to scientific research in the country. It ranked as the 5th top governmental scientific institution worldwide (and 32nd overall) in the 2018 SCImago Institutions Rankings.[{{cite web|url=https://www.scimagoir.com/rankings.php?sector=all|title=Scimago Institution Rankings|access-date=5 January 2018|archive-date=8 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200308131304/https://www.scimagoir.com/rankings.php?sector=all|url-status=live}}] Spain was ranked 29th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025.[{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/spain |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}][{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}]
Higher education institutions perform about a 60% of the basic research in the country.[{{Cite journal|title=Do universities matter for the location of foreign R&D?|first1=Dolores|last1=Añón Higón|first2=Alfonso|doi=10.1177/23409444211042382|last2=Díez-Minguela|journal=Business Research Quarterly|page=1; 5|year=2021|volume=27 |issue=2 |s2cid=239695136|doi-access=free|hdl=10550/88686|hdl-access=free}}] Likewise, the contribution of the private sector to R&D expenditures is much lower than in other EU and OECD countries.[{{Cite journal|url=https://academic.oup.com/rev/article/29/4/392/6382447?login=false#304714258|title=Mapping heterogeneity in a research system: The emergence of a 'hybrid' organizational field between science and industry|first1=Sandro|last1=Giachi|first2=Manuel|last2=Fernández-Esquinas|journal=Research Evaluation|volume=29|issue=4|year=2020|pages=392–405|doi=10.1093/reseval/rvaa014|access-date=11 May 2022|archive-date=11 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511005340/https://academic.oup.com/rev/article/29/4/392/6382447?login=false#304714258|url-status=live|doi-access=free}}]
=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Spain}}
{{See also|List of airports in Spain}}
[[File:Estación de Zaragoza-Delicias, tren AVE Madrid-Barcelona, Siemens Velaro E, serie 103 de Renfe.JPG|thumb|A high-speed [[AVE Class 103]] train in [[Zaragoza–Delicias railway station|Zaragoza station]]. Spain has [[High-speed rail in Spain|the longest high-speed rail network in Europe]].[{{cite web|url=https://www.adifaltavelocidad.es/red-ferroviaria/red-de-alta-velocidad|title=''Red de Alta Velocidad''|publisher=ADIF|access-date=20 February 2025|archive-date=20 February 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250220154534/https://www.adifaltavelocidad.es/red-ferroviaria/red-de-alta-velocidad|url-status=live}}]]]
The Spanish road system is mainly centralised, with six highways connecting Madrid to the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]], [[Catalonia]], [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], West [[Andalusia]], Extremadura and [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]. There are highways along the Atlantic ([[Ferrol]] to [[Vigo]]), Cantabrian ([[Oviedo]] to [[San Sebastián]]) and [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] ([[Girona]] to [[Cádiz]]) coasts. Spain aims to put one million [[electric car]]s on the road by 2014 as part of the government's plan to save energy and boost [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/07/algae-based-biofuels-in-plain-english-why-it-matters-how-it-works/|title=Algae Based Biofuels in Plain English: Why it Matters, How it Works. (algae algaebiofuels carbonsequestration valcent vertigro algaebasedbiofuels ethanol)|work=Triple Pundit: People, Planet, Profit |publisher=Triplepundit.com|date=30 July 2008|access-date=19 November 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518085937/http://www.triplepundit.com/2008/07/algae-based-biofuels-in-plain-english-why-it-matters-how-it-works/|archive-date=18 May 2013 }}]{{Update inline|date=July 2026}} The former Minister of Industry [[Miguel Sebastián Gascón|Miguel Sebastián]] said that "the electric vehicle is the future and the engine of an industrial revolution."[{{cite web|url=http://www.enn.com/energy/article/37798|title=Spain to Put 1 million Electric Cars on the Road|publisher=Triplepundit.com|date=30 July 2008|access-date=19 November 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081123072310/http://www.enn.com/energy/article/37798|archive-date=23 November 2008 }}]
{{As of|2025|February}}, the Spanish high-speed rail network is the longest HSR network in Europe with {{convert|3,973|km|mi|abbr=on}}[{{Cite journal|last=Lara Galera|first=Antonio L.|date=2015|title=El AVE Madrid-Barcelona, una obra de mérito|url=http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdf/publico/2015/2015_octubre_3569_07.pdf|journal=Revista de Obras Públicas|issue=3569|page=57|issn=0034-8619|access-date=1 February 2020|archive-date=1 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200201214714/http://ropdigital.ciccp.es/pdf/publico/2015/2015_octubre_3569_07.pdf}}] On average, the Spanish high-speed train is the fastest one in the world, followed by the Japanese [[Shinkansen|bullet train]] and the French [[TGV]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.elmundo.es/mundodinero/2010/11/09/economia/1289304399.html|title=El AVE español, el más veloz del mundo y el segundo en puntualidad|work=El Mundo|location=Spain|date=10 November 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111109012118/http://www.elmundo.es/mundodinero/2010/11/09/economia/1289304399.html|archive-date=9 November 2011}}] Regarding punctuality, it is second in the world (98.5% on-time arrival) after the Japanese Shinkansen (99%).[{{cite web|url=http://www.railpro.co.uk/magazine/?idArticles=34|title=Spain powers ahead with high-speed rail|publisher=railpro.co.uk|date=January 2010|access-date=5 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721092807/http://www.railpro.co.uk/magazine/?idArticles=34|archive-date=21 July 2011 }}]
There are 49 public airports in Spain.[{{cite web |last1=Travelling |title=Airports in Spain |url=https://traveling.com/en/blog/airports-in-spain/ |website=travelling.com |access-date=20 June 2025}}] The busiest one is the [[Madrid Airport|airport of Madrid]] (Barajas), with 60 million passengers in 2023, being the [[World's busiest airports by passenger traffic|world's 15th busiest airport]], as well as the European Union's third busiest. The [[Barcelona Airport|airport of Barcelona]] (El Prat) is also important, with 50 million passengers in 2024, being the world's 30th-busiest airport.[{{cite web |last1=World Airport Codes |title=World Top 30 Airports |url=https://www.world-airport-codes.com/world-top-30-airports.html |website=world-airport-codes |access-date=20 June 2025}}] Other main airports are located in [[Palma de Mallorca Airport|Mallorca]], [[Málaga Airport|Málaga]], [[Gran Canaria Airport|Las Palmas (Gran Canaria)]], and [[Alicante Airport|Alicante]].[{{cite web |last1=Travel guide |title=Airports in Spain The most important airports in Spain at a glance |website=travelguide.net |url=https://www.travelguide.net/airports/spain/ }}{{Dead link|date=August 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}]
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Spain}}
{{See also|List of Spanish autonomous communities by population}}
[[File:Population per km2 by municipality in Spain (2018).svg|thumb|The population density by municipality in Spain, 2018]]
[[File:Spain Population Pyramid.svg|thumb|upright=1|Population pyramid of Spain, 2021[{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736176951&menu=resultados&secc=1254736195196&idp=1254735572981|title=Population pyramid for January 1st. 2021, Instituto Nacional de Estadística (INE)}}]]]
In January 2026, Spain had a population of 49,570,725 people.[{{Cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177095&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735572981|title=INEbase / Continuous Population Statistics (CPS). 1st January 2026. Provisional data|website=ine.es|access-date=12 February 2026}}] That same month, people born in Spain accounted for 80.7% of the total population and people born abroad accounted for 19.3% of the total population.[{{Cite web |title=Población residente por fecha, sexo, grupo de edad y país de nacimiento(56937) |url=https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=56937#_tabs-tabla |access-date=8 August 2025 |website=INE |language=es}}] Spain's [[population density]], at 98/km2 (253.8/sq mi), is lower than that of most [[Western Europe]]an countries, and its distribution across the territory is highly uneven. With the notable exception of the region surrounding the capital, [[Madrid]], the most densely populated areas are located along the coast. The population of Spain has risen {{Frac|2|1|2}} times since 1900, when it stood at 18.6 million, principally due to the spectacular demographic boom in the 1960s and early 1970s.[Joseph Harrison, David Corkill (2004). ''Spain: A Modern European Economy''. Ashgate Publishing. p. 23. {{ISBN|0-7546-0145-5}}.]
In 2024, Spain's [[total fertility rate]] (TFR) stood at 1.10 children per woman,[{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177003&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735573002|title=Indice coyuntural de fecundidad|publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística|access-date=19 June 2024 }}] the second lowest in the European Union after [[Malta]][{{Cite web |title=Fertility statistics |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/statistics-explained/index.php?title=Fertility_statistics |access-date=2025-11-20 |website=ec.europa.eu |language=en}}] and among the lowest worldwide. This rate is well below the replacement level of 2.1 and contrasts sharply with the historical maximum of 5.11 children per woman recorded in 1865.[{{citation|url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ESP|title=Total Fertility Rate around the world over the last centuries|author=Roser, Max|date=2014|work=[[Our World in Data]], [[Gapminder Foundation]]|access-date=8 May 2019|archive-date=7 August 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807185751/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/children-born-per-woman?year=1800&country=ESP|url-status=live}}] As a result, Spain has one of the oldest populations globally, with a [[Population pyramid|median age]] of 46.8 years.[{{Citation |title=Spain |date=6 August 2025 |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118090920/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 January 2026 |access-date=8 August 2025 |publisher=Central Intelligence Agency |language=en}}]
After the [[List of countries and territories by fertility rate|birth rate]] plunged in the 1980s and Spain's population growth rate dropped, the population again trended upward initially upon the return of many Spaniards who had emigrated to other European countries during the 1970s, and more recently, fuelled by large numbers of immigrants who make up more than 19% of the population today: Among non-EU immigrants, they are mainly from [[Latin America]] (39%), [[North Africa]] (16%), [[Eastern Europe]] (15%), and [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (4%).[{{cite web |title=Población extranjera por sexo, país de nacionalidad y edad |url=http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=/inebase/temas/t20/e245/p04/a2005/l0/&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=/inebase/temas/cgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=/inebase/cgi/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080325043135/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/axi?AXIS_PATH=%2Finebase%2Ftemas%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp04%2Fa2005%2Fl0%2F&FILE_AXIS=00000010.px&CGI_DEFAULT=%2Finebase%2Ftemas%2Fcgi.opt&COMANDO=SELECCION&CGI_URL=%2Finebase%2Fcgi%2F |archive-date=25 March 2008 |access-date=13 August 2008 |publisher=Instituto Nacional de Estadística}}]
In 2024, the number of foreign residents who acquired Spanish nationality increased by 5.1% to 252,476. The most frequent nationalities of origin were Morocco (42,910), Venezuela (30,403) and Colombia (26,224).[{{Cite web |title=INEbase / Demography and population /Demographic phenomena /Statistics on Acquisition of Spanish Citizenship of Residents / Latest data |url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/en/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177001&menu=ultiDatos&idp=1254735573002 |access-date=2025-11-20 |website=INE |language=en}}] Spain has a number of descendants of populations from former colonies, especially Latin America and North Africa. Smaller numbers of immigrants from several [[Sub-Saharan]] countries have recently been settling in Spain. There are also sizeable numbers of Asian immigrants, most of whom are of Middle Eastern, [[South Asian]] and Chinese origin. The single largest group of immigrants are European; represented by large numbers of Romanians, Britons, [[Germans]], French and others.[{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm|title=Immigration statistics|publisher=BBC|access-date=13 August 2008|date=11 December 2006|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130408081743/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/6161705.stm|archive-date=8 April 2013}}]
=== Urbanisation ===
{{Main|List of metropolitan areas in Spain}}
In 2023, approximately 81.6% of Spain's population lived in [[urban area]]s, reflecting a continuing trend of [[Urbanization|urbanisation]] that has characterised Spain's demographic landscape in recent decades.[{{Cite web |title=World Bank Open Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/ |access-date=8 August 2025 |website=World Bank Open Data}}] This concentration has contributed to the dominance of urban areas in [[Economy of Spain|economic]], [[Politics of Spain|political]], and [[Culture of Spain|cultural]] spheres.
{{Largest cities of Spain}}
=== Migration ===
{{Main|Immigration to Spain}}
[[File:Distribución de la población extranjera en España (2005).png|thumb|Distribution of the foreign population in Spain in 2005 by percentage]]
[[File:Inicio de la Gran Vía edited.jpg|thumb|[[Madrid]], the 2nd biggest metropolitan area in the [[European Union]], is home to over a million [[Latin Americans]].[{{cite web | title=Madrid supera el millón de latinoamericanos, uno de cada siete habitantes | date=20 December 2024 | url=https://elpais.com/espana/madrid/2024-12-20/madrid-llega-ya-al-millon-de-latinos-uno-de-cada-siete-habitantes.html }}]]]
As of January 2026, over ten million people in Spain were born abroad, accounting for 20.3% of the total population. Among them, over seven million (15.4%) were born outside Europe,[{{Cite web |title=Población residente por fecha, sexo, grupo de edad y país de nacimiento(56937) |url=https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=56937#_tabs-tabla |access-date=2025-08-08 |website=INE |language=es}}] and more than seven million (14.3%) held foreign nationality.[{{cite web|url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/Prensa/es/ECP4T24.htm|title=Instituto Nacional de Estadística. Estadística del Padrón Continuo|publisher=[[Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)|Instituto Nacional de Estadística]]|website=ine.es|access-date=13 February 2025}}] By [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by immigrant population|number of immigrants]], Spain ranks fourth in Europe and seventh worldwide.
As of December 2024, the largest source of immigrants was Morocco (over one million), Colombia (856,616), Venezuela (599,769), Romania (532,456), and Ecuador (448,643).["Población (españoles/extranjeros) por País de Nacimiento, sexo y año". [[Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)|Instituto Nacional de Estadística]]. Archived from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 29 January 2025.] Most immigrants come from outside the EU, especially Latin America, with sizeable populations from the United Kingdom, Ukraine, China, Russia, Pakistan, Algeria, and Senegal.[[http://www.workpermit.com/news/2007-10-10/spain/spanish-immigration-budget-increases.htm Spain to increase immigration budget] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080830020653/http://workpermit.com/news/2007-10-10/spain/spanish-immigration-budget-increases.htm|date=30 August 2008 }}, 10 October 2007] In 2005, Spain had the second highest immigration rate in the European Union, after [[Cyprus]], and the highest in absolute numbers,[{{cite web |title=Population in Europe in 2005 |url=http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-EN.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819191607/http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/cache/ITY_OFFPUB/KS-NK-06-001/EN/KS-NK-06-001-EN.PDF |archive-date=19 August 2008 |access-date=13 August 2008 |publisher=Eurostat}}] with an amnesty programme increasing the legal immigrant population by 700,000.[{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett|title=Spain grants amnesty to 700,000 migrants|work=The Guardian|location=London|date=9 May 2005|access-date=20 July 2009|first=Giles|last=Tremlett|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130829050736/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2005/may/09/spain.gilestremlett|archive-date=29 August 2013 }}]
The very high level of immigration is driven by Spain's cultural ties with Latin America, its geographical position, the porosity of its borders, the large size of its underground economy, and the strength of the agricultural and construction sectors, which demand more low-cost labour than can be offered by the national workforce. A large number of EU residents retire to Spain's Mediterranean coast;[{{cite web|url=http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0|title=Population series from 1998|publisher=[[Instituto Nacional de Estadística de España|INE]] Spanish Statistical Institute|access-date=14 August 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071102141040/http://www.ine.es/inebase/cgi/um?M=%2Ft20%2Fe245%2Fp08%2F&O=pcaxis&N=&L=0|archive-date=2 November 2007}}] in 2008, prior to the onset of the [[2008–2014 Spanish financial crisis|economic crisis]], the ''Financial Times'' reported that Spain was the most favoured destination for Western Europeans considering a move from their own country and seeking jobs elsewhere in the EU.[{{cite web|url=http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_1406161495|publisher=News.bg|title=Europeans Favour Spain for Expat Jobs|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010033728/http://international.ibox.bg/news/id_1406161495|archive-date=10 October 2008}}]
Until 2014, the number of immigrants decreased due to the [[Great Recession|economic crisis]], with more than half a million people leaving Spain in 2011 alone—the first net migration rate in decades.[[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes 580.000 personas se van de España] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115152500/http://www.elpais.com/articulo/sociedad/580000/personas/van/Espana/elpepisoc/20111008elpepisoc_2/Tes|date=15 November 2011}}. El País. Edición Impresa. 8 October 2011] However, notwithstanding economic factors, as well as policies to encourage non-EU unemployed immigrants to voluntarily depart the country,[[http://www.planderetornovoluntario.es/index_uno.html Plan de Retorno Voluntario] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111018081322/https://www.planderetornovoluntario.es/index_uno.html|date=18 October 2011 }} Gobierno de España] the rate of [[emigration]] remained relatively low.[[https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123275552359911807 Spain's Jobs Crisis Leaves Immigrants Out of Work] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170710041236/https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB123275552359911807|date=10 July 2017 }}, The Wall Street Journal, 24 January 2009] By 2015, net immigration had increased, and Spain has again become a major immigration destination, backed by government policies to increase the labour force and promote integration.[{{Cite web |title=Spain Opens Doors to 1 Million Migrants to Boost Workforce |website=[[Bloomberg News]] |date=29 May 2025 |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2025-05-29/spain-opens-doors-to-1-million-migrants-to-boost-workforce}}][{{Cite news |last=Kassam |first=Ashifa |date=18 February 2025 |title=How Spain's radically different approach to migration helped its economy soar |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2025/feb/18/how-spains-radically-different-approach-to-migration-helped-its-economy-soar |access-date=13 June 2025 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}] The Sánchez government planned to legalize around 900,000 undocumented migrants by 2027.[{{cite news |title=Spain to grant residency and work permits to around 300,000 undocumented migrants per year |url=https://www.euronews.com/my-europe/2024/04/11/eu-countries-not-enforcing-migration-pact-could-face-legal-action-says-johansson |work=Euronews |date=4 November 2024}}]
In late July 2026, there was [[2026 Morocco–Spain border incident|a mass crossing of migrants from Morocco into Ceuta]], with at least 141 fatalities among those attempting to reach Spain. By 3 August, Spanish government officials said about 70,000 people had voluntarily returned to Morocco.[{{Cite web |last=Ruíz |first=Sergio Rodrigo |last2=Brito |first2=Renata |last3=Naishadham |first3=Suman |date=2026-07-31 |title=Spain’s PM blames trafficking gangs as 60,000 cross into Ceuta from Morocco, with 41 deaths |url=https://apnews.com/article/spain-ceuta-migration-66839d113f24ba80d08b36d2b337201c |access-date=2026-07-31 |website=AP News |language=en}}][{{Cite web |title=Interior cifra en 72.000 los migrantes que entraron en Ceuta y en 70.000 los que ya han regresado a Marruecos |url=https://www.antena3.com/noticias/sociedad/ultima-hora-crisis-migratoria-directo-marruecos-asegura-que-aviso-espana-antes-crisis-ceuta_202608046a716d69a046ad6ebc9af261.html |language=es |publisher=[[Antena 3 (Spanish TV channel)|Antena 3]] |date=2026-08-04 |access-date=2026-08-04}}]
=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of Spain}}
[[File:Languages of Spain.svg|thumb|A map of [[Languages of Spain|Spain's langauages]]]]
Spain is a multilingual state.[{{cite web|url=http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/smooth.pdf|last=Conversi|first=Daniele|title=The Smooth Transition: Spain's 1978 Constitution and the Nationalities Question|work=National Identities, Vol 4, No. 3|publisher=Carfax Publishing, Inc.|year=2002|access-date=28 January 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511172945/http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/conversi/smooth.pdf|archive-date=11 May 2008}}] [[Spanish language|Spanish]]—featured in the 1978 [[Spanish Constitution]] as ''castellano'' ([[names given to the Spanish language|'Castilian']])—has effectively been the official language of the entire country since 1931.[{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA129|title=National, regional and minority languages in Europe|publisher=[[Peter Lang (publisher)|Peter Lang]]|editor-first=Gerhard|editor-last=Stickel|chapter=Spain, a plurilingual state: Spanish and other official languages|first=Manuel|last=Casado Velarde|page=129|year=2011|location=Frankfurt|isbn=978-3-631-60365-9|access-date=24 July 2021|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033901/https://books.google.com/books?id=fFYa2ooeVXgC&pg=PA129|url-status=live}}] As allowed in the third article of the Constitution, the other 'Spanish languages' can also become official in their respective [[autonomous communities]]. The territoriality created by the form of co-officiality codified in the 1978 Constitution creates an asymmetry, in which Spanish speakers' rights apply to the entire territory whereas vis-à-vis the rest of co-official languages, their speakers' rights only apply in their territories.{{sfn|Ramallo|2018|p=465}}
Other territorialised languages include [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]], [[Aranese]], [[Astur-Leonese]], [[Basque language|Basque]], Ceutan Arabic ([[Darija]]), [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Valencian language|Valencian]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] and [[Tarifit|Tamazight]], to which the [[Caló language|Romani Caló]] and the sign languages may add up.{{sfn|Ramallo|2018|p=462}} The number of speakers varies widely and their legal recognition is uneven, with some of the most vulnerable languages lacking any sort of effective protection.{{sfn|Ramallo|2018|p=463}} Those enjoying recognition as an official language in some autonomous communities include Catalan (in [[Catalonia]] and the [[Balearic Islands]]); Galician (in [[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]]); Basque (in the [[Basque Country (autonomous community)|Basque Country]] and part of [[Navarre]]); Valencian (in the [[Valencian Community]] and Aranese in Catalonia.
In 2021, Spanish was the first language of 81.53% of the population, Catalan/Valencian was 10.50%, Galician was 3.77% and Basque was 1.42%. The most spoken foreign language was [[Arabic]] with 2.17% of the population considering it as their first language, followed by [[English language|English]] with 1.58%, [[Romanian language|Romanian]] with 1.44%, [[French language|French]] with 0.94%, Portuguese with 0.54%, [[Chinese language|Chinese]] with 0.48%, [[German language|German]] with 0.44% and [[Italian language|Italian]] with 0.41%.[{{Cite web |title=INEbase / Demografía y población /Cifras de población y Censos demográficos /Encuesta de Características Esenciales de la Población y las Viviendas / Microdatos |url=https://www.ine.es/dyngs/INEbase/es/operacion.htm?c=Estadistica_C&cid=1254736177092&menu=resultados&idp=1254735572981# |access-date=12 March 2025 |website=INE |language=es}}] Such diversity of foreign languages is mainly due to international migration.[{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://gramatica.usc.es/att/montserrat.recalde/Recalde_2016.pdf|year=2016|page=175|first=Montserrat|last=Recalde Fernández|title=Ser inmigrante en tempos de crise: Unha ollada multidisciplinar |editor-first=Montserrat|editor-last=Recalde Fernández|editor-first2=Carme|editor-last2=Silva Domínguez|publisher=Servizo de Publicacións e Intercambio Científico da Universidade de Compostela|doi=10.15304/9788416533015|chapter=A contribución da inmigración ao multilingüismo do Estado español|isbn=978-84-16533-01-5|access-date=12 July 2021|archive-date=25 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210725112956/https://gramatica.usc.es/att/montserrat.recalde/Recalde_2016.pdf}}]
[[Spanish language|Spanish]] is the world's [[List of languages by number of native speakers|second-most spoken native language]] and the world's most widely spoken [[Romance language]].[{{cite web |title=572 millones de personas hablan español, cinco millones más que hace un año, y aumentarán a 754 millones a mediados de siglo |url=https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2017/noticias/Presentaci%C3%B3n-Anuario-2017.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513000611/https://www.cervantes.es/sobre_instituto_cervantes/prensa/2017/noticias/Presentaci%C3%B3n-Anuario-2017.htm |archive-date=13 May 2021 |website=www.cervantes.es |language=es}}]
=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Spain}}
[[File:University of Salamanca Fray Luis de Leon edited.jpg|thumb|The [[University of Salamanca]], one of the first European universities]]
State education in Spain is free and compulsory from the age of six to sixteen. The education system is regulated by the 2006 educational law, LOE (''Ley Orgánica de Educación''), or Fundamental Law for the Education.[[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html ''La Ley Orgánica 2/2006''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525013507/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/lo2-2006.html|date=25 May 2011 }}. Retrieved 23 September 2009] In 2014, the LOE was partially modified by the newer and controversial LOMCE law (''Ley Orgánica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa''), or Fundamental Law for the Improvement of the Education System, commonly called ''Ley Wert'' (Wert Law).[[http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html ''Ley Orgánica 8/2013''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212202355/http://noticias.juridicas.com/base_datos/Admin/517990-lo-8-2013-de-9-dic-para-la-mejora-de-la-calidad-educativa.html|date=12 February 2015 }}. Retrieved 9 December 2013] Since 1970 to 2014, Spain has had seven different educational laws (LGE, LOECE, LODE, LOGSE, LOPEG, LOE and LOMCE).[[http://www.teinteresa.es/educa/siete-leyes-educativas-franco-wert-zapatero-aznar-ucd-psoe-pp_0_1007900025.html ''De la LGE a la LOMCE: Así son las siete leyes educativas españolas de la democracia''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212211059/http://www.teinteresa.es/educa/siete-leyes-educativas-franco-wert-zapatero-aznar-ucd-psoe-pp_0_1007900025.html|date=12 February 2015 }}. teinteresa.es]
The levels of education are preschool education, primary education,[{{cite web|title=Educación Primaria │Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-primaria.html|access-date=26 November 2020|language=es|archive-date=5 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201105082455/http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-primaria.html}}] secondary education[{{cite web|title=Educación Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO)│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=http://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-secundaria.html|access-date=26 November 2020|language=es|archive-date=16 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116053618/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/educacion-secundaria.html}}] and post-16 education.[{{cite web|title=Bachillerato│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/bachillerato.html|access-date=26 November 2020|archive-date=26 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126220810/https://www.educacionyfp.gob.es/contenidos/estudiantes/bachillerato.html}}] In regards to the professional development education or the vocational education, there are three levels besides the university degrees: the ''Formación Profesional Básica'' (basic vocational education); the ''Ciclo Formativo de Grado Medio'' or ''CFGM'' (medium level vocation education) which can be studied after studying the secondary education, and the ''Ciclo Formativo de Grado Superior'' or ''CFGS'' (higher level vocational education), which can be studied after studying the post-16 education level.[{{cite web|title=La Formación Profesional actual en el sistema educativo – TodoFP│Ministerio de Educación y Formación Profesional|url=https://www.todofp.es/sobre-fp/informacion-general/sistema-educativo-fp/fp-actual.html|access-date=26 November 2020|language=es|archive-date=31 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201031234851/https://www.todofp.es/sobre-fp/informacion-general/sistema-educativo-fp/fp-actual.html}}]
In 2021, the [[Programme for International Student Assessment]] (PISA) coordinated by the [[OECD]] ranked the overall knowledge and skills of Spanish 15-year-olds as significantly below the OECD average of 493 in reading literacy, mathematics, and science.[{{cite web|title=Compare your country - PISA 2018|url=https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/ESP?lg=en|access-date=29 September 2021|website=www2.compareyourcountry.org|language=en|archive-date=27 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927232854/https://www2.compareyourcountry.org/pisa/country/ESP?lg=en|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|title=The Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA): Spain|url=https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_ESP.pdf|access-date=29 September 2021|archive-date=29 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210929211954/https://www.oecd.org/pisa/publications/PISA2018_CN_ESP.pdf|url-status=live}}]
=== Health ===
{{Main|Health care in Spain|Abortion in Spain}}
The health care system of Spain, the [[Spanish National Health System]], is considered one of the best in the world, ranked 7th position by the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] in 2000.[World Health Organization, World Health Staff, (2000), Haden, Angela; Campanini, Barbara, eds., The world health report 2000 – Health systems: improving performance (PDF), Geneva: World Health Organization, {{ISBN|92-4-156198-X}}] The health care is public, universal and free for any legal citizen of Spain.[{{cite web|url=http://www.seg-social.es/Internet_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/BeneficiariosSituac30476/177501|title=Health care in Spain: Beneficiairies|publisher=seg-social.es|access-date=24 September 2017|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170525185420/http://www.seg-social.es/Internet_1/Trabajadores/PrestacionesPension10935/Asistenciasanitaria/RegimenGeneral/BeneficiariosSituac30476/177501|archive-date=25 May 2017}}] Health spending is 9.4% of GDP, slightly above the average of 9.3% of the [[OECD]]. The life expectancy in Spain has improved from 79.1 years in 2000 to 82.7 years in 2021.[{{cite web |title=Spain (data) |url=https://data.who.int/countries/724 |website=World Health Organization |publisher=WHO |access-date=15 November 2025}}]
=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Spain}}
[[File:Santiago cathedral 2021.jpg|thumb|The [[Santiago de Compostela Cathedral]]]]
[[Roman Catholic]]ism, which has a long history in Spain, remains the dominant religion. Although it no longer has official status by law, in all public schools in Spain students have to choose either a religion or ethics class. Catholicism is the religion most commonly taught, although the teaching of Islam,[[https://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24855 Ley 26/1992] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126142129/http://www.boe.es/diario_boe/txt.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24855|date=26 November 2016 }}, Documento BOE-A-1992-24855, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado] Judaism,[[https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24854 Ley 25/1992] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227231842/https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24854|date=27 December 2016 }}, Documento BOE-A-1992-24854, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado] and evangelical Christianity[[https://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24853 Ley 24/1992] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161126142109/http://www.boe.es/buscar/doc.php?id=BOE-A-1992-24853|date=26 November 2016 }}, Documento BOE-A-1992-24853, Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado] is also recognised in law. Recent polls and surveys suggest that around 30% of the Spanish population is irreligious.[{{cite web|url=http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estudios/ver.jsp?estudio=14473&cuestionario=17452&muestra=24446|author=Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas (Centre for Sociological Research)|title=Macrobarómetro de octubre 2019, Banco de datos|date=October 2019|page=160|access-date=17 December 2019|language=es|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614123408/http://www.cis.es/cis/opencm/ES/1_encuestas/estudios/ver.jsp?estudio=14473&cuestionario=17452&muestra=24446|url-status=live}} The question was "¿Cómo se define Ud. en materia religiosa: católico/a practicante, católico/a no practicante, creyente de otra religion, agnóstico/a, indiferente o no creyente, o ateo/a?", the weight used was "PESOCCAA" which reflects the population sizes of the [[Autonomous communities of Spain]].][{{cite web|title=WVS Database|url=http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp|website=World Values Survey|publisher=Institute for Comparative Survey Research|date=March 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105141038/http://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/WVSOnline.jsp|archive-date=5 January 2016}}][{{cite news|title=Gallup International Religiosity Index|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf|newspaper=The Washington Post|publisher=WIN-Gallup International|date=April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160201065414/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/files/2015/04/WIN.GALLUP-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUSITY-INDEX.pdf|archive-date=1 February 2016}}]
The Spanish constitution enshrines [[secularism]] in governance, as well as freedom of religion or belief for all, saying that no religion should have a "state character", while allowing for the state to "cooperate" with religious groups. [[Protestant]] churches have about 1,200,000 members.[{{cite web|url=http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1|title=Federación de Entidades Religiosas Evangélicas de España – FEREDE|publisher=Ferede.org|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110930083055/http://www.ferede.org/general.php?pag=estad#1|archive-date=30 September 2011 }}] There are about 105,000 [[Jehovah's Witnesses]]. [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]] has approximately 46,000 adherents in 133 congregations.[{{cite web|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/country/spain|title=Spain – Newsroom|publisher=churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date=4 September 2010|archive-date=14 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200614092620/https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/country/spain|url-status=live}}]
A 2019 study made by the [[Union of Islamic Communities of Spain]] demonstrated that there were more than 2,100,000 inhabitants of Muslim background living in Spain, accounting for 4–5% of the population of Spain. The vast majority was composed of immigrants and descendants originating from the [[Maghreb]], especially [[Morocco]], and other African countries. More than 879,000 (42%) of them had Spanish nationality.[{{cite journal|title=Los musulmanes en España superan por primera vez los 2 millones de personas|journal=El Heraldo|url=https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/nacional/2020/02/18/musulmanes-espana-superan-primera-vez-2-millones-personas-1359544.html|date=September 2020|access-date=30 September 2020|archive-date=4 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004014226/https://www.heraldo.es/noticias/nacional/2020/02/18/musulmanes-espana-superan-primera-vez-2-millones-personas-1359544.html|url-status=live}}]
[[Judaism]] was practically non-existent in Spain from the 1492 expulsion until the 19th century, when Jews were again permitted to enter the country. Currently, there are around 62,000 Jews in Spain, or 0.14% of the total population.
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Spain}}
[[File:Museo Guggenheim, Bilbao (31273245344).jpg|thumb|[[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao]]]]
Spain is a [[Western world|Western country]] and one of the major [[Romance-speaking Europe|Latin countries]] of Europe, and has been noted for its international cultural influence.[{{cite web | title=Countries With the Most Cultural Influence | website=U.S. News | date=1 January 2024 | url=https://www.usnews.com/news/best-countries/rankings/influence | access-date=7 August 2024}}] Spanish culture is marked by strong historic ties to the [[Catholic Church]], which played a pivotal role in the country's formation and subsequent identity.[{{cite book|title=Spain Transformed: The Franco Dictatorship, 1959-1975|first=N.
|last=Townson|year=2007| isbn=978-0-230-59264-3| page =7|publisher=Routledge}}] Spanish art, architecture, cuisine, and music have been shaped by successive waves of foreign invaders, as well as by the country's Mediterranean climate and geography. The centuries-long colonial era globalised Spanish language and culture, with Spain also [[Columbian exchange|absorbing the cultural and commercial products of its diverse empire]].
[[Bullfighting]] is widely regarded as one of Spain's most iconic cultural and artistic traditions, although it remains a subject of ongoing social and political debate.[{{cite news |last1=Koch |first1=Tommaso |title=El debate sobre la tauromaquia, una batalla cultural y política que divide a la izquierda |url=https://elpais.com/cultura/2025-10-22/el-debate-sobre-la-tauromaquia-una-batalla-cultural-y-politica-que-divide-a-la-izquierda.html |access-date=12 April 2026 |work=El País |date=22 October 2025 |language=es}}][{{cite news |last1=Amorós |first1=Andrés |title=La Tauromaquia, patrimonio histórico y cultural de España |url=https://www.abc.es/cultura/toros/abci-tauromaquia-patrimonio-historico-y-cultural-espana-201511191634_noticia.html |access-date=12 April 2026 |work=ABC |date=19 November 2015}}][{{cite web | title=More than 500,000 signatures for the end of bullfighting as cultural heritage in Spain • CAS International | website=CAS International | date=January 30, 2025 | url=https://www.cas-international.org/en-gb/500000-signatures-bullfighting-cultural-heritage/ | language=nl | access-date=April 12, 2026}}] In 2013, it was officially recognized as part of the country's cultural heritage.[{{cite news |last1=Crespo |first1=Íñigo |title=La Tauromaquia ya es oficialmente Patrimonio Cultural El Senado aprueba por vez primera en la historia |url=https://www.elmundo.es/cultura/2013/11/06/527ab20e684341e70a8b4576.html |access-date=12 April 2026 |work=El Mundo |date=7 November 2013 |language=es |trans-title=Bullfighting is now officially recognised as Cultural Heritage; the Senate has approved the move for the first time in history}}]
=== World Heritage Sites ===
{{Main|World Heritage Sites in Spain}}
{{See also|Castles in Spain|Cathedrals in Spain}}
[[File:"Einer der bekanntsten Aussichtspunkte Granadas". 03.jpg|thumb|[[Alhambra]], [[Granada]]]]
Spain has fifty [[World Heritage Site]]s. These include the landscape of [[Monte Perdido]] in the [[Pyrenees]], which is shared with France, the Prehistoric Rock Art Sites of the [[Côa Valley]] and [[Siega Verde]], which is shared with Portugal, the [[Heritage of Mercury. Almadén and Idrija|Heritage of Mercury]], shared with Slovenia and the [[Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests of the Carpathians and Other Regions of Europe|Ancient and Primeval Beech Forests]], shared with other countries of Europe.[{{cite web|title=Spain|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/es|publisher=UNESCO Culture Sector|access-date=14 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140926042250/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/es|archive-date=26 September 2014}}] In addition, Spain also has fourteen items of [[intangible cultural heritage]], or "Human treasures".[{{cite web|title=Spain – Intangible Cultural Heritage|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/es|publisher=UNESCO Culture Sector|access-date=14 September 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140914115731/http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/en/state/es|archive-date=14 September 2014}}]
=== Philosophy ===
{{Main|Spanish philosophy}}
The construct pertaining a distinctive Spanish philosophical thought has been variously approached by academia, either by diachronically tracing its development throughout the centuries from the Roman conquest of Hispania on (with early representatives such as [[Seneca the Young|Seneca]], [[Trajan]], [[Lucan]], or [[Martial]]); by pinpointing its origins to the late 19th century (associated to the [[Generation of 98]]); or simply by outright denying its existence.[{{Cite journal|url=https://www.redalyc.org/journal/279/27962050010/27962050010.pdf|title=Genesis problem of philosophical thought in spanish historiography|last1=Antonova|last2=Myagkov|last3=Nikolaeva|first1=N.V.|first2=G.P|first3=O.A|journal=Utopía y Praxis Latinoamericana|volume=24|issue=5|year=2019|publisher=[[Universidad del Zulia]]|pages=66–67|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401042617/https://www.redalyc.org/journal/279/27962050010/27962050010.pdf|url-status=live}}] The crux around the existence of a Spanish philosophy pitted the likes of [[Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo]] (chief architect of the myth around it)[{{Cite book|url=https://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~cin/Modern%20Philisophy%20(XVII-XX)/Intro%20to%20Modern%20Spanish%20Philosophy%20(Caponigri).pdf|title=Contemporary Spanish Philosophy|first=A. Robert|last=Caponigri|year=1967|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=2 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402143134/https://yunus.hacettepe.edu.tr/~cin/Modern%20Philisophy%20(XVII-XX)/Intro%20to%20Modern%20Spanish%20Philosophy%20(Caponigri).pdf}}] against the legacy of anti-Spanish critique tracing back to figures like [[Antonio Pérez (statesman)|Antonio Pérez]].{{Sfn|Antonova|Myagkov|Nikolaeva|2019|p=67}} Foreign imports such as [[Krausism]] proved to be extremely influential in Spain in the 19th and early 20th centuries.{{Sfn|Caponigri|1967|p=169–170}}
=== Literature ===
{{Main|Spanish literature|Catalan literature|Galician literature|Basque literature}}
{{See also|Latin American literature|Royal Spanish Academy|Instituto Cervantes}}
[[File:Bronze statues of Don Quixote and Sancho Panza.jpg|thumb|right|210px|Bronze statues of [[Don Quixote]] and [[Sancho Panza]], at the [[Plaza de España (Madrid)|Plaza de España]] in [[Madrid]]]]
Some early examples of vernacular Romance-based literature include short snippets of [[Mozarabic language|Mozarabic Romance]] (such as refrains) sprinkled in [[Arabic language|Arabic]] and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] texts.[{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Spanish Literature|first=David T.|last=Gies|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|year=2004|isbn=0-521-80618-6|pages=73–74}}] Other examples of early Iberian Romance include the ''[[Glosas Emilianenses]]'' written in Latin, Basque and Romance.[{{Cite journal|page=90|url=http://erevistas.uca.edu.ar/index.php/LET/article/view/1774|journal=Letras|issn=0326-3363|publisher=[[Pontifical Catholic University of Argentina|Pontificia Universidad Católica Argentina Santa María de los Buenos Aires]]|volume=2|year=2015|issue=72|title=Literatura hispanorromance primigenia: la glosa conoajutorio del Codex Aemilianensis 60|first=María de los Ángeles|last=Dapueto Reyes|access-date=23 May 2020|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806072649/https://erevistas.uca.edu.ar/index.php/LET/article/view/1774|url-status=live}}]
Early Medieval literature in Christian Iberia was written in [[Latin language|Latin]], which remained as the standard literary language up until the mid-13th century, whereas Ibero-Romance vernaculars and Basque were spoken.[{{Cite book|title=Spanish Literature. A Very Short Introduction|first=Jo|last=Labanyi|year=2010|isbn=978-0-19-920805-0|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|pages=18–19}}] A decisive development ensued in the 13th century in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], where Arabic scholarship was translated to the local vernacular, [[Spanish language|Castilian]]. In the scope of lyric poetry Castilian co-existed alongside [[Galician-Portuguese]] across the Crown of Castile up until the 16th century.{{Sfn|Labanyi|2010|p=24}} The Romance variety preferred in Eastern Iberia for lyrical poetry, [[Occitan language|Occitan]], became increasingly [[Catalan language|Catalanised]] in the 14th and 15th centuries.{{Sfn|Labanyi|2010|p=21}} Major literary works from the Middle Ages include the ''[[Cantar de Mio Cid]]'', ''[[Tirant lo Blanch]]'', ''[[The Book of Good Love]]'' and ''[[Coplas por la muerte de su padre]]''. Genres such as [[Mester de Juglaría]] and [[Mester de Clerecía]] were cultivated.
Promoted by the monarchs in the late Middle Ages and even codified in the late 15th century, Castilian (thought to be widespread known as 'Spanish' from the 16th century on) progressively became the language of the elites in the Iberian Peninsula, which ushered in a [[Spanish Golden Age|Golden era of Castilian literature]] in the 16th and 17th centuries, also in the science domain, eclipsing Galician and Catalan.[{{Citation|url=https://www.academia.edu/34053466|title=The spread of Castilian/Spanish in Spain and the Americas: A relatively successful language standardisation experience|first=Carla|last=Amorós Negre|journal=Sociolinguistica|issn=0933-1883|issue=30|volume=1|year=2016|pages=26–28|doi=10.1515/soci-2016-0003|s2cid=132493573|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=31 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220531021154/https://www.academia.edu/34053466|url-status=live}}] Famous Early Modern works include ''[[La Celestina]]'' and ''[[Lazarillo de Tormes]]''. The famous ''[[Don Quixote|Don Quijote de La Mancha]]'' by [[Miguel de Cervantes]] was written at this time. Other writers from the period are: [[Francisco de Quevedo]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón de la Barca]] or [[Tirso de Molina]]. During the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] authors included [[Benito Jerónimo Feijóo]], [[Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos]], and [[Leandro Fernández de Moratín]].
[[File:Fotografía anónima MNCARS 6.jpg|thumb|left|[[Federico García Lorca]] and other members of theatrical troupe "La Barraca"]]
Steps of [[Romanticism in Spanish literature|Spanish Romantic literature]] (initially a rebellion against French classicism) have been traced back to the last quarter of the 18th century, even if the movement had its heyday between 1835 and 1850, waning thereafter.[{{Cite journal|page=226; 228–229|url=https://revistas.uca.es/index.php/cir/article/view/236/2058|publisher=[[University of Cádiz|Editorial UCA]]|title=La extensión del Romanticismo en España|first=José Luis|last=González Subías|journal=Cuadernos de Ilustración y Romanticismo: Revista del Grupo de Estudios del siglo XVIII|issn=2173-0687|issue=15|year=2007|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=12 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412011002/https://revistas.uca.es/index.php/cir/article/view/236/2058|url-status=live}}] In a broader definition encompassing the period from 1868 or 1874 to 1936, the so-called Silver Age of Spanish Culture ensued.[{{Cite journal|url=http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:Epos-2007-23B18B1E-0906-715F-602D-3CC2DE6C852C/edad_plata.pdf|title=La 'Edad de Plata' (1868-1936) y las generaciones de la Edad de Plata: cultura y filología|first=Francisco|last=Abad|journal=Epos. Revista de Filología|issue=23|year=2007|pages=244–245|access-date=5 April 2022|archive-date=12 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412004832/http://e-spacio.uned.es/fez/eserv/bibliuned:Epos-2007-23B18B1E-0906-715F-602D-3CC2DE6C852C/edad_plata.pdf|url-status=live}}][{{Cite journal|page=317|title=Redefining the Spanish Silver Age and '98 Within It |first=Nelson R.|last=Orringer|journal=Anales de la literatura Española Contemporánea|volume=23|issue=1/2|year=1998|jstor=25642011|publisher=Society of Spanish & Spanish-American Studies}}]
The waning of Romantic literature was followed by the development of [[Spanish Realist literature|Spanish Realism]], which offered depictions of contemporary life and society 'as they were', rather than romanticised or stylised presentations.[{{cite web |title=Social Realism in Spain |url=https://www.studysmarter.co.uk/explanations/spanish/spanish-literature/social-realism-in-spain/ |author=StudySmarter |date=7 June 2025 |website=StudySmarter |access-date=7 June 2025}}][{{cite web |title=Realism in 19th Century Spanish Literature |url=https://www.student-notes.net/realism-in-19th-century-spanish-literature/ |date=7 June 2025 |website=Student Notes |access-date=7 June 2025}}] The major realist writer was [[Benito Pérez Galdós]].{{sfn|Labanyi|2010|p=61}} The second half of the 19th century also saw the resurgence of the literary use of local languages other than Spanish under cultural movements inspired by Romanticism such as the Catalan ''[[Renaixença]]'' or the Galician ''[[Rexurdimento]]''.[{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yTQnOahQ4T4C&pg=PA103|page=103|title=Minority Language Planning and Micronationalism in Italy: An Analysis of the Situation of Friulian, Cimbrian and Western Lombard with Reference to Spanish Minority Languages|first=Paolo|last=Coluzzi|year=2007|publisher=[[Peter Lang AG|Peter Lang]]|isbn=978-3-03911-041-4|access-date=15 April 2022|archive-date=12 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230912033942/https://books.google.com/books?id=yTQnOahQ4T4C&pg=PA103|url-status=live}}] Rarely used before in a written medium, the true fostering of the literary use of the Basque language had to wait until the 1960s, even if some interest towards the language had developed in the late 19th century.{{Sfn|Coluzzi|2007|pp=103–104}} 20th-century authors were classified in loose literary generations such as the [[Generation of 1898|Generation of '98]], the [[Generation of '27]], [[Generation of '36]] and the [[Generation of '50]].
[[Premio Planeta de Novela]] and [[Miguel de Cervantes Prize]] are the two main awards in Spanish literature.
=== Art ===
{{Main|Spanish art}}
[[File:Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Les Demoiselles d'Avignon]]'' (1907), [[Pablo Picasso]]]]
Artists from Spain have been highly influential in the development of various European and [[Hispanic America|American]] [[art movement|artistic movements]]. Due to historical, geographical and generational diversity, Spanish art has known a great number of influences. The Mediterranean heritage with Greco-Roman and some Moorish influences in Spain, especially in [[Andalusia]], is still evident today. European influences include Italy, Germany and France, especially during the Renaissance, [[Baroque|Spanish Baroque]] and [[Neoclassicism|Neoclassical]] periods. There are many other autochthonous styles such as the [[Pre-Romanesque art and architecture]], [[Herrerian]] architecture or the [[Isabelline Gothic]].[{{Cite web|url=https://www.arteespana.com/arquitecturaherreriana.htm|title=Arquitectura Herreriana|language=es|website=www.arteespana.com|access-date=5 January 2019}}][{{cite book|author=Annie Cloulas|title=Mélanges de la Casa de Velázquez|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CS1jRpHT40kC&pg=PA159|volume=16|year=1980|publisher=Casa de Velázquez|location=Madrid|isbn=978-84-600-2213-8|page=159|chapter=Origines et évolution du terme "Plateresco"}}][{{cite book|author=Marcel Durliat|title=L'Architecture espagnole|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5mtLAAAAMAAJ&q=%22style%20Isabelle%22|year=1966|publisher=Privat-Didier|page=203}}]
During the Golden Age painters working in Spain included [[El Greco]], [[José de Ribera]], [[Bartolomé Esteban Murillo]] and [[Francisco Zurbarán]]. Also, in the Baroque period, [[Diego Velázquez]] created some of the most famous Spanish portraits, such as {{Lang|es|[[Las Meninas]]}} and {{Lang|es|[[Las Hilanderas (Velázquez)|Las Hilanderas]]}}.[{{cite web|last=Anirudh|title=10 Most Famous Paintings by Diego Velazquez {{!}} Learnodo Newtonic|url=https://learnodo-newtonic.com/diego-velazquez-famous-paintings|access-date=21 November 2020|language=en-US|archive-date=24 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201124092357/https://learnodo-newtonic.com/diego-velazquez-famous-paintings|url-status=live}}]
[[Francisco Goya]] painted during a historical period that included the [[Peninsular War|Spanish Independence War]], the fights between liberals and absolutists, and the rise of contemporary nation-states.[{{Cite web|last=Voorhies|first=James|date=October 2003|title=Francisco de Goya (1746–1828) and the Spanish Enlightenment|url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/goya/hd_goya.htm|access-date=17 April 2021|website=www.metmuseum.org|series=HEILBRUNN TIMELINE OF ART HISTORY ESSAYS|publisher=Department of European Paintings, The Metropolitan Museum of Art}}]
[[Joaquín Sorolla]] is a well-known modern Impressionist painter. There are many important Spanish painters belonging to the Modernist art movement, including [[Pablo Picasso]], [[Salvador Dalí]], [[Juan Gris]] and [[Joan Miró]].[{{cite web| url = https://espanoleschool.com/famous-spanish-painters/| title = Top 10 most famous Spanish painters| website = Españolé| date = 4 January 2024| access-date = 15 November 2025}}]
=== Sculpture ===
The Plateresque style extended from beginnings of the 16th century until the last third of the century and its stylistic influence pervaded the works of all great Spanish artists of the time. [[Alonso Berruguete]] ([[Valladolid]] School) is called the "Prince of Spanish sculpture". His main works were the upper stalls of the choir of the [[Cathedral of Toledo]], the tomb of Cardinal Tavera in the same Cathedral, and the altarpiece of the Visitation in the church of Santa Úrsula in the same locality. Other notable sculptors were [[Bartolomé Ordóñez]], [[Diego de Siloé]], [[Juan de Juni]] and [[Damià Forment|Damián Forment]].[{{cite book|author1=Arthur Byne|author2=Mildred Stapley Byne|title=Spanish Architecture of the Sixteenth Century|url=https://archive.org/details/spanisharchitect00byneuoft|year=1917|publisher=G. P. Putnam's sons|pages=[https://archive.org/details/spanisharchitect00byneuoft/page/186 186]–}}]
There were two Schools: the [[Sevillian school of sculpture|Seville School]], to which [[Juan Martínez Montañés]] belonged, whose most celebrated works are the Crucifix in the Cathedral of Seville, another in Vergara, and a Saint John; and the [[Granadan school of sculpture|Granada School]], to which [[Alonso Cano]] belonged, to whom an Immaculate Conception and a Virgin of Rosary are attributed.[{{cite EB1911 |wstitle= Montañes, Juan Martinez |volume= 18 |page= 757 | date-1911 |short=1}}][[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03250d.htm Alonso Cano] – [[Catholic Encyclopedia]] article]
Other notable Andalusian Baroque sculptors were [[Pedro de Mena]], [[Pedro Roldán]] and his daughter [[Luisa Roldán]], [[Juan de Mesa]] and [[Pedro Duque Cornejo]]. In the 20th century the most important Spanish sculptors were [[Julio González (sculptor)|Julio González]], [[Pablo Gargallo]], [[Eduardo Chillida]], and [[Pablo Serrano]].
=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Spanish architecture}}
[[File:SF maig 2 cropped.jpg|thumb|right|220px|Basilica [[Sagrada Família]] in [[Barcelona]]]]
Earth and [[gypsum]] are very common materials of the traditional [[vernacular architecture]] in Spain (particularly in the East of the country, where most of the deposits of gypsum are located).[{{Cite book|chapter=Earth and gypsum: From theory to practice in Spanish vernacular architecture|first=V|last=La Spina|title=Vernacular and Earthen Architecture: Conservation and Sustainability|year=2018|editor-first=C.|editor-last=Mileto|editor-first2=F.|editor-last2=Vegas López-Manzanares|editor-first3=L.|editor-last3=García-Soriano|editor-first4=V.|editor-last4=Cristini|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]|location=London|isbn=978-1-138-03546-1|pages=153–154}}] Due to its historical and geographical diversity, Spanish architecture has drawn from a host of influences. Fine examples of [[Islamic architecture|Islamicate architecture]], belonging to the [[Moorish architecture|Western Islamic tradition]], were built in the Middle Ages in places such as [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]], [[Seville]], or [[Granada]]. Similarly to the Maghreb, [[stucco]] decoration in Al-Andalus became an architectural stylemark in the high Middle Ages.[{{Cite book|title=Architecture of the Islamic West. North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula|first=Jonathan M.|last=Bloom|location=New Haven and London|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-21870-1|year=2020|page=88}}]
Simultaneously, the Christian kingdoms also developed their own styles; developing a [[pre-Romanesque]] style when isolated from contemporary mainstream European architectural influences during the earlier Middle Ages, they later integrated the [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] streams. The Gothic style resulted in numerous instances of Gothic architecture being built throughout the entire territory. The so-called [[Mudéjar art|Mudéjar style]] came to designate works by Muslims, Christians and Jews in lands conquered from Muslims.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=171}}
The arrival of [[Modernism]] produced much of the architecture of the 20th century. An influential style centred in [[Barcelona]], known as [[modernisme]], produced a number of important architects, most notably [[Gaudí|Antoni Gaudí]]. The [[International Style (architecture)|International style]] was led by groups like [[GATEPAC]]. Spain is currently experiencing a revolution in [[contemporary architecture]] and [[:Category:Spanish architects|Spanish architects]] like [[Rafael Moneo]], [[Santiago Calatrava]], and [[Ricardo Bofill]] (as well as others) have gained worldwide renown.[{{citation |magazine=L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui |url=https://www.larchitecturedaujourdhui.fr/demesures/ |author=Andrew Ayers |title=Ricardo Bofill, A l'échelle de l'histoire |date=December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210117082208/https://www.larchitecturedaujourdhui.fr/demesures/ |archive-date=17 January 2021 |access-date=15 November 2025 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web| url = https://parametric-architecture.com/santiago-calatrava-6-notable-projects/| title = Santiago Calatrava: 6 Notable Projects| website = Parametric Architecture| date = 25 February 2025| access-date = 15 November 2025}}]
=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Spain}}
After the first projection of a cinematographer in Spain by 1896, cinema developed in the following years, with Barcelona becoming the largest production hub in the country (as well as a major European hub) on the eve of the World War I.{{Sfn|Montes Fernández|2011|pp=602–603}} The conflict offered the Spanish industry of [[silent film]]s an opportunity for further growth.{{Sfn|Montes Fernández|2011|p=603}} Local studios for [[sound film]]s were created in 1932.[{{Cite journal|journal=Anuario Jurídico y Económico Escurialense|volume=XLIV|year=2011|issn=1133-3677|title=Recordando la historia del cine español|first=Francisco José|last=Montes Fernández|page=|url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3625523.pdf|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=17 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417135936/https://dialnet.unirioja.es/descarga/articulo/3625523.pdf|url-status=live}}] The government imposition of dubbing of foreign films in 1941 accustomed Spanish audiences to watching [[Dubbing (filmmaking)|dubbed film]]s.{{Sfn|Montes Fernández|2011|pp=609–610}}
Spanish cinema has achieved major international success including [[Academy Award|Oscars]] for films such as ''[[Pan's Labyrinth]]'' and ''[[Volver]]''.[{{cite book|last1=Jordan|first1=Barry|first2=Rikki|last2=Morgan-Tamosunas|author-link2=Rikki Morgan-Tamosunas|title=Contemporary spanish cinema|url=https://archive.org/details/contemporaryspan0000jord|url-access=registration|publisher=Manchester University Press|year=1998}}] Distinct exploitation genres that flourished in the second half of the 20th century include the ''[[Fantaterror]]'', the [[cine quinqui|cine ''quinqui'']] and the so-called Cine de destape films.[{{cite web|url=https://www.elespanol.com/el-cultural/cine/20191213/viaje-cara-cine-espanol/451706612_0.html|website=[[El Cultural]]|via=[[El Español]]|title=Viaje por la cara B del cine español|date=13 December 2019|first=Javier|last=Yuste|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=1 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401051257/https://www.elespanol.com/el-cultural/cine/20191213/viaje-cara-cine-espanol/451706612_0.html|url-status=live}}] As of 2021, the festivals of [[San Sebastián International Film Festival|San Sebastián]] and [[Málaga Film Festival|Málaga]] are ranked among the top cultural initiatives in the country.[{{cite web|url=https://www.audiovisual451.com/el-festival-de-san-sebastian-y-el-de-malaga-entre-las-diez-iniciativas-culturales-mas-importantes-de-espana-de-2021/|date=9 February 2022|website=Audiovisual451|title=El Festival de San Sebastián y el de Málaga, entre las diez iniciativas culturales más importantes de España en 2021|access-date=1 April 2022|archive-date=9 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209173041/https://www.audiovisual451.com/el-festival-de-san-sebastian-y-el-de-malaga-entre-las-diez-iniciativas-culturales-mas-importantes-de-espana-de-2021/|url-status=live}}]
=== Music and dance ===
{{Main|Music of Spain}}
[[File:Flamenco en el Palacio Andaluz, Sevilla, España, 2015-12-06, DD 20.JPG|thumb|right|[[Flamenco]] is an Andalusian artistic form that evolved from [[Seguidilla]].]]
Spanish music is often considered abroad to be synonymous with [[flamenco]], a West Andalusian musical genre, which is not widespread outside that region.[{{cite book|last= Leblon|first= Bernard|translator-last= Ni Shuinear|translator-first= Sinead|title= Gypsies and Flamenco: The Emergence of the Art of Flamenco in Andalusia|url= https://books.google.com/books?id=farZoyKozikC|location= Hatfield|publisher= [[University of Hertfordshire Press]]|year= 2003|isbn= 978-1-902806-05-1|pages=72–73}}] Various regional styles of [[folk music]] abound. Pop, rock, hip hop and heavy metal are also popular.
In the field of classical music, Spain has produced a number of noted composers such as [[Isaac Albéniz]], [[Manuel de Falla]] and [[Enrique Granados]] and singers and performers such as [[Plácido Domingo]], [[José Carreras]], [[Montserrat Caballé]], [[Alicia de Larrocha]], [[Alfredo Kraus]], [[Pablo Casals]], [[Ricardo Viñes]], [[José Iturbi]], [[Pablo de Sarasate]], [[Jordi Savall]] and [[Teresa Berganza]]. In Spain there are over forty professional orchestras, including the [[Barcelona Symphony and Catalonia National Orchestra|Orquestra Simfònica de Barcelona]], [[Orquesta Nacional de España]] and the [[Orquesta Sinfónica de Madrid]]. Major [[opera houses]] include the [[Teatro Real]], the [[Gran Teatre del Liceu]], [[Teatro Arriaga]] and the [[El Palau de les Arts Reina Sofía]].
Thousands of music fans also travel to Spain each year for internationally recognised summer music festivals [[Sónar]] which features pop and techno acts, and [[Festival Internacional de Benicàssim|Benicàssim]] which tends to feature alternative rock and dance acts.[{{cite web|url=http://www.spoonfed.co.uk/london/festivals/|title=Music Festivals, UK Festivals and London Festivals|publisher=Spoonfed.co.uk|access-date=1 November 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028170946/http://www.spoonfed.co.uk/london/festivals/|archive-date=28 October 2011 }}] The [[Vitoria-Gasteiz jazz festival]] is a notable jazz festival. One of the most popular traditional [[musical instrument|musical instruments]], the guitar, originated in Spain.[{{cite web|url=http://www.linguatics.com/guitar.htm|title=The History of the Guitar in Spain|publisher=Linguatics.com|access-date=30 April 2011|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429082016/http://www.linguatics.com/guitar.htm|archive-date=29 April 2011 }}] Typical of the north are the traditional bag pipers or ''[[gaita (bagpipe)|gaiteros]]'', mainly in Asturias and Galicia.
=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Spanish cuisine}}
[[File:Paella de marisco 01.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[Paella]] mixta]]
Spanish cuisine consists of a great variety of dishes which stem from differences in geography, culture and climate. It is heavily influenced by seafood available from the waters that surround the country, and reflects the country's deep [[Mediterranean]] roots. Spain's extensive history with many cultural influences has led to a unique cuisine. In particular, three main divisions are easily identified:
'''''Mediterranean''''' Spain – coastal regions, from Catalonia to Andalusia – heavy use of seafood, such as ''pescaíto frito'' (fried fish); cold soups like ''[[gazpacho]]''; and many rice-based dishes like ''[[paella]]'' from Valencia[{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece|title=Spain's perfect paella|date=19 August 2007 |last=Richardson|first=Paul|work=The Times|location=London|access-date=6 August 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100604174210/http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article2277058.ece |archive-date=4 June 2010 }}] and ''[[arròs negre]]'' (black rice) from Catalonia.[{{cite news|url=https://www.villagevoice.com/spain-gain-at-mercat-negre/|title=Spain Gain at Mercat Negre|work=The Village Voice|date=1 December 2009|last=DiGregorio|first=Sarah|location=New York|access-date=6 August 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091208050334/http://www.villagevoice.com/2009-12-01/restaurants/spain-gain-at-mercat-negre/|archive-date=8 December 2009 }}]
'''''Inner''''' Spain – Castile – hot, thick soups such as the bread and garlic-based ''Castilian soup'', along with substantial stews such as ''[[cocido madrileño]]''. Food is traditionally preserved by salting, such as [[Spanish ham]], or immersed in [[olive oil]], such as [[Manchego cheese]].
'''''Atlantic''''' Spain – the Northern coast, including [[Asturian cuisine|Asturian]], [[Basque cuisine|Basque]], [[Cantabrian cuisine|Cantabrian]] and [[Galician cuisine]] – vegetable and fish-based stews like ''[[caldo gallego]]'' and ''[[marmitako]]''. Also, the lightly cured ''[[Lacón Gallego|lacón]]'' ham. The best known cuisine of the northern countries often rely on ocean seafood, as in the Basque-style [[cod]], [[albacore]] or [[anchovy]] or the Galician octopus-based ''[[polbo á feira]]'' and shellfish dishes.
=== Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Spain}}
[[File:2023FWWC Final (celebration) (cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Spain women's national football team|Spain]] or ''La Roja'' celebrating their [[2023 FIFA Women's World Cup]] victory]]
While varieties of [[Football in Spain|football]] have been played in Spain as far back as Roman times, sport in Spain has been dominated by football since the early 20th century. [[Real Madrid CF]] and [[FC Barcelona]] are two of the most successful football clubs in the world. [[Spain men's national football team|The country's national men's football team]] won the [[UEFA European Championship]] in [[1964 European Nations' Cup|1964]], [[UEFA Euro 2008|2008]], [[UEFA Euro 2012|2012]] and [[UEFA Euro 2024|2024]] and the [[FIFA World Cup]] in [[2010 FIFA World Cup|2010]] and [[2026 FIFA World Cup|2026]], and is the first team ever to win three back-to-back major international tournaments.[{{Cite news |last1=Lyttleton |first1=Ben |last2=Bellos |first2=Alex |date=9 June 2021 |title=Football School extract: how Spain won three tournaments in a row |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2021/jun/09/football-school-extract-how-spain-won-three-tournaments-in-a-row |access-date=11 July 2025 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}] [[Spain women's national football team|Spain's women's national team]] were champions of the [[2023 FIFA Women's World Cup]], becoming one of only five nations to win the [[FIFA Women's World Cup|Women's World Cup]]. [[FC Barcelona Femení|Barcelona Femení]] has won a record number of domestic trophies.[{{cite web| url = https://www.fcbarcelona.com/en/football/womens-football/honours| title = Women's Football Honours| website = FC Barcelona Official Channel| access-date = 15 November 2025}}]
[[Basketball in Spain|Basketball]], [[Tennis in Spain|tennis]]—where players like [[Rafa Nadal]] and [[Carlos Alcaraz]] stand out—, cycling, [[team handball|handball]], [[Spain national futsal team|futsal]], [[motorcycling]] and, lately, [[Formula One]] also can boast of Spanish champions. Today, Spain is a major world sports powerhouse, especially since the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] and [[1992 Summer Paralympics|Paralympics]] that were hosted in [[Barcelona]], which stimulated a great deal of interest in sports in the country. The tourism industry has led to an improvement in sports infrastructure, especially for [[water sports]], [[golf]] and [[skiing]]. In their respective regions, the traditional games of [[Basque pelota]] and [[Valencian pilota]] are both popular.[{{cite web
| url = https://artsandculture.google.com/story/pelota-a-sport-with-basque-roots-fondation-du-patrimoine/VgXxLJfHvVFjLA?hl=en
| title = Pelota: A Sport with Basque Roots
| publisher = Google Arts & Culture (in collaboration with Fondation du patrimoine)
| access-date = 15 November 2025}}][{{citation|url=http://fedpival.es/historia/completa|title=History of the Valencian Pilota|work=[[Federació de Pilota Valenciana]]|language=ca|access-date=5 December 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130614095324/http://fedpival.es/historia/completa|archive-date=14 June 2013|url-status=dead}}]
=== Public holidays and festivals ===
{{Main|National Day of Spain|Public holidays in Spain|Fiestas of International Tourist Interest of Spain|Fiestas of National Tourist Interest of Spain}}
[[File:Semana_Santa_La_Laguna_52_(cropped).jpg|thumb|[[Holy Week in San Cristóbal de La Laguna|Semana Santa in La Laguna]], [[Tenerife]]]]
Public holidays celebrated in Spain include a mix of religious ([[Roman Catholic]]), national and local observances. Each municipality is allowed to declare a maximum of fourteen public holidays per year; up to nine of these are chosen by the national government and at least two are chosen locally.[{{cite web|url=http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_58.htm|title=Bank holidays in Spain|publisher=bank-holidays.com|access-date=13 August 2008|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080918001803/http://www.bank-holidays.com/holidays_2007_58.htm|archive-date=18 September 2008}}] [[National Day of Spain|Spain's National Day]] (''Fiesta Nacional de España'') is celebrated on 12 October.[Nogués y Secall (1862), [https://archive.org/stream/historiacritica00secagoog#page/n92/mode/2up 68].][Paloma Aguilar, Carsten Humlebæk, "Collective Memory and National Identity in the Spanish Democracy: The Legacies of Francoism and the Civil War", History & Memory, 1 April 2002, pag. 121–164]
There are many festivals and festivities in Spain. One of the most famous is [[Festival of San Fermín|San Fermín]], in [[Pamplona]]. Its most famous event is the ''encierro'', or the [[running of the bulls]]. It has become one of the most internationally renowned fiestas in Spain, with over a million people attending every year.[{{cite web| url = https://english.elpais.com/elpais/2018/07/04/inenglish/1530705165_316971.html| title = San Fermín 2018: Sanfermines in numbers: 10 facts you need to know| publisher = El País English| access-date = 15 November 2025| date = July 6, 2018| quote = The San Fermín fiestas continue to be a major crowd-puller, with more than 1.45 million people attending last year's fiestas, which included 425 different activities.}}]
Other festivals include [[La Tomatina]] tomato festival in [[Buñol]], [[Valencian Community|Valencia]], the carnivals in the [[Canary Islands]], the [[Falles]] in [[Valencia]] or the [[Holy Week in Spain|Holy Week]] in Andalusia and [[Castile and León]].
=== Media ===
In Spain, TV is the main source of news and satellite and cable are popular digital platforms. Home-produced dramas, reality shows and long-running soap operas are staple fare on primetime TV. Regional TV networks are operated by their respective governments and there are many local stations. The biggest TV provider is Movistar+, owned by telecom firm Telefónica.[{{Cite news |date=2012-05-03 |title=Spain media guide |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-17944960 |access-date=2026-03-12 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}]
On 11 March 2026, Spanish Prime Minister [[Pedro Sánchez|Pedro Sanchez]] announced that he will launch HODIO, a tool which will allow the government to systematically track the presence, amplification and impact of hate speech online, to measure hate speech on digital platforms as part of a broader strategy to increase oversight of social media companies.[{{Cite web |title=Spain to launch tool to monitor hate on social media, PM Sanchez says |url=https://www.channelnewsasia.com/business/spain-launch-tool-monitor-hate-social-media-pm-sanchez-says-5986701 |access-date=2026-03-12 |website=CNA |language=en}}]
== See also ==
{{Portal|Spain|European Union}}
*[[Borders of Spain]]
* [[Crime in Spain]]
* [[Outline of Spain]]{{Clear}}
== Notes ==
{{notelist}}
== References ==
{{Duplicated citations|reason=DuplicateReferences script detected:
* https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s625 (refs: 162, 174)
* https://constituteproject.org/constitution/Spain_2011#s614 (refs: 168, 171)
* https://www.ine.es/jaxiT3/Datos.htm?t=56937#_tabs-tabla (refs: 258, 269)
|date=August 2026}}
{{reflist}}
=== Works cited ===
* {{cite book|last1=Gates |first1=David|title=The Spanish Ulcer: A History of the Peninsular War|publisher=Da Capo Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-306-81083-1}}
* {{cite web |title=The Spanish Constitution |url=https://www.boe.es/legislacion/documentos/ConstitucionINGLES.pdf |publisher=Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140708033813/https://www.boe.es/legislacion/documentos/ConstitucionINGLES.pdf |archive-date=8 July 2014 |access-date=10 June 2022 |language=English |date=1978 |ref={{harvid|Spanish Constitution|1978}} |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book|year=2018|doi=10.1515/9783110365955-018|publisher=[[De Gruyter]]|editor-first=Wendy|editor-last=Ayres-Bennett|editor-first2=Janice|editor-last2=Carruthers|title=Manual of Romance Sociolinguistics|first=Fernando|last=Ramallo|chapter=17. Linguistic diversity in Spain |pages=462–493 |isbn=978-3-11-036595-5|chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325696721|s2cid=158999790}}
== Further reading ==
* Callaghan O.F. Joseph. ''A History of Medieval Spain''. Cornell University Press 1983.
* [[Raymond Carr|Carr, Raymond]], ed. ''Spain: a history''. Oxford University Press, US, 2000.
* {{cite book |last= Marcos |first= F. Javier |title= La Sierra de Atapuerca y el Valle del Arlanzón. Patrones de asentamiento prehistóricos |year= 2006 |publisher= Editorial Dossoles. Burgos, Spain |isbn = 978-84-96606-28-9 |url=https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=264088}}
* {{cite book |last= Marcos |first= F. Javier |title= La Prehistoria Reciente del entorno de la Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, España) |year= 2016 |publisher= British Archaeological Reports (Oxford, U.K.), BAR International Series 2798 |isbn = 978-1-4073-1519-5 |url= https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/libro?codigo=663925}}
* [[Waldo Frank|Frank, Waldo D.]] ''[https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/74212 Virgin Spain: Scenes from the Spiritual Drama of a Great People]'' NYC: Boni & Liveright, 1926.
== External links ==
{{Sister project links|b=no|voy=Spain}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20260118090920/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/spain/ Spain]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080821113429/http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/spain.htm Spain] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-17941641 Spain] from the [[BBC News]]
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=ES Key Development Forecasts for Spain] from [[International Futures]]
;Government
* [https://administracion.gob.es/pag_Home/en/index.html#.XLTfN-gzaUk E-Government portal for Spain]
;Maps
* {{wikiatlas|Spain}}
* {{OSM relation|1311341}}
;Tourism
* [https://www.spain.info/en/ Official tourism portal for Spain]
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