{{pp|small=yes}}
{{Short description|Virtual online communities}}
{{use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
[[File:Social media platter.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|Various social media platforms]]
'''Social media''' are [[new media]] technologies that facilitate the [[Content creation|creation]], [[information exchange|sharing]] and [[news aggregator|aggregation]] of [[Content (media)|content]] (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongst [[virtual communities]] and [[Network virtualization|networks]].[{{cite journal |last1=Obar |first1=Jonathan A. |last2=Wildman |first2=Steve |title=Social media definition and the governance challenge: An introduction to the special issue |journal=Telecommunications Policy |date=2015 |volume=39 |issue=9 |pages=745–750 |doi=10.1016/j.telpol.2015.07.014 |ssrn=2647377 }}]
* Online platforms enable users to create and share content and participate in [[Social network|social networking]].[{{Cite book |last=Fuchs |first=Christian |title=Social media: a critical introduction |date=2017 |publisher=SAGE |isbn=978-1-4739-6683-3 |edition=2nd |location=Los Angeles London New Delhi Singapore Washington DC Melbourne}}]
* [[User-generated content]] such as text posts or comments, [[digital photo]]s or [[video]]s, and [[data]] generated through [[online]] interactions.[{{cite journal|last1=Boyd|first1=Danah M.|last2=Ellison|first2=Nicole B.|year=2007|title=Social Network Sites: Definition, History, and Scholarship|journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication|volume=13|issue=1|pages=210–30|doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.2007.00393.x|doi-access=free}}]
* Social media helps the development of online [[social network]]s by connecting a [[User profile|user's profile]] with those of other individuals or groups.[{{Cite book |last=Dijck |first=Jose van |url={{Google books|t5RpAgAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=The Culture of Connectivity: A Critical History of Social Media |date=2013-01-02 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-997079-7 |language=en}}] Users access social media through web-based or mobile applications. These interactive platforms allow individuals, communities, businesses, and organizations to share, co-create, discuss, participate in, and modify user-generated or self-curated content.[{{Cite journal |last1=Schivinski |first1=Bruno |last2=Brzozowska-Woś |first2=Magdalena |last3=Stansbury|first3=Ellena|last4=Satel|first4=Jason|last5=Montag|first5=Christian|last6=Pontes|first6=Halley M.|date=2020|title=Exploring the Role of Social Media Use Motives, Psychological Well-Being, Self-Esteem, and Affect in Problematic Social Media Use |journal=Frontiers in Psychology |volume=11 |page=3576 |article-number=617140 |doi=10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617140 |pmc=7772182|pmid=33391137|doi-access=free}}][{{cite journal |last1=Kietzmann |first1=Jan H. |first2=Kristopher |last2=Hermkens |title=Social media? Get serious! Understanding the functional building blocks of social media |journal=Business Horizons |year=2011 |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=241–251 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2011.01.005 |url=http://summit.sfu.ca/item/18103 |type=Submitted manuscript |archive-date=17 September 2019 |access-date=1 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917190204/http://summit.sfu.ca/item/18103 |url-status=live }}] Social media is used to share memories, form friendships, build communities and learn.[{{cite journal|last1=Agichtein|first1=Eugene|last2=Castillo|first2=Carlos|last3=Donato|first3=Debora|last4=Gionis|first4=Aristides|last5=Mishne|first5=Gilad|title=Finding high-quality content in social media|journal=WISDOM – Proceedings of the 2008 International Conference on Web Search and Data Mining|year=2008|pages=183–193|url=http://184pc128.csie.ntnu.edu.tw/presentation/09-03-09/Finding%20High-Quality%20Content%20in%20Social%20Media.pdf|access-date=8 January 2019|archive-date=23 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230523090540/http://184pc128.csie.ntnu.edu.tw/presentation/09-03-09/Finding%20High-Quality%20Content%20in%20Social%20Media.pdf}}] [[Reach (advertising)|reach]], [[frequency]], usability, relevancy, and permanence.[{{cite journal |last1=Tao |first1=Xiaohui |last2=Huang |first2=Wei |last3=Mu |first3=Xiangming |last4=Xie |first4=Haoran |title=Special issue on knowledge management of web social media |journal=Web Intelligence |date=18 November 2016 |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=273–274 |doi=10.3233/WEB-160343 }}] Social media outlets operate in a ''[[dialogic]]'' transmission system (many sources to many receivers) while traditional media operate under a {{Wikt-lang|en|monologic}} transmission model (one source to many receivers). For instance, a newspaper is delivered to many subscribers, and a radio station broadcasts the same programs to a city.[{{cite book |last1=Pavlik |first1=John |title=Converging Media 4th Edition |last2=MacIntoch |first2=Shawn |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-19-934230-3 |location=New York, NY |page=189}}]
Social media has been criticized for a range of negative impacts on children and teenagers, including exposure to inappropriate content, exploitation by adults, sleep problems, attention problems, feelings of exclusion, and various mental health maladies.[{{Cite web |title=How Social Media Affects Your Teen's Mental Health: A Parent's Guide |url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/social-media-teen-mental-health-a-parents-guide |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=Yale Medicine |language=en}}][{{Cite web |date=2023-08-10 |title=Social Media and Teen Mental Health |url=https://www.aecf.org/blog/social-medias-concerning-effect-on-teen-mental-health |access-date=2024-05-24 |website=The Annie E. Casey Foundation |language=en}}] Social media has also received criticism as worsening [[political polarization]] and undermining [[democracy]], exacerbated by [[media capture|platform capture]] by vested interests,[{{cite book | last=Usher|first=Nikki|chapter= From Media Capture to Platform Capture |editor-last=Schiffrin | editor-first=Anya | title=Media Capture: How Money, Digital Platforms, and Governments Control the News | publisher=Columbia University Press | date=2021-06-22 | isbn=978-0-231-54802-1 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qdzfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1955| access-date=2025-10-23 | page=155-}}][{{cite journal |last1=Zaid |first1=Bouziane |last2=Ibahrine |first2=Mohammed |last3=Ben Moussa |first3=Mohamed |last4=Makki |first4=Alaa |title=Shifting Power Dynamics: Media Capture and Platform Dominance in Journalism |journal=Digital Journalism |date=9 August 2025 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=1311–1330 |doi=10.1080/21670811.2025.2532509 }}] with journalist [[Maria Ressa]] deeming it "toxic sludge" for increasing distrust among members of society.[{{cite AV media|author=Asialink|title=The 2025 Southeast Asia Oration with Maria Ressa|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBpZYYZ75J0&t=4907s|website=[[YouTube]]|publisher=[[Google|Google LLC]]|access-date=2025-09-05|date=2025-09-03|time=1:21:47|archive-date=5 October 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251005040411/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hBpZYYZ75J0&t=4907s|url-status=live}}] Major news outlets often have strong controls in place to avoid and fix false claims, but social media's unique qualities bring viral content with little to no oversight. "Algorithms that track user engagement to prioritize what is shown tend to favor content that spurs negative emotions like anger and outrage. Overall, most online misinformation originates from a small minority of "superspreaders," but social media amplifies their reach and influence."[{{cite web|title=How and why does misinformation spread?|date=2024-03-01|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]|url=https://www.apa.org/topics/journalism-facts/how-why-misinformation-spreads|access-date=14 October 2024|archive-date=10 November 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110100748/https://www.apa.org/topics/journalism-facts/how-why-misinformation-spreads|url-status=live}}]
{{Toclimit}}
==History==
{{see also|Timeline of social media}}
=== Early computing ===
The [[PLATO (computer system)|PLATO system]] was launched in 1960 at the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|University of Illinois]] and subsequently commercially marketed by [[Control Data Corporation]]. It offered early forms of social media features with innovations such as Notes, PLATO's message-forum application; TERM-talk, its instant-messaging feature; [[Talkomatic]], perhaps the first [[online chat room]]; News Report, a [[crowdsourced]] online [[newspaper]], and blog and Access Lists, enabling the owner of a note file or other application to limit access to a certain set of users, for example, only friends, classmates, or co-workers.[{{Cite web |last=Communications |first=Grainger Engineering Office of Marketing and |title=PLATO |url=https://grainger.illinois.edu/news/magazine/plato |access-date=2025-12-13 |website=grainger.illinois.edu |language=en}}]
[[ARPANET]], which came online in 1969, had by the late 1970s enabled exchange of non-government/business ideas and communication, as evidenced by the [[ARPANET#Rules and etiquette|network etiquette]] (or "[[netiquette]]") described in a 1982 handbook on computing at [[MIT]]'s [[MIT Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory|Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]].[{{cite web |last=Stacy |first=Christopher C. |date=September 7, 1982 |title=Getting Started Computing at the AI Lab |issue=Working Paper 235 |publisher=MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory |url=https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/41180/ai_wp_235.pdf?sequence=4 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323132534/https://dspace.mit.edu/bitstream/handle/1721.1/41180/AI_WP_235.pdf?sequence=4 |archive-date=2019-03-23 }}] ARPANET evolved into the [[Internet]] in the 1990s.{{ref RFC|675}} [[Usenet]], conceived by [[Tom Truscott]] and [[Jim Ellis (computing)|Jim Ellis]] in 1979 at the [[University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill]] and [[Duke University]], was the first open social media app, established in 1980.
A precursor of the electronic [[bulletin board system]] (BBS), known as [[Community Memory]], appeared by 1973. Mainstream BBSs arrived with the Computer Bulletin Board System in Chicago, which launched on February 16, 1978. Before long, most major US cities had more than one BBS, running on [[TRS-80]], [[Apple II]], [[Atari 8-bit computers]], [[IBM PC]], [[Commodore 64]], [[Sinclair Research|Sinclair]], and others. [[CompuServe]], [[Prodigy (online service)|Prodigy]], and [[AOL]] were three of the largest BBS companies and were the first to migrate to the Internet in the 1990s. Between the mid-1980s and the mid-1990s, BBSes numbered in the tens of thousands in [[North America]] alone.[{{cite web| last= Edwards| first= Benj| title= The Lost Civilization of Dial-Up Bulletin Board Systems| url= https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/11/the-lost-civilization-of-dial-up-bulletin-board-systems/506465/| work= The Atlantic| date= November 4, 2016| access-date= 2018-02-05| archive-date= 6 December 2021| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20211206140131/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2016/11/the-lost-civilization-of-dial-up-bulletin-board-systems/506465/| url-status= live}}] Message forums were the signature BBS phenomenon throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.
[[File:Koala Country Doors Menu.jpg|thumb|A bulletin board system menu, featuring [[opinion poll]]s and a "Who's been on today?" query]]In 1991, [[Tim Berners-Lee]] integrated [[HTML]] [[hypertext]] software with the Internet, creating the [[World Wide Web]]. This breakthrough led to an explosion of [[blog]]s, [[Mailing list|list servers]], and [[email]] services. Message forums migrated to the web, and evolved into [[Internet forum]]s, supported by cheaper access as well as the ability to handle far more people simultaneously.
These early text-based systems expanded to include images and video in the 21st century, aided by [[digital cameras]] and [[camera phones]].[{{cite web |year=2017 |title=CMOS Sensors Enable Phone Cameras, HD Video |url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2017/cg_1.html |access-date=6 November 2019 |website=[[NASA Spinoff]] |publisher=[[NASA]] |archive-date=14 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214205655/https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2017/cg_1.html |url-status=live }}]
=== Social media platforms ===
[[File:SixDegrees.com logo.png|thumb|[[SixDegrees.com|SixDegrees]], launched in 1997, is often regarded as the first social media site.]]
The evolution of online services progressed from serving as channels for networked communication to becoming interactive platforms for networked social interaction with the advent of [[Web 2.0]].[{{cite web |last=Ngak |first=Chenda |date=2011-07-06 |title=Then and now: a history of social networking sites |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/then-and-now-a-history-of-social-networking-sites/2/ |access-date=2018-01-26 |work=CBS news |archive-date=23 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723003553/https://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/then-and-now-a-history-of-social-networking-sites/2/ |url-status=live }}] While instant messaging and chat clients existed at the time, SixDegrees was unique as it was the first online service designed for people to connect using their actual names instead of anonymously. It boasted features like profiles, friends lists, and school affiliations, making it "the very first social networking site".[{{cite book |last1=Kirkpatrick |first1=David |title=The Facebook effect: the real inside story of Mark Zuckerberg and the world's fastest-growing company |date=2011 |publisher=Virgin |location=London}}] The platform's name was inspired by the "[[six degrees of separation]]" concept, which suggests that every person on the planet is just six connections away from everyone else.[{{Cite web |date=2020-02-11|title=A Brief History of Social Media & timeline - 1973 to 2021 |url=https://dewzilla.com/a-brief-history-of-social-media/ |access-date=2022-06-01 |website=Dewzilla |language=en|archive-date=2020-10-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201023215054/https://dewzilla.com/a-brief-history-of-social-media/}}]
In the early 2000s, social media platforms gained widespread popularity with [[BlackPlanet]] (1999) preceding [[Friendster]] and [[Myspace]],[{{Cite news |last=Giorgis |first=Hannah |date=2024-04-12 |title=The Homepage of the Black Internet |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2024/05/blackplanet-social-media-history/677839/ |access-date=2025-03-22 |work=The Atlantic |archive-date=2 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260202114636/https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2024/05/blackplanet-social-media-history/677839/ |url-status=live }}][{{citation |title=BlackPlanet's founder talks MySpace, why he was sceptical of Twitter, and if Facebook may have peaked |date=2011-03-23 |work=Complex |url=http://www.complex.com/tech/2011/03/interview-blackplanet-founder-talks-myspace-twitter-facebook |access-date=2011-04-19 |archive-date=19 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120819073836/http://www.complex.com/tech/2011/03/interview-blackplanet-founder-talks-myspace-twitter-facebook |url-status=live }}] followed by [[Facebook]], [[YouTube]], and [[Twitter]].[{{Cite encyclopedia|title=Social media|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-media|access-date=2022-06-14|archive-date=2 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230802020534/https://www.britannica.com/topic/social-media|url-status=live}}]
Research from 2015 reported that globally, users spent 22% of their online time on social networks,[{{cite web |last1=Nielsen Company |date=June 15, 2010 |title=Social Networks Blogs Now Account for One in Every Four and a Half Minutes Online |url=http://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/news/2010/social-media-accounts-for-22-percent-of-time-online.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220506180045/https://www.nielsen.com/us/en/insights/article/2010/social-media-accounts-for-22-percent-of-time-online/ |archive-date=2022-05-06 |access-date=2015-04-30 |website=Nielsen}}] likely fueled by the availability of smartphones.[{{Cite web|last=Sterling|first=Greg|date=April 4, 2016|title=Nearly 80 percent of social media time now spent on mobile devices|url=http://marketingland.com/facebook-usage-accounts-1-5-minutes-spent-mobile-171561|publisher=Marketing Land|access-date=2022-08-29}}] {{As of|2023}}, as many as 4.76 billion people used social media[{{Cite web |title=Global Social Media Statistics |url=https://datareportal.com/social-media-users |access-date=2023-02-18 |website=DataReportal – Global Digital Insights |language=en-GB |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806235517/https://datareportal.com/social-media-users |url-status=live }}] some 59% of the global population.
==Definition==
A 2015 review identified four features unique to social media services:[{{Cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social+media|title=social media|publisher=Merriam-Webster|access-date=March 2, 2022|archive-date=10 November 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231110141731/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/social+media|url-status=live}}]
The American [[National Institute of Standards and Technology]] defines it as "Forms of electronic communications, including websites and applications, that enable users to create and share content or to participate in social networking."[{{cite web |title=NIST Small Business Cybersecurity Corner Glossary |url=https://www.nist.gov/itl/smallbusinesscyber/training/glossary#S |website=National Institute of Standards and Technology |date=8 February 2019 |access-date=January 23, 2026}}]
== Services ==
Social media encompasses an expanding suite of services:[{{cite journal |last1=Aichner |first1=Thomas |last2=Jacob |first2=Frank |title=Measuring the Degree of Corporate Social Media Use |journal=International Journal of Market Research |date=March 2015 |volume=57 |issue=2 |pages=257–276 |doi=10.2501/IJMR-2015-018 }}]
* [[Blog]]s (ex. [[HuffPost]], [[Boing Boing]])
* [[professional network service|Business networks]] (ex. [[LinkedIn]], [[XING]])
* [[open collaboration|Collaborative projects]] ([[Mozilla]], [[GitHub]])
* [[enterprise social networking|Enterprise social networks]] ([[Yammer]], [[VMware#Acquisitions|Socialcast]], [[Slack (software)|Slack]])
* [[Internet forum|Forums]] ([[Gaia Online]], [[IGN]])
* [[Microblogging|Microblogs]] ([[Twitter]], [[Tumblr]], [[Weibo]])
* [[Image sharing|Photo sharing]] ([[Pinterest]], [[Flickr]], [[Photobucket]])
* [[Review site|Products/services review]] ([[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Upwork]])
* [[Social bookmarking]] ([[Delicious (website)|Delicious]], [[Pinterest]])
* [[Social network game|Social gaming]] including [[MMORPG|MMORPGs]] ([[Fortnite]], [[World of Warcraft]])
* [[Social networking service|Social network]] ([[Facebook]], [[Instagram]], [[Baidu Tieba]], [[VK (service)|VK]], [[Qzone|QZone]], [[ShareChat]], [[WeChat]], [[Line (software)|LINE]])
* [[Online video platform|Video sharing]] ([[YouTube]], [[Dailymotion|DailyMotion]], [[Vimeo]])
* [[Virtual world]]s ([[Second Life]], [[Twinity]])
Some services offer more than one type of service.[{{cite journal |last=Kaplan |first=Andreas M. |date=March–April 2012 |title=If you love something, let it go mobile: Mobile marketing and mobile social media 4x4 |journal=Business Horizons |volume=55 |issue=2 |pages=129–139 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2011.10.009}}]
* Space-timers (location and time-sensitive): Exchange of messages with relevance for a specific location at a specific point in time (posting about a traffic jam)
* Space-locators (only location sensitive): Posts/messages with relevance for a specific location, read later by others (e.g. a restaurant review)
* Quick-timers (only time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media [[mobile apps]] to increase immediacy (e.g. posting status updates)
* Slow-timers (neither location nor time sensitive): Transfer of traditional social media applications to mobile devices (e.g. watching a video)
== Elements and function ==
=== Virality ===
{{Main|Viral phenomenon}}
Certain [[Content creation|content]], has the potential to spread ''virally'', an analogy for the way [[Viral disease|viral infections]] spread contagiously from individual to individual. [[Viral video|Viral videos]] are one example. One user spreads a post across their [[Social networking service|network]], which leads those users to follow suit. A post from a relatively unknown user can reach vast numbers of people within hours. Virality is not guaranteed; few posts make the transition.
[[Viral marketing]] campaigns are particularly attractive to [[business]]es because they can achieve widespread advertising coverage at a fraction of the cost of traditional marketing campaigns. [[Nonprofit organization]]s and [[Activism|activists]] may also attempt to spread content virally.
Social media sites provide specific functionality to help users re-share content, such as [[Twitter|X]]'s and [[Facebook]]'s "like" option.[{{Cite arXiv|eprint=1106.0346|class=cs.SI|first=Rumi|last=Ghosh|title=Entropy-based Classification of 'Retweeting' Activity on Twitter|date=June 2011}}]
==== Bots ====
{{Main|Internet bot}}
Bots are automated programs that operate on the [[internet]].[{{Cite web|title=bots|url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/bots?s=t|access-date=2017-05-11|website=Dictionary.com|archive-date=12 February 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260212021711/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/bots?s=t|url-status=live}}] They automate many communication tasks. This has led to the creation of an industry of bot providers.[{{Cite web |title=DemTech {{!}} Industrialized Disinformation: 2020 Global Inventory of Organized Social Media Manipulation |url=https://demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk/research/posts/industrialized-disinformation/ |access-date=2024-04-10 |website=demtech.oii.ox.ac.uk |language=en-GB}}]
[[Chatbot]]s and [[social bot]]s are programmed to mimic human interactions such as liking, commenting, and following.[{{cite book|last1=Martinez Rodrigo|first1=Salto|last2=Jacques-García|first2=Fausto Abraham|title=2012 Ninth International Conference on Information Technology - New Generations |chapter=Development and Implementation of a Chat Bot in a Social Network |year=2012|doi=10.1109/ITNG.2012.147 |pages=751–755 |isbn=978-1-4673-0798-7 }}] Bots have also been developed to facilitate [[social media marketing]].[{{Cite journal|last1=Castronovo|first1=Cristina|last2=Huang|first2=Lei|date=2012|title=Social Media in Alternative Marketing Communication Model|journal=Journal of Marketing Development & Competitivness|volume=6|pages=117–136}}] Bots have led the [[marketing industry]] into an analytical crisis, as bots make it difficult to differentiate between human interactions and bot interactions.[{{Cite journal|last=Baym|first=Nancy K.|date=October 7, 2013|title=Data Not Seen: The uses and shortcomings of social media metrics|journal=First Monday|volume=18|issue=10|doi=10.5210/fm.v18i10.4873 |doi-access=free }}] Some bots violate platforms' [[terms of use]], which can result in bans and campaigns to eliminate bots categorically.[{{Cite web|url=https://help.instagram.com/478745558852511|title=Terms of Use|website=help.instagram.com|language=en|access-date=2017-06-26|archive-date=24 February 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260224161242/https://help.instagram.com/478745558852511|url-status=live}}] Bots may even pose as real people to avoid prohibitions.[{{cite journal|last1=Chu|first1=Z.|last2=Gianvecchio|first2=S.|last3=Wang|first3=H.|last4=Jajodia|first4=S.|year=2012|title=Detecting automation of Twitter accounts: Are you a human, bot, or cyborg?|journal=IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing|volume=9|issue=6|pages=811–824|doi=10.1109/tdsc.2012.75|bibcode=2012ITDSC...9..811C }}]—are used for both legitimate and illegitimate purposes, from spreading [[fake news]] to creating [[marketing buzz]].[{{cite journal|last1=Stone-Gross|first1=B.|last2=Holz|first2=T.|last3=Stringhini|first3=G.|last4=Vigna|first4=G.|year=2011|title=The Underground Economy of Spam: A Botmaster's Perspective of Coordinating Large-Scale Spam Campaigns|url=http://static.usenix.org/events/leet11/tech/full_papers/Stone-Gross.pdf|journal=LEET|volume=11|page=4}}][{{Cite news|url=http://s.telegraph.co.uk/graphics/projects/the-future-is-android/index.html|last=House|first=Arthur|title=The real cyborgs - in-depth feature about people merging with machines|newspaper=Telegraph.co.uk|access-date=March 2, 2022|archive-date=21 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621061313/http://s.telegraph.co.uk/graphics/projects/the-future-is-android/index.html|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.politico.com/story/2016/09/donald-trump-twitter-army-228923|title=Inside Trump's 'cyborg' Twitter army|date=2016-09-30|work=Politico|last=Schreckinger|first=Ben|access-date=2022-08-29}}] A human writes a post content and the bot posts it a specific time. In other cases, cyborgs spread fake news.[{{Cite web |date=2023-05-29 |title=Q3 2024 update: social media related patent activity in the technology industry |url=https://www.verdict.co.uk/data-insights/patent-activity-socialmedia-technology-industry/ |access-date=2025-05-29 |website=Verdict |language=en-US}}] {{As of|2020}}, over 5000 social media patent applications had been published in the United States.[{{cite web |url=http://appft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-adv.html&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=spec%2F%22social+media%22&d=PG01 |title=USPTO search on published patent applications mentioning "social media" |publisher=Appft.uspto.gov |access-date=2012-04-24 |archive-date=2018-09-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180915174948/http://appft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-adv.html&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=spec%2F%22social+media%22&d=PG01 }}] Only slightly over 100 patents had been issued.[{{cite web |url=http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=spec%2F%22social+media%22&d=PTXT |title=USPTO search on issued patents mentioning "social media" |publisher=Patft.uspto.gov |access-date=2012-04-24 |archive-date=2021-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224013356/http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO2&Sect2=HITOFF&u=%2Fnetahtml%2FPTO%2Fsearch-adv.htm&r=0&p=1&f=S&l=50&Query=spec%2F%22social+media%22&d=PTXT }}]
=== Platform convergence ===
{{anchor|Scope expansion and feature merge}}
As an instance of [[technological convergence]], various social media platforms adapted functionality beyond their original scope, increasingly overlapping with each other.
Examples are the social hub site [[Facebook]] launching an integrated [[video platform]] in May 2007,[{{cite web |first=Pete |last=Cashmore |title=Facebook Video Launches: YouTube Beware! |url=http://mashable.com/2007/05/24/facebook-video-launches/ |website=[[Mashable]] |date=May 25, 2007 |access-date=June 15, 2017 |archive-date=12 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210612112134/https://mashable.com/2007/05/24/facebook-video-launches/ |url-status=live }}] and [[Instagram]], whose original scope was low-resolution photo sharing, introducing the ability to share quarter-minute 640×640 pixel videos[{{cite web |title=Introducing Video on Instagram|date=2013-06-20|url=https://about.instagram.com/blog/announcements/introducing-video-on-instagram |publisher=Instagram|language=en}}] (later extended to a minute with increased resolution). Instagram later implemented [[stories (social media)|stories]] (short videos self-destructing after 24 hours), a concept popularized by [[Snapchat]], as well as ''[[IGTV]]'', for seekable videos.[{{cite web |url=https://animoto.com/blog/video-marketing/instagram-video-length |title=Instagram Video Length Guide (An Easy Cheat Sheet)|last=Livesay|first=Kari|date=2022-04-13|publisher=Animoto|access-date=2022-08-29}}] Stories were then adopted by [[YouTube]].[{{cite web |last1=Alexander |first1=Julia |title=YouTube is rolling out its Instagram-like Stories feature to more creators |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/11/29/18117670/youtube-stories-creators-subscribers-instagram-philip-defranco |website=The Verge |language=en |date=29 November 2018 |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-date=5 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005224112/https://www.theverge.com/2018/11/29/18117670/youtube-stories-creators-subscribers-instagram-philip-defranco |url-status=live }}]
[[Twitter|X]], whose original scope was text-based microblogging, later adopted photo sharing,[{{cite web |last1=Parr |first1=Ben |title=Twitter Rolls Out Photo Sharing to All Users |url=https://mashable.com/2011/08/09/twitter-photo-sharing-all/ |website=Mashable |language=en |date=Aug 10, 2011}}] then video sharing,[{{cite web |title=Now on Twitter: group Direct Messages and mobile video camera |url=https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/a/2015/now-on-twitter-group-direct-messages-and-mobile-video-capture.html|last=Kamdar|first=Jinen|publisher=Twitter|date=2015-01-27|language=en-us}}][{{cite web |title=New ways to tap into video on Twitter |url=https://blog.twitter.com/en_us/a/2016/new-ways-to-tap-into-video-on-twitter.html|publisher=Twitter|date=2016-06-21|last=Rishel|first=Jeremy|language=en-us |access-date=2022-08-29}}] then a media studio for business users, after YouTube's Creator Studio.[{{cite web |title=Twitter Updates Media Studio, Expands Access to All Users |url=https://www.socialmediatoday.com/social-business/twitter-updates-media-studio-expands-access-all-users |last=Hutchinson|first=Andrew|date=2017-03-15|publisher=Social Media Today|access-date=2022-08-29}}]
The discussion platform [[Reddit]] added an integrated [[Image hosting service|image hoster]] replacing the external image sharing platform [[Imgur]],[{{cite web |title=r/announcements - Image Hosting on Reddit |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/announcements/comments/4p5dm9/image_hosting_on_reddit/ |publisher=reddit |date=2016-06-21|access-date=2022-08-29}}] and then an internal video hosting service,[{{cite web |title=r/changelog - [Reddit change] Introducing video uploading beta |url=https://www.reddit.com/r/changelog/comments/6jo5it/reddit_change_introducing_video_uploading_beta/ |publisher=reddit |date=2017-06-26|access-date=2022-08-29}}] followed by image galleries (multiple images in a single post), known from Imgur.[{{cite web |title=Introducing Reddit Image Galleries |url=https://redditblog.com/2020/07/15/introducing-reddit-image-galleries-now-redditors-can-share-multiple-images-and-gifs-in-one-post/ |website=Upvoted |date=2020-07-15|archive-date=2020-07-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200716191433/https://redditblog.com/2020/07/15/introducing-reddit-image-galleries-now-redditors-can-share-multiple-images-and-gifs-in-one-post/}}] Imgur implemented video sharing.[{{cite web |last1=Liao |first1=Shannon |title=Imgur adds 30-second video uploads so your GIFs can have soundtracks |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/29/17406840/imgur-video-upload-unmuted-gifs-sound-on |website=The Verge |language=en |date=29 May 2018 |access-date=5 January 2021 |archive-date=11 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201211173350/https://www.theverge.com/2018/5/29/17406840/imgur-video-upload-unmuted-gifs-sound-on |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |title=How to Upload Video |url=https://help.imgur.com/hc/en-us/articles/360003632072-How-to-Upload-Video |website=Imgur|archive-date=2019-06-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613074923/https://help.imgur.com/hc/en-us/articles/360003632072-How-to-Upload-Video}}]
[[YouTube]] rolled out a Community feature, for sharing text-only posts and [[Survey (human research)|poll]]s.[{{Cite tweet |user=TeamYouTube |number=1072581870389473281 |title=New on the Community tab: Post Playlists to engage with your audience! If you have Community posts enabled on your channel, learn more about Playlist posts here → }}]
==Usage statistics ==
{{main|List of social platforms with at least 100 million active users}}
According to [[Statista]], it is estimated that, in 2022, around 3.96 billion people were using social media globally. This number is up from 3.6 billion in 2020.[{{Cite web|title=Number of global social network users 2017-2025{{!}} Statista|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social-network-users/|access-date=2022-08-29|website=Statista|language=en|archive-date=2021-08-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818050635/https://www.statista.com/statistics/278414/number-of-worldwide-social-network-users/}}]
The following is a list of the most popular [[social networking service]]s based on the number of active users {{as of|January 2024|lc=y}} per [[Statista]].[{{cite web |title=Most popular social networks worldwide as of January 2022, ranked by number of monthly active users (in millions)|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users/ |website=[[Statista]]|archive-date=2022-01-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129042041/https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users/}}]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
Social networking services with the most users, January 2024[{{Cite web |title=Biggest social media platforms 2024 |url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users/ |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=Statista |language=en |archive-date=17 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917142233/https://www.statista.com/statistics/272014/global-social-networks-ranked-by-number-of-users/ |url-status=live }}]
!#
!Network
!Number of users (millions)
!Country of origin
|-
|1
|[[Facebook]]
|3,049
|[[United States]]
|-
|2
|[[YouTube]]
|2,491
|United States
|-
|3
|[[WhatsApp]]
|2,000
|United States
|-
|4
|[[Instagram]]
|2,000
|United States
|-
|5
|[[TikTok]]
|1,526
|[[China]]
|-
|6
|[[WeChat]]
|1,336
|China
|-
|7
|[[Facebook Messenger]]
|979
|United States
|-
|8
|[[Telegram (software)|Telegram]]
|800
|[[Russia]]
|-
|9
|[[Douyin]]
|752
|China
|-
|10
|[[Snapchat]]
|750
|United States
|-
|11
|[[Kuaishou]]
|685
|China
|-
|12
|[[Twitter]]
|619
|United States
|}
===Usage: before the pandemic===
A 2009 study suggested that individual differences may help explain who uses social media: [[Extraversion and introversion|extraversion]] and [[openness]] have a positive relationship with social media, while [[emotional stability]] has a negative sloping relationship with social media.[{{cite journal |last1=Correa |first1=Teresa |last2=Hinsley |first2=Amber Willard |last3=de Zúñiga |first3=Homero Gil |title=Who interacts on the Web?: The intersection of users' personality and social media use |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=March 2010 |volume=26 |issue=2 |pages=247–253 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2009.09.003 }}] A 2015 study reported that people with a higher [[Social comparison bias|social comparison]] orientation appear to use social media more heavily than people with low social comparison orientation.[{{cite journal|last1=Vogel|first1=Erin A.|last2=Rose|first2=Jason P.|last3=Okdie|first3=Bradley M.|last4=Eckles|first4=Katheryn|last5=Franz|first5=Brittany|year=2015|title=Who compares and despairs? The effect of social comparison orientation on social media use and its outcomes|journal=Personality and Individual Differences|volume=86|pages=249–56|doi=10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.026 }}]
[[Common Sense Media]] reported that children under age 13 in the United States use [[social networking service]]s although many social media sites require users to be 13 or older.[{{Cite news|last=Jargon|first=Julie|date=June 19, 2019|title=How 13 Became the Internet's Age of Adulthood|work=The Wall Street Journal|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-13-became-the-internets-age-of-adulthood-11560850201|archive-date=19 August 2023|access-date=17 March 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230819140959/https://www.wsj.com/articles/how-13-became-the-internets-age-of-adulthood-11560850201|url-status=live}}] In 2017, the firm conducted a survey of parents of children from birth to age 8 and reported that 4% of children at this age used social media sites such as [[Instagram]], [[Snapchat]], or (now-defunct) [[Musical.ly]] "often" or "sometimes".[{{Cite web|last=Rideout|first=Vicky|date=2017-10-19|title=The Common Sense census: Media use by kids age zero to eight, 2017|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-kids-age-zero-to-eight-2017|publisher=Common Sense Media|access-date=2022-08-29|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305222831/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-kids-age-zero-to-eight-2017|url-status=live}}] Their 2019 survey surveyed Americans ages 8–16 and reported that about 31% of children ages 8–12 use social media.[{{Cite web|last1=Rideout|first1=Vicky|last2=Robb|first2=Michael B.|date=2019|title=The Common Sense census: Media use by tweens and teens, 2019|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-tweens-and-teens-2019|website=Common Sense Media|access-date=17 March 2026|archive-date=20 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120114618/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-common-sense-census-media-use-by-tweens-and-teens-2019|url-status=live}}] In that survey, teens aged 16–18 were asked when they started using social media. the median age was 14, although 28% said they started to use it before reaching 13.
=== Usage: during the pandemic ===
==== Usage by minors ====
Social media played a role in communication during the [[COVID-19 pandemic]].[{{Cite journal |last1=Saud |first1=Muhammad |last2=Mashud |first2=Musta'in |last3=Ida |first3=Rachmah |date=2020-09-15 |title=Usage of social media during the pandemic: Seeking support and awareness about COVID-19 through social media platforms |journal=Journal of Public Affairs |language=en |pages=e02417 |doi=10.1002/pa.2417 |doi-access=free }}] In June 2020, a survey by [[Cartoon Network]] and the [[Cyberbullying]] Research Center surveyed Americans [[preadolescence|tweens]] (ages 9–12) and reported that the most popular application was [[YouTube]] (67%).[{{Cite web|last1=Patchin|first1=Justin W.|last2=Hinduja|first2=Sameer|date=2020|title=Tween cyberbullying in 2020|url=https://www.cartoonnetwork.com/stop-bullying/resources.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201020083610/https://www.cartoonnetwork.com/stop-bullying/resources.html|archive-date=2020-10-20|website=Cartoon Network}}] (as age increased, tweens were more likely to have used social media apps and games.) Similarly, Common Sense Media's 2020 survey of Americans ages 13–18 reported that YouTube was the most popular (used by 86% of 13- to 18-year-olds).[{{Cite web|last=Robb|first=Michael B.|date=2020|title=Teens and the news: The influencers, celebrities, and platforms they say matter most, 2020|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/teens-and-the-news-the-influencers-celebrities-and-platforms-they-say-matter-most-2020|website=Common Sense Media|access-date=2022-08-29|archive-date=5 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405081447/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/teens-and-the-news-the-influencers-celebrities-and-platforms-they-say-matter-most-2020|url-status=live}}] As children aged, they increasingly utilized social media services and often used YouTube to consume content.
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+Apps used by U.S. tweens (ages 9–12), 2019–2020"Social media have become popularly use to seek for medical information and have fascinated the general public to collect information regarding corona virus pandemics in various perspectives. During these days, people are forced to stay at home and the social media have connected and supported awareness and pandemic updates."[{{Cite journal|last1=Saud|first1=Muhammad|last2=Mashud|first2=Musta'in|last3=Ida|first3=Rachmah|date=2020|title=Usage of social media during the pandemic: Seeking support and awareness about COVID-19 through social media platforms|journal=Journal of Public Affairs|language=en|volume=20|issue=4|article-number=e2417|doi=10.1002/pa.2417 |doi-access=free}}]
[[Healthcare workers]] and systems became more aware of social media as a place people were getting health information:"During the COVID-19 pandemic, social media use has accelerated to the point of becoming a ubiquitous part of modern healthcare systems."[{{cite journal |last1=Wong |first1=Adrian |last2=Ho |first2=Serene |last3=Olusanya |first3=Olusegun |last4=Antonini |first4=Marta Velia |last5=Lyness |first5=David |title=The use of social media and online communications in times of pandemic COVID-19 |journal=Journal of the Intensive Care Society |date=August 2021 |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=255–260 |doi=10.1177/1751143720966280 |pmc=8373288 |pmid=34422109 }}]
This also led to the spread of [[disinformation]]. On December 11, 2020, the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] put out a "Call to Action: Managing the [[Infodemic]]".[{{Cite web|title=Call for Action: Managing the Infodemic|url=https://www.who.int/news/item/11-12-2020-call-for-action-managing-the-infodemic|access-date=2021-12-31|publisher=World Health Organization|language=en|date=2020-12-11|archive-date=16 July 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250716072203/https://www.who.int/news/item/11-12-2020-call-for-action-managing-the-infodemic|url-status=live}}] Some healthcare organizations used hashtags as interventions and published articles on their [[Twitter]] data:[{{cite journal |last1=Kudchadkar |first1=Sapna R. |last2=Carroll |first2=Christopher L. |title=Using Social Media for Rapid Information Dissemination in a Pandemic: #PedsICU and Coronavirus Disease 2019 |journal=Pediatric Critical Care Medicine |date=August 2020 |volume=21 |issue=8 |pages=e538–e546 |doi=10.1097/PCC.0000000000002474 |pmc=7255404 |pmid=32459792 }}] "Promotion of the joint usage of #PedsICU and #COVID19 throughout the international pediatric critical care community in tweets relevant to the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic and pediatric critical care."
However others in the medical community were concerned about social media addiction, as it became an increasingly important context and therefore "source of social validation and reinforcement" and were unsure whether increased social media use was harmful.[{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Shweta |last2=Dixit |first2=Ayushi |last3=Joshi |first3=Gunjan |title=Is compulsive social media use amid COVID-19 pandemic addictive behavior or coping mechanism? |journal=Asian Journal of Psychiatry |date=December 2020 |volume=54 |article-number=102290 |doi=10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102290 |pmc=7338858 |pmid=32659658 }}]
==Use by organizations==
=== Government ===
Governments may use social media to (for example):[{{cite book | last1 = Khan | first1 = Gohar F. | title = Social Media for Government: A Practical Guide to Understanding, Implementing, and Managing Social Media Tools in the Public Sphere | url = {{google books|plainurl=yes|id=rT0jDgAAQBAJ}} | series = SpringerBriefs in Political Science | location = Singapore | publisher = Springer | date = 2017 | isbn = 978-981-10-2942-4 | access-date=2019-04-28}}]
* inform their opinions to public
* interact with citizens
* foster citizen participation
* further [[open government]]
* [[surveillance|analyze/monitor]] public opinion and activities
* [[Social media use in health awareness|educate the public about risks and public health]].[{{cite book | last1 = Gesser-Edelsburg | first1 = Anat | last2 = Shir-Raz | first2 = Yaffa | title = Risk Communication and Infectious Diseases in an Age of Digital Media | url = https://www.routledge.com/Risk-Communication-and-Infectious-Diseases-in-an-Age-of-Digital-Media/Gesser-Edelsburg-Shir-Raz/p/book/9780367224059 | series = Routledge Studies in Public Health | date = 2017 | isbn = 978-0-367-22405-9 | access-date = 2020-11-22 | archive-date = 14 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201214150424/https://www.routledge.com/Risk-Communication-and-Infectious-Diseases-in-an-Age-of-Digital-Media/Gesser-Edelsburg-Shir-Raz/p/book/9780367224059 | url-status = live }}]
====Law enforcement ====
Social media has been used extensively [[Use of social network websites in investigations|in civil and criminal investigation]]s.[{{cite book|last1=Brunty|first1=Joshua|last2=Helenek|first2=Katherine|url={{Google books|6hygBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|title=Social Media Investigation for Law Enforcement|date=2014|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-317-52165-5}}] It has also been used to search for missing persons.[{{cite book|title=Handbook of Missing Persons|date=2016|publisher=Springer International|first1=Caroline Sturdy|last1=Colls|pages=97, 102, 164|editor-first1=Stephen J.|editor-last1=Morewitz}}] Police departments often make use of official social media accounts to engage with the public, publicize police activity, and burnish law enforcement's image;[{{cite web|last1=Perez|first1=Kaitlyn|date=June 30, 2017|title=Social Media Has Become a Critical Part of Law Enforcement|work=National Police Foundation |url=https://www.policefoundation.org/social-media-has-become-a-critical-part-of-law-enforcement/|archive-date=2019-04-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424140454/https://www.policefoundation.org/social-media-has-become-a-critical-part-of-law-enforcement/}}][{{cite encyclopedia|url={{Google books|E28KBAAAQBAJ|plainurl=yes}}|first=Christopher J.|last=Schneider|pages=229–30|encyclopedia=Social Media, Politics and the StateProtests, Revolutions, Riots, Crime and Policing in the Age of Facebook, Twitter and YouTube|date=2015|publisher=Routledge|title=Police "Image Work" in an Era of Social Media" YouTube and 2007 Montebello Summit Protests|series=Routledge Research in Information Technology and Society|isbn=978-1-317-65548-0}}] conversely, video footage of citizen-documented [[police brutality]] and other [[police misconduct|misconduct]] has sometimes been posted to social media.[{{Cite news|last=Funk|first=McKenzie|date=2019-10-02|title=How ICE Picks Its Targets in the Surveillance Age|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/02/magazine/ice-surveillance-deportation.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191002091002/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/02/magazine/ice-surveillance-deportation.html |archive-date=2019-10-02 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=2019-10-22 }}] [[U.S. Customs and Border Protection]] (also known as CBP) and the [[United States Department of Homeland Security]] use social media data as influencing factors during the [[Travel visa|visa]] process, and monitor individuals after they have entered the country.[{{Cite report|title=Social Media Monitoring|url=https://www.brennancenter.org/our-work/research-reports/social-media-monitoring|publisher=Brennan Center for Justice|pages=255–57|last1=Patel|first1=Faiza|last2=Levinson-Waldman|first2=Rachel|last3=Koreh|first3=Raya|last4=DenUyl|first4=Sophia|date=2020-03-11|access-date=2022-08-29}}] CBP officers have also been documented performing searches of electronics and social media behavior at the border, searching both citizens and non-citizens without first obtaining a warrant.[{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/29/sugar-coated-propaganda-egypt-taps-into-power-instagram-influencers|title=Sugar-coated propaganda? Middle East taps into power of influencers|access-date=29 January 2020|website=The Guardian|last1=Michaelson|first1=Ruth|last2=Safi|first2=Michael|date=2021-01-29|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225119/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/29/sugar-coated-propaganda-egypt-taps-into-power-instagram-influencers|url-status=live}}] Similarly, [[Dubai]] has extensively relied on social media and influencers to promote tourism. However, Dubai laws have kept these influencers within limits to not offend the authorities, or to criticize the city, politics or religion. The content of these foreign influencers is controlled to make sure that nothing portrays Dubai in a negative light.[{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/17/in-this-world-social-media-is-everything-how-dubai-became-the-planets-influencer-capital|title='In this world, social media is everything': how Dubai became the planet's influencer capital|access-date=17 April 2021|website=The Guardian|last=Michaelson|first=Ruth|date=17 April 2021|archive-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200102225119/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/apr/17/in-this-world-social-media-is-everything-how-dubai-became-the-planets-influencer-capital|url-status=live}}]
===Business===
{{Main|Social media use by businesses}}
Many businesses use social media for [[marketing]], [[brand]]ing,[{{Cite web |last=Spillane |first=James |date=3 January 2013 |title=5 Indirect Ways Building Social Authority Improves Your Brand |work=Business2Community |url=https://www.business2community.com/branding/5-indirect-ways-building-social-authority-improves-your-brand-0368379 |access-date=2019-05-03 |publisher=Business 2 Community |archive-date=3 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190503190938/https://www.business2community.com/branding/5-indirect-ways-building-social-authority-improves-your-brand-0368379 }}] [[advertising]], communication, [[sales promotion]]s, informal [[Organizational learning|employee-learning/organizational development]], competitive analysis, recruiting, relationship management/[[loyalty program]]s,[{{cite book |last1=Lugmayr |first1=Artur |title=Handbook of Social Media Management |chapter=Predicting the Future of Investor Sentiment with Social Media in Stock Exchange Investments: A Basic Framework for the DAX Performance Index |date=2013 |pages=565–589 |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-28897-5_33 |isbn=978-3-642-28896-8 }}] To exploit these opportunities, businesses need guidelines for use on each platform.[{{cite journal |last1=Kaplan |first1=Andreas M. |last2=Haenlein |first2=Michael |title=Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of Social Media |journal=Business Horizons |date=January 2010 |volume=53 |issue=1 |pages=59–68 |doi=10.1016/j.bushor.2009.09.003 |quote-pages=64–65 |quote=Social Media is a very active and fast-moving domain. What may be up-to-date today could have disappeared from the virtual landscape tomorrow. It is therefore crucial for firms to have a set of guidelines that can be applied to any form of Social Media [...]. }}]
Business use of social media is complicated by the fact that the business does not fully control its social media presence. Instead, it makes its case by participating in the "conversation".[{{cite web|title=Research Survey|url=http://mprcenter.org/blog/2010/08/04/research-survey-launched-social-media-and-influence-of-photos-on-body-image/|last=Rutledge|first=Pamela|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504164122/http://mprcenter.org/blog/2010/08/04/research-survey-launched-social-media-and-influence-of-photos-on-body-image/|archive-date=2012-05-04|access-date=2012-04-24|publisher=The Media Psychology Blog|quote=One of the tenets of social media is that you can't control your message, you can only participate in the conversation.}}] Business uses social media[{{cite journal |last1=Meske |first1=Christian |last2=Stieglitz |first2=Stefan |title=Reflektion der wissenschaftlichen Nutzenbetrachtung von Social Software / Reflecting the Scientific Discussion of Benefits Induced by Social Software |journal=I-com |date=15 January 2014 |volume=13 |issue=3 |doi=10.1515/icom.2014.0015 }}] on a customer-organizational level; and an intra-organizational level.
Social media can encourage entrepreneurship and innovation, by highlighting successes, and by easing access to resources that might not otherwise be readily available/known.[{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Wei |last2=Liang |first2=Qiaozhuan |last3=Mahto |first3=Raj V. |last4=Deng |first4=Wei |last5=Zhang |first5=Stephen X. |title=Entrepreneurial entry: The role of social media |journal=Technological Forecasting and Social Change |date=December 2020 |volume=161 |article-number=120337 |doi=10.1016/j.techfore.2020.120337 |pmid=33012851 |pmc=7522013 }}]
====Marketing====
{{main|Social media marketing}}
Social media marketing can help promote a product or service and establish connections with customers. Social media marketing can be divided into paid media, earned media, and owned media.[{{cite journal |last1=Stephen |first1=Andrew T. |last2=Galak |first2=Jeff |title=The Effects of Traditional and Social Earned Media on Sales: A Study of a Microlending Marketplace |journal=Journal of Marketing Research |date=October 2012 |volume=49 |issue=5 |pages=624–639 |doi=10.1509/jmr.09.0401 }}] Using paid social media firms run advertising on a social media platform. Earned social media appears when firms do something that impresses [[Stakeholder (corporate)|stakeholders]] and they spontaneously post content about it. Owned social media is the platform markets itself by creating/promoting content to its users.[{{Cite web |last=Brenner |first=Michael |date=2022-04-07 |title=What Are Paid, Owned, and Earned Media, and Which One Drives More ROI? |url=https://marketinginsidergroup.com/content-marketing/what-are-paid-owned-and-earned-media-and-which-one-drives-more-roi/ |access-date=2022-09-22 |website=Marketing Insider Group |language=en-US}}]
Primary uses are to create [[brand awareness]], engage customers by conversation (e.g., customers provide feedback on the firm) and providing access to [[customer service]].[{{cite book|last1=Chaffey|first1=Dave|title=Digital Marketing|last2=Ellis-Chadwick|first2=Fiona|date=2012|publisher=Pearson|isbn=978-0-273-74610-2|edition=5th|pages=30–31}}] Social media's peer-to-peer communication shifts power from the organization to consumers, since consumer content is widely visible and not controlled by the company.[{{cite journal |last1=Sorescu |first1=Alina |last2=Frambach |first2=Ruud T. |last3=Singh |first3=Jagdip |last4=Rangaswamy |first4=Arvind |last5=Bridges |first5=Cheryl |title=Innovations in Retail Business Models |journal=Journal of Retailing |date=July 2011 |volume=87 |pages=S3–S16 |doi=10.1016/j.jretai.2011.04.005 |ssrn=1997189 }}]
[[Internet celebrity|Social media personalities]], often referred to as "[[influencers]]", are Internet celebrities who are [[Sponsored post|sponsored]] by marketers to promote products and companies online. Research reports that these endorsements attract the attention of users who have not settled on which products/services to buy,[{{cite web|last1=Newman|first1=Daniel|title=Love It Or Hate It: Influencer Marketing Works|date=2015-06-23|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/danielnewman/2015/06/23/love-it-or-hate-it-influencer-marketing-works/#5718a249150b|access-date=2017-11-11|work=Forbes}}] especially [[Digital native|younger consumers]].[{{cite journal|last1=Dunkley|first1=Lydia|title=Reaching Generation Z: Harnessing the Power of Digital Influencers in Film Publicity|url=https://promotionalcommunications.org/index.php/pc/article/view/85|access-date=2017-11-11|journal=Journal of Promotional Communications|date=7 February 2017 |volume=5 |issue=1 }}] The practice of harnessing influencers to market or promote a product or service to their following is commonly referred to as [[influencer marketing]].
In 2013, the United Kingdom [[Advertising Standards Authority (United Kingdom)|Advertising Standards Authority]] (ASA) began advising celebrities to make it clear whether they had been paid to recommend a product or service by using the hashtag #spon or #[[Advertising|ad]] when endorsing. The US [[Federal Trade Commission]] issued similar guidelines.[{{Cite web|date=2019-11-05|title=FTC Releases Advertising Disclosures Guidance for Online Influencers|work=Federal Trade Commission |url=https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2019/11/ftc-releases-advertising-disclosures-guidance-online-influencers|access-date=2021-05-14|language=en}}]
Social media platforms also enable [[Targeted advertising|targeting specific audiences with advertising]]. Users of social media can share, and comment on the advertisement, turning passive consumers into active promoters and even producers.[{{cite journal |last1=Chu |first1=Shu-Chuan |title=Viral Advertising in Social Media: Participation in Facebook Groups and Responses among College-Aged Users |journal=Journal of Interactive Advertising |date=September 2011 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=30–43 |doi=10.1080/15252019.2011.10722189 }}] Targeting requires extra effort by advertisers to understand how to reach the right users.[{{cite web |last1=Hardy |first1=Kevin |date=June 18, 2018 |title=Wendy's Roasts its Way to Social Media Stardom |url=https://www.qsrmagazine.com/exclusives/wendys-roasts-its-way-social-media-stardom |access-date=2018-06-18 |website=qsrmagazine.com}}] Advertising can even inspire [[Fan art|fanart]] which can engage new audiences.[{{cite news |last=Wallace |first=Brian |title=The Rise of Fandom-Driven Marketing in the Digital Age |url=https://www.webpronews.com/fandom-driven-marketing/ |access-date=January 14, 2026 |work=WebProNews |date=August 12, 2025 |language=en |archive-date=11 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260211032305/https://www.webpronews.com/fandom-driven-marketing/ |url-status=live }}] [[Hashtags]] (such as #ejuice and #eliquid) are one way to target interested users.[{{cite journal |last1=Linnea |first1=Laestadius |last2=Wahl |first2=Megan |last3=Pokhrel |first3=Pallav |last4=Cho |first4=Young |year=2019 |title=From Apple to Werewolf: A content analysis of marketing for e-liquids on Instagram |journal=Addictive Behaviors |volume=91 |pages=119–127 |doi=10.1016/j.addbeh.2018.09.008 |pmc=6358470 |pmid=30253933}}]
User content can trigger [[Social multiplier effect|peer effects]], increasing consumer interest even without influencer involvement. A 2012 study focused on this communication reported that communication among peers can affect purchase intentions: direct impact through encouraging [[conformity]], and an indirect impact by increasing product engagement. This study claimed that peer communication about a product increased product engagement.[{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Xia |last2=Yu |first2=Chunling |last3=Wei |first3=Yujie |title=Social Media Peer Communication and Impacts on Purchase Intentions: A Consumer Socialization Framework |journal=Journal of Interactive Marketing |date=November 2012 |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=198–208 |doi=10.1016/j.intmar.2011.11.004 }}]
===Politics{{anchor| Political_effects| Social_media_in_politics|Use in politics}}===
{{Main|Social media use in politics}}
{{See also|Social impact of YouTube|Use of social media in the Wisconsin protests|Social media and political communication in the United States}}
Social media have a range of uses in [[politics]].[
{{cite book | last1 = Rainie | first1 = Lee | last2 = Wellman | first2 = Barry | author-link2 = Barry Wellman | chapter = The Internet Revolution | title = Networked: The New Social Operating System | date = 27 April 2012 | url = {{Google books|bYJGna0AhdAC|plainurl=yes}} | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | publisher = MIT Press | publication-date = 2012 | page = 71 | isbn = 978-0-262-30040-7 | access-date = 10 January 2021 | quote = [...] Witt soon became an active content creator with no intermediary needed. He started blogging in 2003 [...].}}
] Politicians use social media to spread their messages and [[Social media use in politics#Impact on elections|influence voters]].[{{cite journal |last1=Leyva |first1=Rodolfo |title=Exploring UK Millennials' Social Media Consumption Patterns and Participation in Elections, Activism, and 'Slacktivism' |journal=Social Science Computer Review |date=August 2017 |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=462–479 |doi=10.1177/0894439316655738 }}]
Dounoucos et al. reported that [[Twitter]] use by candidates was unprecedented during the [[2016 United States elections|US 2016 election]].[{{cite journal |last1=Dounoucos |first1=Victoria A. |last2=Hillygus |first2=D. Sunshine |last3=Carlson |first3=Caroline |date=2019 |title=The Message and the Medium: An Experimental Evaluation of the Effects of Twitter Commentary on Campaign Messages |journal=Journal of Information Technology and Politics |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=66–76 |doi=10.1080/19331681.2019.1572566 }}][{{cite book |last=Richardson |first=Glenn W. Jr. |title=Social Media and Politics: A New Way to Participate in the Political Process |date=2016-11-21 |publisher=Praeger |volume=1}}] The public increased its reliance on social-media sites for political information.[{{cite book |last1=Barisione |first1=Mauro |last2=Michailidou |first2=Asimina |title=Social Media and European Politics |chapter=Do We Need to Rethink EU Politics in the Social Media Era? An Introduction to the Volume |date=2017 |pages=1–23 |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-59890-5_1 |isbn=978-1-137-59889-9 }}] Foreign-originated social-media campaigns attempt to influence political opinion in another country.[{{Cite tweet |user=sidowen5 |number=1316367319426306049 |title=Twitter trend in #SaudiArabia saw thousands of tweets on #HillaryEmails from supporters of Crown Prince MBS. Strange that Riyadh's social marketing firm, SMAAT is involved in another such campaign. Didn't see this coming from any country other than Russia. }}][{{cite web |last=Paul |first=Katie |date=2019-12-20 |title=Twitter suspends accounts linked to Saudi spying case |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-twitter-saudi-idUSKBN1YO1JT |access-date=20 October 2019 |website=Reuters}}
]
==== Activism ====
{{See also|Social media and the Arab Spring}}
Social media was influential in the [[Arab Spring]] in 2011.[{{cite news |url= https://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/01/tunisia/ |magazine= Wired |first1= Nate |last1= Anderson |first2= Ars |last2= Technica |title= Tweeting Tyrants Out of Tunisia: Global Internet at Its Best |date= January 14, 2011 |archive-date= 17 February 2014 |access-date= 11 March 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140217184810/http://www.wired.com/threatlevel/2011/01/tunisia/ |url-status= live }}][{{cite news |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2011/02/10/world/middleeast/10youth.html?_r=1 |work= The New York Times |first= David D. |last= Kirkpatrick |title= Wired and Shrewd, Young Egyptians Guide Revolt |date= February 9, 2011}}][{{cite web|url= http://www.miller-mccune.com/politics/the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575/|last=Howard|first=Philip N.|title= The Arab Uprising's Cascading Effects |publisher= Miller-mccune.com |date= February 23, 2011 |access-date= 2012-04-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110227051329/http://www.miller-mccune.com/politics/the-cascading-effects-of-the-arab-spring-28575/ |archive-date= 2011-02-27 }}]{{sfn|Rainie|Wellman|2012|p=207|ps=:Social media - Facebook, Twitter, and email - plus mobile phones played a major part in the 'Arab Spring' of protests and rebellions against authoritarian regimes in the Middle East and North Africa throughout 2011. The activity of networked individuals in Tunisia, Egypt, and other states was a prime example of how online content creation and community building, in tandem with offline gatherings and backstage maneuvering, can aid mass mobilizations.}} However, debate persists about the extent to which social media facilitated this.[{{Cite journal|last=Gladwell|first=Malcolm|date=March 1, 2011|title=Malcolm Gladwell and Clay Shirky on Social Media and Revolution, Foreign Affairs March/April 2011|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67325/malcolm-gladwell-and-clay-shirky/from-innovation-to-revolution|journal=Foreign Affairs|volume=90 |issue=March/April 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201165430/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67325/malcolm-gladwell-and-clay-shirky/from-innovation-to-revolution|archive-date=2011-02-01|access-date=2012-04-24}}] Activists have used social media to report the abuse of [[human rights in Bahrain]]. They publicized the brutality of government authorities, who they claimed were [[Detention (imprisonment)|detaining]], [[tortured|torturing]] and threatening individuals. Conversely, Bahrain's government used social media to track and target activists. The government stripped citizenship from over 1,000 activists as punishment.[{{cite web|url=http://nycfpa.org/main/bahrains-social-media-problem-the-governments-online-to-real-life-attack-on-human-rights/|title=Bahrain's Social Media Problem: The Government's Online to Real Life Attack on Human Rights|last=Minoff|first=Aaron|access-date=13 May 2021|website=New York Center For Foreign Policy Affairs|date=13 May 2021}}]
[[Militant]] groups use social media as an organizing and recruiting tool.[{{cite journal |last1= Shirky |first1= Clay |title= Technology, the Public Sphere, and Political Change |journal= Foreign Affairs |volume= 90 |issue= 1 |url= https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2010-12-20/political-power-social-media |access-date= 2018-08-04 |date= 2011 |archive-date= 26 April 2015 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150426063633/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/67038/clay-shirky/the-political-power-of-social-media |url-status= live }}] [[Islamic State]] (also known as ISIS) used social media. In 2014, #AllEyesonISIS went viral on Arabic [[Twitter|X]].[{{Cite book |last1=Singer |first1=P.W. |title=Like War: The Weaponization of Social Media |last2=Brooking |first2=Emerson T. |publisher=Mariner Books |isbn=9780358108474 |location=NY|date=October 8, 2019}}{{pn|date=January 2026}}][{{cite web|last=Ajbaili|first=Mustapha|title=How ISIS conquered social media|date=June 24, 2014|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/media/digital/2014/06/24/How-has-ISIS-conquered-social-media-.html|publisher=Al Arabiya News|access-date=2022-08-29|archive-date=5 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201205115742/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/media/digital/2014/06/24/How-has-ISIS-conquered-social-media-.html|url-status=live}}]
==== Propaganda ====
{{Excerpt|State-sponsored Internet propaganda}}
===Recruiting===
{{Excerpt|Social media use in hiring}}
===Science===
Scientists use social media to share their scientific knowledge and research on platforms such as [[ResearchGate]], [[LinkedIn]], [[Facebook]], [[Twitter|X]], and [[Academia.edu]].[{{cite journal |title=Social media for scientists |journal=Nature Cell Biology |date=December 2018 |volume=20 |issue=12 |page=1329 |doi=10.1038/s41556-018-0253-6 |pmid=30482942 |doi-access=free }}] The most common platforms are X and blogs. The use of social media reportedly has improved the interaction between scientists, reporters, and the general public.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} Over 495,000 opinions were shared on X related to science between September 1, 2010, and August 31, 2011.[{{cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Xuan |last2=Su |first2=Leona Yi-Fan |last3=Yeo |first3=Sara K. |last4=Scheufele |first4=Dietram A. |last5=Brossard |first5=Dominique |last6=Xenos |first6=Michael |last7=Nealey |first7=Paul |last8=Corley |first8=Elizabeth A. |title=Building Buzz: (Scientists) Communicating Science in New Media Environments |journal=Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly |date=December 2014 |volume=91 |issue=4 |pages=772–791 |doi=10.1177/1077699014550092 }}] Science related blogs respond to and motivate public interest in learning, following, and discussing science. Posts can be written quickly and allow the reader to interact in real time with authors.[{{cite book |author1=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine |author2=Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education |author3=Committee on the Science of Science Communication: A Research Agenda |title=Communicating Science Effectively: A Research Agenda |date=2017 |publisher=National Academies Press |chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK425709/ |chapter=Communicating Science in a Complex, Competitive Communication Environment |isbn=978-0-309-45102-4 |pmid=28406600 |doi=10.17226/23674 }}] One study in the context of climate change reported that climate scientists and scientific institutions played a minimal role in [[Online deliberation|online debate]], exceeded by [[nongovernmental organizations]].[{{cite journal |last1=Schäfer |first1=Mike S. |title=Online communication on climate change and climate politics: a literature review |journal=WIREs Climate Change |date=November 2012 |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=527–543 |doi=10.1002/wcc.191 |bibcode=2012WIRCC...3..527S }}]
===Academia===
Academicians use social media activity to assess [[academic publishing|academic publications]],[{{cite journal |last1=Haustein |first1=Stefanie |title=Grand challenges in altmetrics: heterogeneity, data quality and dependencies |journal=Scientometrics |date=July 2016 |volume=108 |issue=1 |pages=413–423 |doi=10.1007/s11192-016-1910-9 |arxiv=1603.04939 |bibcode=2016arXiv160304939H }}] to measure public sentiment,[{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-Ibánez |first1=Margarita |last2=Casánez-Ventura |first2=Antonio |last3=Castejón-Mateos |first3=Félix |last4=Cuenca-Jiménez |first4=Pedro-Manuel |date=August 2023 |title=A review on sentiment analysis from social media platforms |journal=[[Expert Systems with Applications]] |language=en |volume=223 |article-number=119862 |doi=10.1016/j.eswa.2023.119862 |doi-access=free|hdl=10115/24751 |hdl-access=free }}] identify influencer accounts,[{{cite journal |last1=Howard |first1=Conner |last2=McIntire |first2=Ryan |last3=Anderson |first3=J. Michael |last4=Stewart |first4=Carter |last5=McIntosh |first5=Haddon |last6=Cornwell |first6=James |last7=Barron |first7=Kim |title=The top sports medicine influencers on X (formerly Twitter) |journal=Journal of Sports Sciences |date=18 September 2023 |volume=42 |issue=24 |pages=2261–2266 |doi=10.1080/02640414.2023.2259723 |pmid=37722817 }}] or crowdsource ideas or solutions.[{{cite journal |last1=Mondal |first1=Himel |last2=Parvanov |first2=Emil D. |last3=Singla |first3=Rajeev K. |last4=Rayan |first4=Rehab A. |last5=Nawaz |first5=Faisal A. |last6=Ritschl |first6=Valentin |last7=Eibensteiner |first7=Fabian |last8=Siva Sai |first8=Chandragiri |last9=Cenanovic |first9=Merisa |last10=Devkota |first10=Hari Prasad |last11=Hribersek |first11=Mojca |last12=De |first12=Ronita |last13=Klager |first13=Elisabeth |last14=Kletecka-Pulker |first14=Maria |last15=Völkl-Kernstock |first15=Sabine |last16=Khalid |first16=Garba M. |last17=Lordan |first17=Ronan |last18=Găman |first18=Mihnea-Alexandru |last19=Shen |first19=Bairong |last20=Stamm |first20=Tanja |last21=Willschke |first21=Harald |last22=Atanasov |first22=Atanas G. |title=Twitter-based crowdsourcing: What kind of measures can help to end the COVID-19 pandemic faster? |journal=Frontiers in Medicine |date=16 September 2022 |volume=9 |article-number=961360 |doi=10.3389/fmed.2022.961360 |pmid=36186802 |pmc=9523003 |doi-access=free }}] Social media such as Facebook, X are also combined to predict elections via sentiment analysis.[{{cite journal |last1=Chauhan |first1=Priyavrat |last2=Sharma |first2=Nonita |last3=Sikka |first3=Geeta |title=The emergence of social media data and sentiment analysis in election prediction |journal=Journal of Ambient Intelligence and Humanized Computing |date=February 2021 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=2601–2627 |doi=10.1007/s12652-020-02423-y }}] Additional social media (e.g. YouTube, [[Google Trends]]) can be combined to reach a wider segment of the voting population, minimise media-specific bias, and inexpensively estimate electoral predictions which are on average half of a percentage point off the real vote share.[{{cite journal |last1=Franch |first1=Fabio |title=(Wisdom of the Crowds)2: 2010 UK Election Prediction with Social Media |journal=Journal of Information Technology & Politics |date=January 2013 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=57–71 |doi=10.1080/19331681.2012.705080 |hdl=1959.4/unsworks_81527 |hdl-access=free }}]
===School admissions===
In some places, students have been forced to surrender their social media passwords to school administrators.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.aclu-mn.org/news/2012/03/06/aclu-mn-files-lawsuit-against-minnewaska-area-schools |title=ACLU-MN Files Lawsuit Against Minnewaska Area Schools |publisher=ACLU Minnesota |access-date=2022-08-29 |date=2012-03-06 |archive-date=3 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161203061030/https://www.aclu-mn.org/news/2012/03/06/aclu-mn-files-lawsuit-against-minnewaska-area-schools |url-status=live }}] Few laws protect student's social media privacy. Organizations such as the [[ACLU]] call for more privacy protection. They urge students who are pressured to give up their account information to resist.[{{Cite news |url=https://www.aclu.org/other/employers-schools-and-social-networking-privacy |title=Employers, Schools, and Social Networking Privacy |publisher=American Civil Liberties Union |access-date=2016-11-30 |archive-date=5 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230605194321/https://www.aclu.org/other/employers-schools-and-social-networking-privacy |url-status=live }}]
Colleges and universities may access applicants' internet services including social media profiles as part of their admissions process. According to [[Kaplan, Inc]], a corporation that provides higher education preparation, in 2012 27% of admissions officers used [[Google]] to learn more about an applicant, with 26% checking [[Facebook]].[{{cite web|url=http://press.kaptest.com/press-releases/kaplan-test-prep-survey-more-college-admissions-officers-checking-applicants-digital-trails-but-most-students-unconcerned/|title=Kaplan Test Prep Survey: More College Admissions Officers Checking Applicants' Digital Trails, But Most Students Unconcerned|work=Kaplan Test Prep Online Pressroom|publisher=Kaplan Test|date=October 31, 2013|access-date=2022-08-29|archive-date=7 September 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907204829/http://press.kaptest.com/press-releases/kaplan-test-prep-survey-more-college-admissions-officers-checking-applicants-digital-trails-but-most-students-unconcerned|url-status=dead}}] Students whose social media pages include questionable material may be disqualified from admission processes."One survey in July 2017, by the American Association of College Registrars and Admissions Officers, reported that 11 percent of respondents said they had refused to admit an applicant based on social media content. This includes 8 percent of public institutions, where the First Amendment applies. The survey reported that 30 percent of institutions acknowledged reviewing the personal social media accounts of applicants at least some of the time."[{{Cite web|title=The First Amendment, Social Media and College Admissions|url=https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/views/2021/12/13/admissions-officials-need-pay-attention-first-amendment-opinion|last=LoMonte|first=Frank|date=2021-12-13|publisher=Inside Higher Ed|language=en-US|access-date=30 August 2022|archive-date=30 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830043050/https://www.insidehighered.com/admissions/views/2021/12/13/admissions-officials-need-pay-attention-first-amendment-opinion|url-status=live}}]
===Court cases===
Social media comments and images have been used in court cases including employment law, child custody/child support, and disability claims. After an [[Apple Inc.|Apple]] employee criticized his employer on [[Facebook]], he was fired. When the former employee sued Apple for unfair dismissal, the court, after examining the employee's Facebook posts, reported in favor of Apple, stating that the posts breached Apple's policies.[{{cite web |url=https://www.blogherald.com/2017/08/24/5-court-cases-social-media-played-part/ |title=5 Court Cases Where Social Media Played a Part |date=August 24, 2017 |website=Blog Herald |access-date=2018-10-27 |archive-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028033736/https://www.blogherald.com/2017/08/24/5-court-cases-social-media-played-part/ }}] After a couple broke up, the man posted song lyrics "that talked about fantasies of killing the rapper's ex-wife" and made threats. A court reported him guilty.[{{cite web |url=https://www.canadianlawyermag.com/author/elizabeth-raymer/the-social-media-evidence-is-clear-16126/ |title=The (social media) evidence is clear |last=Raymer |first=Elizabeth |date=September 24, 2018 |website=www.canadianlawyermag.com |publisher=Canadian Lawyer |access-date=2018-10-27 |archive-date=28 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028033658/https://www.canadianlawyermag.com/author/elizabeth-raymer/the-social-media-evidence-is-clear-16126/ |url-status=live }}] Judges may consider [[emoji]]s into account to assess statements made on social media; in one Michigan case where a person alleged that another person had defamed them in an online comment, the judge disagreed, noting that an emoji after the comment that indicated that it was a joke.[{{Cite web |date=2024-04-09 |title=Two tribal nations sue social media companies over Native youth suicides |url=https://apnews.com/article/social-media-native-youth-suicide-lawsuit-9e73288a29c748e7888129fc80404f6f |access-date=2024-11-01 |website=AP News |language=en}}] These social media lawsuits are one of several legal actions brought against social media giants. Independently, 33 state attorneys general, including South Dakota's, sued the same defendants for targeting teens with allegedly poor content, they allege. The defendants have said they are launching new safety tools and features to protect younger users.[{{Cite web |last=Hult |first=John |date=2024-10-03 |title=Standing Rock Tribe is latest to sue social media companies for alleged mental health effects • North Dakota Monitor |url=https://northdakotamonitor.com/2024/10/03/standing-rock-tribe-is-latest-to-sue-social-media-companies-for-alleged-mental-health-effects/ |access-date=2025-06-22 |website=North Dakota Monitor |language=en-US}}]{{Additional citations needed|date=November 2024}} {{As of|2025}}, eight US states (Arkansas, California, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, Ohio, and Tennessee) have enacted legislation that either bans minors from obtaining social media accounts outright or requires minors of certain ages to obtain parental consent in order to open accounts.[{{Cite web |last=MultiState |title=Eight States Enact Minor Social Media Bans Despite Court Fights |url=https://www.multistate.us/insider/2025/10/8/eight-states-enact-minor-social-media-bans-despite-court-fights |access-date=2026-02-05 |website=MultiState |language=en-US}}]
==Use by individuals==
===News source===
{{Excerpt|Social media as a news source}}
===Social tool===
Social media are used to socialize with friends and family[{{cite journal |last1=Aichner |first1=T. |last2=Grünfelder |first2=M. |last3=Maurer |first3=O. |last4=Jegeni |first4=D. |year=2021 |title=Twenty-Five Years of Social Media: A Review of Social Media Applications and Definitions from 1994 to 2019 |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |volume=24 |issue=4 |pages=215–222 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2020.0134 |pmid=33847527 |pmc=8064945 |doi-access=free }}] pursue romance and flirt,[{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Zheng |last2=Tchernev |first2=John M. |last3=Solloway |first3=Tyler |title=A dynamic longitudinal examination of social media use, needs, and gratifications among college students |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=September 2012 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=1829–1839 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2012.05.001 }}] For example, a 2003 article reported that lonely individuals are more likely to use the Internet for emotional support than others.[{{cite journal |last1=Morahan-Martin |first1=Janet |last2=Schumacher |first2=Phyllis |title=Loneliness and social uses of the Internet |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=November 2003 |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=659–671 |doi=10.1016/S0747-5632(03)00040-2 }}] A 2018 survey from Common Sense Media reported that 40% of American teens ages 13–17 thought that social media was "extremely" or "very" important for them to connect with their friends.[{{Cite web|last1=Rideout|first1=Vicky|last2=Robb|first2=Michael B.|date=2018|title=Social Media, Social Life: Teens Reveal Their Experiences, 2018|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/social-media-social-life-2018|website=Common Sense Media|access-date=17 March 2026|archive-date=14 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220514021439/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/social-media-social-life-2018|url-status=live}}] A 2020 Gallup poll reported that 53% of adult social media users in the United States thought that social media was a very or moderately important way to keep in touch with people during the [[COVID-19 pandemic in the United States|COVID-19 pandemic]].[{{Cite web|last=Ritter|first=Zacc|date=May 21, 2020|title=Americans Use Social Media for COVID-19 Info, Connection|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/311360/americans-social-media-covid-information-connection.aspx|website=Gallup}}]
In ''Alone Together'' [[Sherry Turkle]] considered how people confuse social media usage with authentic communication.[{{cite book |author=Turkle, S. |year=2012 |title=Alone together: Why we expect more from technology and less from each other |location=New York, NY |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-03146-7}}] Surveys from 2019 reported evidence among teens in the United States[{{Cite web|last1=Robb|first1=Michael B.|last2=Bay|first2=Willow|last3=Vennegaard|first3=Tina|date=2019-10-01|title=The New Normal: Parents, Teens, and Mobile Devices in Mexico|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-new-normal-parents-teens-and-devices-around-the-world|website=Common Sense Media|access-date=17 March 2026|archive-date=13 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201013211826/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/the-new-normal-parents-teens-and-devices-around-the-world|url-status=live}}] Some researchers reported that exchanges that involved direct communication and reciprocal messages correlated with less loneliness.[{{cite book |last1=Burke |first1=Moira |last2=Kraut |first2=Robert |last3=Marlow |first3=Cameron |title=Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems |chapter=Social capital on facebook: Differentiating uses and users |date=2011 |pages=571–580 |doi=10.1145/1978942.1979023 |isbn=978-1-4503-0228-9 }}]
In social media "[[stalking]]" or "creeping" refers to looking at someone's "timeline, status updates, [[Tweet (social media)|tweets]], and online bios" to find information about them and their activities.[{{cite web |url= https://www.lifewire.com/what-does-creeping-mean-2655280|title=The Ins and Outs of Facebook Creeping|last=Walker |first=Leslie |date=October 23, 2016 |website=www.lifewire.com |publisher=Lifewire |access-date=2018-11-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181112223425/https://www.lifewire.com/what-does-creeping-mean-2655280|archive-date=2018-11-12}}] A sub-category of creeping is creeping ex-partners after a breakup.[{{cite news |last1=Fox |first1=Jesse |title=Why Exes Aren't So 'Ex' Anymore |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/ca/blog/better-living-technology/201402/why-exes-arent-so-ex-anymore |work=Psychology Today |date=26 February 2014 |archive-url=https://megalodon.jp/2026-0623-0945-36/https://www.psychologytoday.com:443/ca/blog/better-living-technology/201402/why-exes-arent-so-ex-anymore|archive-date=23 June 2026}}]
[[Catfishing]] (creating a false identity) allows bad actors to exploit the lonely.[{{cite book|title=Choices & Connections|last1=McCormack|first1=Steven|last2=Ortiz|first2=Joseph|date=2017|edition=second}}]
== Issues ==
{{Main article|Problematic social media use}}
===Invidious comparison===
[[Impression management|Self-presentation theory]] proposes that people consciously manage their [[self-image]] or identity related information in social contexts.[{{Cite book|last=Goffman|first=Erving|title=The presentation of self in everyday life|date=1971|publisher=Penguin|isbn=0-14-021350-3|location=Harmondsworth|oclc=3091353}}] One aspect of social media is the time invested in customizing a personal profile.[{{Cite news|title=Children, Teens, Media, and Body Image|language=en|website=Common Sense Media|url=https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/children-teens-media-and-body-image|access-date=2017-12-03|archive-date=2020-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200602201917/https://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/children-teens-media-and-body-image}}] Some users segment their audiences based on the image they want to present, and the use of multiple pseudonymous accounts on the same platform offers that opportunity.[{{cite journal |last1=van der Nagel |first1=Emily |title=From usernames to profiles: the development of pseudonymity in Internet communication |journal=Internet Histories |date=2 September 2017 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=312–331 |doi=10.1080/24701475.2017.1389548 }}]
A 2016 study reported that teenage girls manipulate their self-presentation on social media to appear beautiful as viewed by their peers.[{{cite journal |last1=Chua |first1=Trudy Hui Hui |last2=Chang |first2=Leanne |title=Follow me and like my beautiful selfies: Singapore teenage girls' engagement in self-presentation and peer comparison on social media |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=February 2016 |volume=55 |pages=190–197 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2015.09.011 }}] Teenage girls attempt to earn regard and acceptance (likes, comments, and shares). When this does not go well, self-confidence and self-satisfaction can decline.[{{cite journal |last1=Chen |first1=Gina Masullo |title=Losing Face on Social Media: Threats to Positive Face Lead to an Indirect Effect on Retaliatory Aggression Through Negative Affect |journal=Communication Research |date=August 2015 |volume=42 |issue=6 |pages=819–838 |doi=10.1177/0093650213510937 }}] and could lead some teens{{Ambiguous|date=November 2025}} to resort to online bullying.[{{cite book|title=Cyberbullying: Bullying in the Digital Age|last1=Kowalski|first1=Robin M.|last2=Limber|first2=Susan P.|last3=Agatston|first3=Patricia W.|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=9781444334814|date=April 30, 2012}}{{pn|date=January 2026}}] According to a 2016 study, users' reward circuits in their brains are more active when their photos are liked by more peers.[{{cite journal |last1=Sherman |first1=Lauren E. |last2=Payton |first2=Ashley A. |last3=Hernandez |first3=Leanna M. |last4=Greenfield |first4=Patricia M. |last5=Dapretto |first5=Mirella |title=The Power of the Like in Adolescence: Effects of Peer Influence on Neural and Behavioral Responses to Social Media |journal=Psychological Science |date=July 2016 |volume=27 |issue=7 |pages=1027–1035 |doi=10.1177/0956797616645673 |pmid=27247125 |pmc=5387999 }}]
A 2016 review concluded that social media can trigger a negative feedback loop of viewing and uploading photos, self-comparison, disappointment, and disordered body perception when social success is not achieved.[{{cite journal |last1=Holland |first1=Grace |last2=Tiggemann |first2=Marika |title=A systematic review of the impact of the use of social networking sites on body image and disordered eating outcomes |journal=Body Image |date=June 2016 |volume=17 |pages=100–110 |doi=10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.02.008 |pmid=26995158 }}] A 2016 study reported that Pinterest is directly associated with disordered dieting behavior.[{{cite journal |last1=Lewallen |first1=Jennifer |last2=Behm-Morawitz |first2=Elizabeth |title=Pinterest or Thinterest?: Social Comparison and Body Image on Social Media |journal=Social Media + Society |date=January 2016 |volume=2 |issue=1 |article-number=2056305116640559 |doi=10.1177/2056305116640559 |doi-access=free }}]
People portray themselves on social media in the most appealing way;[{{cite journal |last1=Hawi |first1=Nazir S. |last2=Samaha |first2=Maya |title=The Relations Among Social Media Addiction, Self-Esteem, and Life Satisfaction in University Students |journal=Social Science Computer Review |date=October 2017 |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=576–586 |doi=10.1177/0894439316660340 }}] Studies have reported that social media comparisons can have dire effects on physical and mental health.[{{cite journal |last1=Stefanone |first1=Michael A. |last2=Lackaff |first2=Derek |last3=Rosen |first3=Devan |title=Contingencies of Self-Worth and Social-Networking-Site Behavior |journal=Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking |date=January 2011 |volume=14 |issue=1–2 |pages=41–49 |doi=10.1089/cyber.2010.0049 |pmid=21329442 |hdl-access=free |hdl=2152/41152 }}][{{Cite news |last=Criddle |first=Cristina |date=2021-01-27 |title=Social media damages teenagers' mental health, report says |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55826238 |access-date=2021-01-28 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB |archive-date=28 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210128151244/https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-55826238 |url-status=live }}] In one study, women reported that social media was the most influential source of their body image satisfaction; while men reported them as the second biggest factor.{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}} Another study reported that 87% of women and 65% of men compared themselves to others on social media.[{{cite web |title=Link between social media and body image|url=https://online.king.edu/news/social-media-and-body-image/|access-date=15 May 2021|publisher=FHE Health|website=King University Online|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210515102325/https://online.king.edu/news/social-media-and-body-image/|archive-date=15 May 2021|url-status=deviated}}]
While monitoring the lives of celebrities long predates social media, the ease and immediacy of direct comparisons of pictures and stories with one's own may increase their impact.{{Citation needed|date=June 2025}}
Efforts to combat such negative effects focused promoting [[body positivity]]. In a related study, women aged 18–30 were reported posts that contained side-by-side images of women in the same clothes and setting, but one image was enhanced for Instagram, while the other was an unedited, "realistic" version. Women who participated in this experiment reported a decrease in body dissatisfaction.[{{cite journal |last1=Tiggemann |first1=Marika |last2=Anderberg |first2=Isabella |title=Social media is not real: The effect of 'Instagram vs reality' images on women's social comparison and body image |journal=New Media & Society |date=December 2020 |volume=22 |issue=12 |pages=2183–2199 |doi=10.1177/1461444819888720 |doi-access=free }}]
=== Health ===
{{Further|Cyberpsychology#Social media and cyberpsychological behavior|Social media and identity}}
==== Adolescents ====
Social media can offer a support system for adolescent health, because it allows them to mobilize around health issues that they deem relevant.[{{Cite journal |last1=Patton |first1=George C. |last2=Sawyer |first2=Susan M. |last3=Santelli |first3=John S. |last4=Ross |first4=David A. |last5=Afifi |first5=Rima |last6=Allen |first6=Nicholas B. |last7=Arora |first7=Monika |last8=Azzopardi |first8=Peter |last9=Baldwin |first9=Wendy |date=June 2016 |title=Our future: a Lancet commission on adolescent health and wellbeing |journal=The Lancet |volume=387 |issue=10036 |pages=2423–2478 |doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(16)00579-1 |pmc=5832967 |pmid=27174304 |bibcode=2016Lanc..387.2423P }}] For example, in a clinical study among adolescent patients undergoing [[obesity]] treatment, participants' claimed that social media allowed them to access personalized [[weight-loss]] content as well as social support among other adolescents with obesity.[{{cite journal |last1=Holmberg |first1=Christopher |last2=Berg |first2=Christina |last3=Dahlgren |first3=Jovanna |last4=Lissner |first4=Lauren |last5=Chaplin |first5=John Eric |title=Health literacy in a complex digital media landscape: Pediatric obesity patients' experiences with online weight, food, and health information |journal=Health Informatics Journal |date=December 2019 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=1343–1357 |doi=10.1177/1460458218759699 |pmid=29499615 }}][{{cite web|title=media and eating disorders|date=5 October 2017|url=https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/media-eating-disorders|publisher=National Eating Disorder Association|access-date=15 May 2021|archive-date=2 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202024747/https://www.nationaleatingdisorders.org/media-eating-disorders|url-status=live}}]
While social media can provide health information, it typically has no mechanism for ensuring the quality of that information.[{{cite journal |last1=Holmberg |first1=Christopher |last2=Berg |first2=Christina |last3=Hillman |first3=Thomas |last4=Lissner |first4=Lauren |last5=Chaplin |first5=John |year=2018 |title=Self-presentation in digital media among adolescent patients with obesity: Striving for integrity, risk-reduction, and social recognition |journal=Digit Health |volume=4 |article-number=2055207618807603 |doi=10.1177/2055207618807603 |pmc=6195003 |pmid=30349733}}] [[Health literacy]] offers skills to allow users to spot/avoid such content. Efforts by governments and public health organizations to advance health literacy reportedly achieved limited success.[{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1017/dmp.2020.404|pmid = 33089770|title = The Structure of Tweets about Vaccine Safety Between Health Organizations, Experts and the Public: Analyzing Risk Communication Conversations|journal = Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness|volume = 25|issue = 4|pages = 1343–1357|year = 2018|last1 = Manheim|first1 = David|last2 = Gesser-Edelsburg|first2 = Anat|pmc = 7943953|doi-access = free}}] The role of parents and caregivers who proactively approach their children with ongoing guidance and open discussions on the benefits and difficulties they may encounter online, demonstrate some reductions in overall anxiety and depression among adolescents.[{{cite journal |last1=Mabaso |first1=Wakithi Siza |last2=Hein |first2=Sascha |last3=Pavarini |first3=Gabriela |last4=Fazel |first4=Mina |title=Exploring the Relationship Between Public Social Media Accounts, Adolescent Mental Health, and Parental Guidance in England: Large Cross-Sectional School Survey Study |journal=Journal of Medical Internet Research |date=17 December 2024 |volume=26 |article-number=e57154 |doi=10.2196/57154 |doi-access=free |pmc=11688589 |pmid=39688898}}]
Social media such as [[pro-ana|pro-anorexia]] sites reportedly increase risk of harm by reinforcing damaging health-related behaviors through social media, especially among adolescents.[{{cite journal |last1=Wilson |first1=Jenny L. |last2=Peebles |first2=Rebecka |last3=Hardy |first3=Kristina K. |last4=Litt |first4=Iris F. |title=Surfing for Thinness: A Pilot Study of Pro–Eating Disorder Web Site Usage in Adolescents With Eating Disorders |journal=Pediatrics |date=December 2006 |volume=118 |issue=6 |pages=e1635–e1643 |doi=10.1542/peds.2006-1133 |pmid=17142493 }}][{{cite journal |last1=Ransom |first1=Danielle C. |last2=La Guardia |first2=Jennifer G. |last3=Woody |first3=Erik Z. |last4=Boyd |first4=Jennifer L. |title=Interpersonal interactions on online forums addressing eating concerns |journal=International Journal of Eating Disorders |date=March 2010 |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=161–170 |doi=10.1002/eat.20629 |pmid=19308991 }}][{{cite web|title=Eating Disorders and the Internet |url=http://www.anad.org/get-information/eating-disorders-and-the-internet/ |publisher=National Association of Anorexia Nervosa and Associated Disorders |access-date=2010-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101019032231/http://www.anad.org/get-information/eating-disorders-and-the-internet/ |archive-date=2010-10-19 }}]
==== Pandemic ====
During the coronavirus pandemic, inaccurate information from all sides spread widely via social media.[{{Cite journal |last1=Rocha |first1=Yasmim Mendes |last2=de Moura |first2=Gabriel Acácio |last3=Desidério |first3=Gabriel Alves |last4=de Oliveira |first4=Carlos Henrique |last5=Lourenço |first5=Francisco Dantas |last6=de Figueiredo Nicolete |first6=Larissa Deadame |date=2023 |title=The impact of fake news on social media and its influence on health during the COVID-19 pandemic: a systematic review |journal=Journal of Public Health |language=en |volume=31 |issue=7 |pages=1007–1016 |doi=10.1007/s10389-021-01658-z |pmc=8502082 |pmid=34660175}}] Topics subject to distortion included treatments, avoiding infection, vaccination, and public policy. Simultaneously, governments and others influenced social media platforms to suppress both accurate and inaccurate information in support of public policy.[{{Cite news |last=Oremus |first=Will |date=2022-10-09 |title=How social media 'censorship' became a front line in the culture war |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/10/09/social-media-content-moderation/ |access-date=2024-05-26 |newspaper=Washington Post |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223012814/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/10/09/social-media-content-moderation/ |url-status=live }}] Heavier social media use was reportedly associated with more acceptance of conspiracy theories, leading to worse mental health[{{cite journal|title=Belief in a COVID-19 Conspiracy Theory as a Predictor of Mental Health and Well-Being of Health Care Workers in Ecuador: Cross-Sectional Survey Study|last1=Chen|first1=Xi|last2=Zhang|first2=Stephen X.|last3=Jahanshahi|first3=Asghar Afshar|last4=Alvarez-Risco|first4=Aldo|last5=Dai|first5=Huiyang|last6=Li|first6=Jizhen|last7=García Ibarra|first7=Verónica|journal=JMIR Public Health and Surveillance|year=2020|volume=6|number=3|article-number=e20737|doi=10.2196/20737|pmid=32658859|pmc=7375774 |doi-access=free }}] and less compliance with public health recommendations.[{{cite journal|title=Social media use as a predictor of handwashing during a pandemic: evidence from COVID-19 in Malaysia|last1=Zhang|first1=Stephen X.|last2=Graf-Vlachy|first2=Lorenz|last3=Kim|first3=Hoe Looi|last4=Su|first4=Rui|last5=Li|first5=Jizhen|journal=Epidemiology and Infection|volume=148|article-number=e261|doi=10.1017/S0950268820002575|pmid=33092675 |pmc=7653491 |date=23 October 2020}}]
==== Addiction ====
Social media platforms can serve as a breeding ground for addiction-related behaviors, with studies report that excessive use can lead to addiction-like symptoms. These symptoms include compulsive checking, mood modification, and withdrawal when not using social media, which can result in decreased face-to-face social interactions and contribute to the deterioration of interpersonal relationships and a sense of loneliness.[{{cite journal|title=Meta-analyses of comparative efficacy of antidepressant medications on peripheral BDNF concentration in patients with depression|last1=Chanjuan|first1=Zhou|last2=Jiaju|first2=Zhong|last3=Bin|first3=Zou|last4=Liang|first4=Fang|last5=Jianjun|first5=Chen|last6=Xiao|first6=Deng|last7=Lin|first7=Zhang|last8=Xiang|first8=Zhao|last9=Zehui|first9=Qu|last10=Yang|first10=Lei|last11=Ting|first11= Lei|journal= PLOS ONE|year=2017|volume=12 |issue=2 |article-number=e0172270 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0172270|pmid=28241064|pmc=5328267 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1272270Z |doi-access=free }}]
=== Cyberbullying ===
{{Excerpt|Cyberbullying}}
=== Sleep disturbance ===
A 2017 study reported on a link between sleep disturbance and the use of social media. It concluded that blue light from computer/phone displays—and the frequency rather than the duration of time spent, predicted disturbed sleep, termed "obsessive 'checking{{'"}}.[{{Cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20180104-is-social-media-bad-for-you-the-evidence-and-the-unknowns|title=Is social media bad for you? The evidence and the unknowns|last=Brown|first=Jessica|date=5 January 2018 |language=en|access-date=2018-06-13|publisher=BBC}}] The association between social media use and sleep disturbance has clinical ramifications for young adults.[{{Cite journal|journal=Preventative Meditation|last1=Levenson|first1=Jessica|last2=Shensa|first2=Ariel|last3=Sidani|first3=Jaime E.|last4=Colditz|first4=Jason B.|last5=Primack|first5=Brian A.|date=April 2016|title=The association between social media use and sleep disturbance among young adults |volume=85|pages=36–41|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.01.001|pmid=26791323 |pmc=4857587 }}] A recent study reported that people in the highest quartile for weekly social media use experienced the most sleep disturbance. The median number of minutes of social media use per day was 61. Females were more likely to experience high levels of sleep disturbance.[{{Cite journal|last1=Levenson|first1=Jessica C.|last2=Shensa|first2=Ariel|last3=Sidani|first3=Jaime E.|last4=Colditz|first4=Jason B.|last5=Primack|first5=Brian A.|date=April 2016|title=The Association Between Social Media Use and Sleep Disturbance Among Young Adults|journal=Preventive Medicine|volume=85|pages=36–41|pmc=4857587|pmid=26791323|doi=10.1016/j.ypmed.2016.01.001}}] Many teenagers suffer from sleep deprivation from long hours at night on their phones, and this left them tired and unfocused in school.[{{cite news |last1=Ritcher |first1=Ruthann |title=Among teens, sleep deprivation an epidemic |url=https://med.stanford.edu/news/all-news/2015/10/among-teens-sleep-deprivation-an-epidemic.html |access-date=14 November 2020 |work=News Center |publisher=Stanford School of Medicine |date=October 2015 |language=en}}] A 2011 study reported that time spent on Facebook was negatively associated with [[Grading in education|GPA]], but the association with sleep disturbance was not established.[{{cite journal |last1=Junco |first1=Reynol |title=Too much face and not enough books: The relationship between multiple indices of Facebook use and academic performance |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=January 2012 |volume=28 |issue=1 |pages=187–198 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2011.08.026 }}]
===Emotional effects===
One studied effect of social media is 'Facebook depression', which affects adolescents who spend too much time on social media.[{{cite journal |last1=O'Keeffe |first1=Gwenn Schurgin |last2=Clarke-Pearson |first2=Kathleen |title=The Impact of Social Media on Children, Adolescents, and Families |journal=Pediatrics |date=April 2011 |volume=127 |issue=4 |pages=800–804 |doi=10.1542/peds.2011-0054 |pmid=21444588 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260616051055/https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/127/4/800/65133/The-Impact-of-Social-Media-on-Children-Adolescents?autologincheck=redirected|archive-date=June 16, 2026|url=https://publications.aap.org/pediatrics/article/127/4/800/65133/The-Impact-of-Social-Media-on-Children-Adolescents?autologincheck=redirected|url-access=subscription }}] Social media curates content to encourage users to keep scrolling.[{{cite book |editor-first1=Cheyenne |editor-last1=Seymour |title=Successes and Setbacks of Social Media |date=2020 |doi=10.1002/9781119695233 |isbn=978-1-119-69518-9 |page=132 }}] A 2017 study of almost 6,000 adolescent students reported that those who self-reported addiction-like symptoms of social media use were more likely to report low self-esteem and high levels of depressive symptoms.[{{cite journal |last1=Bányai |first1=Fanni |last2=Zsila |first2=Ágnes |last3=Király |first3=Orsolya |last4=Maraz |first4=Aniko |last5=Elekes |first5=Zsuzsanna |last6=Griffiths |first6=Mark D. |last7=Andreassen |first7=Cecilie Schou |last8=Demetrovics |first8=Zsolt |title=Problematic Social Media Use: Results from a Large-Scale Nationally Representative Adolescent Sample |journal=PLOS ONE |date=9 January 2017 |volume=12 |issue=1 |article-number=e0169839 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169839 |pmid=28068404 |pmc=5222338 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1269839B |doi-access=free }}]
A second emotional effect is social media burnout, defined as ambivalence, emotional exhaustion, and [[depersonalization]]. Ambivalence is confusion about the benefits from using social media. Emotional exhaustion is stress from using social media. Depersonalization is emotional detachment from social media. The three burnout factors negatively influence the likelihood of continuing on social media.[{{cite journal |last1=Han |first1=Bo |year=2018 |title=Social Media Burnout: Definition, Measurement Instrument, and Why We Care |journal=Journal of Computer Information Systems |volume=58 |issue=2 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/08874417.2016.1208064 }}]
A third emotional effect is "[[fear of missing out]]" (FOMO), which is the "pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent."[{{cite journal |last1=Przybylski |first1=Andrew K. |last2=Murayama |first2=Kou |last3=DeHaan |first3=Cody R. |last4=Gladwell |first4=Valerie |title=Motivational, emotional, and behavioral correlates of fear of missing out |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=July 2013 |volume=29 |issue=4 |pages=1841–1848 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2013.02.014 }}] It is associated with increased scrutiny of friends on social media.[{{cite journal |last1=Fuller |first1=Maren Y. |last2=Allen |first2=Timothy Craig |title=Let's Have a Tweetup: The Case for Using Twitter Professionally |journal=Archives of Pathology & Laboratory Medicine |date=May 9, 2016 |volume=140 |issue=9 |pages=956–957 |doi=10.5858/arpa.2016-0172-SA |pmid=27195434 }}] X facilitated academic discussion among health professionals and students, while providing a supportive community for these individuals by and allowing members to support each other through likes, comments, and posts.[{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Lisa |last2=Woo |first2=Benjamin K P |title=Twitter as a Mental Health Support System for Students and Professionals in the Medical Field |journal=JMIR Medical Education |date=19 January 2021 |volume=7 |issue=1 |article-number=e17598 |doi=10.2196/17598 |pmid=33464210 |pmc=7854042 |doi-access=free}}] Access to social media offered a way to keep older adults connected, after the deaths of partners and geographical distance between friends and loved ones.[{{cite journal |last1=Cotten |first1=Shelia R. |last2=Schuster |first2=Amy M. |last3=Seifert |first3=Alexander |title=Social media use and well-being among older adults |journal=Current Opinion in Psychology |date=June 2022 |volume=45 |article-number=101293 |doi=10.1016/j.copsyc.2021.12.005 |pmid=35065352 }}] In March 2025, a Pakistani man killed a [[WhatsApp]] group admin in anger after being removed from the chat.[{{Cite news |date=2025-03-08 |title=Pakistani man kills WhatsApp group admin in anger after being removed from chat |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/world/pakistan/pakistani-man-kills-whatsapp-group-admin-in-anger-after-being-removed-from-chat/articleshow/118803475.cms |access-date=2025-03-08 |work=The Times of India }}]
{{Excerpt|Social media and suicide}}
==Social impacts{{anchor|Social_impacts_of_social_media}}==
Media critic [[Siva Vaidhyanathan]] refers to social media as 'anti-social media' in reference to its negative impacts including on loneliness and political polarization.[{{Cite web |last1=Kaufmann |first1=Bruno |last2=Glatthard |first2=Jonas |date=2021-05-07 |title='Humour over rumour': lessons from Taiwan in digital democracy |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/politics/freedom-of-expression-humour-over-rumour-lessons-from-taiwan-in-digital-democracy/46592080 |access-date=2024-07-25 |website=[[SwissInfo]] |language=en-GB}}]
===Disparity===
{{Excerpt|Digital divide}}
===Political polarization===
{{See also|Social media#Threat to democracy|Media bias#Social media|Rage-baiting}}Many critics point to studies showing social media algorithms elevate more partisan and inflammatory content.[{{Cite news |date=April 1, 2021 |title=Facebook Disputes Claims It Fuels Political Polarization And Extremism |url=https://www.npr.org/2021/04/01/983155583/facebook-disputes-claims-it-fuels-political-polarization-and-extremism |work=NPR |archive-date=15 July 2024 |access-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715191540/https://www.npr.org/2021/04/01/983155583/facebook-disputes-claims-it-fuels-political-polarization-and-extremism |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |date=July 27, 2023 |title=New study shows just how Facebook's algorithm shapes conservative and liberal bubbles |url=https://www.npr.org/2023/07/27/1190383104/new-study-shows-just-how-facebooks-algorithm-shapes-conservative-and-liberal-bub |work=NPR |quote=Still, the research sheds light on how Facebook's algorithm works. The studies found liberals and conservatives live in their own political news bubbles more so than elsewhere online. They also show that changing the platform's algorithm substantially changes what people see and how they behave on the site — even if it didn't affect their beliefs during the three-month period researchers studied...'This is interesting, strong evidence that when it comes to politics, the algorithm is biased towards the extremes,' Edelson said. 'This is genuinely new.'}}] Because of [[recommendation algorithm]]s that filter and display news content that matches users' political preferences, one potential impact is an increase in [[Polarization (politics)|political polarization]] due to [[Selective exposure theory|selective exposure]]. Political polarization is the divergence of political attitudes towards [[Ideology|ideological]] extremes. Selective exposure occurs when an individual favors information that supports their beliefs and avoids information that conflicts with them.[{{Cite web |last=Molla |first=Rani |date=2020-11-10 |title=Social media is making a bad political situation worse |url=https://www.vox.com/recode/21534345/polarization-election-social-media-filter-bubble |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=Vox |language=en-US}}] [[Jonathan Haidt]] compared the impact of social media to the [[Tower of Babel]] and the chaos it unleashed as a result.[{{Cite web |last=Ingram |first=Mathew |date=June 9, 2022 |title=Have the dangers of social media been overstated? |url=https://www.cjr.org/the_media_today/have-the-dangers-of-social-media-been-overstated.php |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=Columbia Journalism Review |language=en}}][{{Cite magazine |last=Lewis-Kraus |first=Gideon |date=2022-06-03 |title=How Harmful Is Social Media? |url=https://www.newyorker.com/culture/annals-of-inquiry/we-know-less-about-social-media-than-we-think |access-date=2024-10-09 |magazine=The New Yorker }}][{{Cite web |last=Ovadya |first=Aviv |date=May 17, 2022 |title=Bridging-Based Ranking |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/bridging-based-ranking |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=Belfer Center at [[Harvard University]] |pages=3, 10–13 |language=en |quote=Chronological feeds are just 'recency-biased ranking' systems with their own problems...'Choose your own ranking systems' are not quite good enough |archive-date=22 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250422033151/https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/bridging-based-ranking |url-status=live }}] but could be designed to reduce polarization instead.[{{Cite web |last=Ovadya |first=Aviv |date=May 17, 2022 |title=Bridging-Based Ranking |url=https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/bridging-based-ranking |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard University |pages=21–23, 28 |language=en |archive-date=22 April 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250422033151/https://www.belfercenter.org/publication/bridging-based-ranking |url-status=live }}] In 2017, Facebook gave its new emoji reactions five times the weight in its algorithms as its like button, which data scientists at the company in 2019 confirmed had disproportionately boosted toxicity, misinformation and low-quality news.[{{Cite news |last1=Merrill |first1=Jeremy B. |last2=Oremus |first2=Will |date=October 26, 2021 |title=Five points for anger, one for a 'like': How Facebook's formula fostered rage and misinformation |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/10/26/facebook-angry-emoji-algorithm/ |newspaper=Washington Post |archive-date=30 October 2021 |access-date=12 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211030062728/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2021/10/26/facebook-angry-emoji-algorithm/ |url-status=live }}] Some popular ideas for how to combat selective exposure have had no or opposite impacts.[{{Cite web |last=Klepper |first=David |date=2023-07-27 |title=Deep dive into Meta's algorithms shows that America's political polarization has no easy fix |url=https://apnews.com/article/facebook-instagram-polarization-misinformation-social-media-f0628066301356d70ad2eda2551ed260 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=AP News |language=en |quote=When they replaced the algorithm with a simple chronological listing of posts from friends — an option Facebook recently made available to users — it had no measurable impact on polarization...Likewise, reducing the content that Facebook users get from accounts with the same ideological alignment had no significant effect on polarization, susceptibility to misinformation or extremist views. |archive-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715194956/https://apnews.com/article/facebook-instagram-polarization-misinformation-social-media-f0628066301356d70ad2eda2551ed260 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |last1=Volfovsky |first1=Alexander |last2=Merhout |first2=Friedolin |last3=Mann |first3=Marcus |last4=Lee |first4=Jaemin |last5=Hunzaker |first5=M. B. Fallin |last6=Chen |first6=Haohan |last7=Bumpus |first7=John P. |last8=Brown |first8=Taylor W. |last9=Argyle |first9=Lisa P. |date=September 11, 2018 |title=Exposure to opposing views on social media can increase political polarization |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=115 |issue=37 |pages=9216–9221 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.9216B |doi=10.1073/pnas.1804840115 |pmc=6140520 |pmid=30154168 |doi-access=free}}][{{cite journal |last1=Mihailidis |first1=Paul |last2=Viotty |first2=Samantha |title=Spreadable Spectacle in Digital Culture: Civic Expression, Fake News, and the Role of Media Literacies in 'Post-Fact' Society |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |date=April 2017 |volume=61 |issue=4 |pages=441–454 |doi=10.1177/0002764217701217 }}] Others argue that less social media,[{{Cite web |date=2019-01-30 |title=Loss of newspapers contributes to political polarization |url=https://apnews.com/article/ecf440606c824f9d9671f2fb22a2ffce |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=AP News |language=en |archive-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715195820/https://apnews.com/article/ecf440606c824f9d9671f2fb22a2ffce |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |last=Moore |first=Thomas |date=May 21, 2021 |title=Study: Decline in local journalism increases political polarization |url=https://thehill.com/homenews/media/554824-study-decline-in-local-journalism-increases-political-polarization/ |work=The Hill |archive-date=15 July 2024 |access-date=15 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240715195820/https://thehill.com/homenews/media/554824-study-decline-in-local-journalism-increases-political-polarization/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |last1=Dunaway |first1=Johanna |last2=Darr |first2=Joshua P. |last3=Hitt |first3=Matthew P. |date=2021-05-27 |title=Local newspapers can help reduce polarization with opinion pages that focus on local issues |url=http://theconversation.com/local-newspapers-can-help-reduce-polarization-with-opinion-pages-that-focus-on-local-issues-158834 |access-date=2024-07-15 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}] could help address political polarization.
===Stereotyping===
{{See also|Stereotype}}
A 2018 study reported that social media increases the power of stereotypes.[{{cite journal |last1=Díaz-Fernández |first1=Antonio-M. |last2=del-Real-Castrillo |first2=Cristina |title=Spies and security: Assessing the impact of animated videos on intelligence services in school children |journal=Comunicar |date=July 2018 |volume=26 |issue=56 |pages=81–89 |doi=10.3916/c56-2018-08 |doi-access=free |hdl=10272/15122 |hdl-access=free}}] Stereotypes can have both negative and positive connotations. For example, during the COVID-19 pandemic, youth were accused of responsibility for spreading the disease.[{{Cite web|title=Young adults, unfairly blamed for COVID-19 spread, now face stress and uncertain futures|url=https://beyond.ubc.ca/young-adults-blamed-for-covid/|last1=Knight|first1=Rod|last2=Jauffret-Roustide|first2=Marie|last3=Bolduc|first3=Naseeb|last4=Coulard|first4=Pierre-julien|date=2020-12-03|access-date=2022-04-07|website=Beyond|publisher=[[University of British Columbia]]|language=en|archive-date=16 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230716101935/https://beyond.ubc.ca/young-adults-blamed-for-covid/|url-status=live}}] Elderly people get stereotyped as lacking knowledge of proper behavior on social media.[{{cite journal |last1=Ng |first1=Reuben |title=Societal Age Stereotypes in the U.S. and U.K. from a Media Database of 1.1 Billion Words |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |date=21 August 2021 |volume=18 |issue=16 |page=8822 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18168822 |pmc=8391425 |pmid=34444578 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2021IJERP..18.8822N }}] Social media platforms usually amplify these stereotypes by reinforcing age-based biases through certain algorithms as well as user-generated content. Unfortunately, these stereotypes contribute to social divide and negatively impact the way users interact online.[{{cite journal |last1=Kroon |first1=Anne C. |last2=Selm |first2=Martine van |title=Good Intentions Aside: Stereotype Threat in the Face of Media Strategies to Counter Age Bias |journal=Research on Aging |date=October 2024 |volume=46 |issue=9–10 |pages=480–491 |doi=10.1177/01640275241249117 |pmid=38656230 |pmc=11414137 }}]
===Communication===
Social media allows for mass [[Cultural globalization|cultural exchange]] and [[intercultural communication]], despite different ways of communicating in various cultures.[{{Cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html|title=Working on Common Cross-cultural Communication Challenges|website=www.pbs.org|last1=DuPraw|first1=Marcelle E.|last2=Axner|first2=Marya|date=1997|access-date=2022-08-29|archive-date=4 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191204155052/http://www.pbs.org/ampu/crosscult.html|url-status=live}}]
Social media has affected the way youth communicate, by introducing new forms of language.[{{cite book |last1=Fians |first1=Guilherme |title=Esperanto Revolutionaries and Geeks |date=2021 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-84230-7 |isbn=978-3-030-84229-1 |url=https://research.manchester.ac.uk/en/publications/34f7f6c8-36b8-4b62-bfed-9b7d79f9c8ac }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}] Novel acronyms save time, as illustrated by "[[LOL]]", which is the ubiquitous shortcut for "laugh out loud".
The [[hashtag]] was created to simplify searching for information and to allow users to highlight topics of interest in the hope of attracting the attention of others. Hashtags can be used to advocate for a movement, mark content for future use, and allow other users to contribute to a discussion.[{{Cite journal|last1=Saxton|first1=Gregory D.|last2=Niyirora|first2=Jerome N.|last3=Guo|first3=Chao|last4=Waters|first4=Richard D.|date=Spring 2015|title=#AdvocatingForChange: The Strategic Use of Hashtags in Social Media Advocacy|journal=Advances in Social Work|volume=16|pages=154–169|doi=10.18060/17952|doi-access=free}}]
For some young people, social media and texting have largely replaced in person communications, made worse by pandemic isolation, delaying the development of conversation and other social skills.[{{Cite web |title=How Using Social Media Affects Teenagers |url=https://childmind.org/article/how-using-social-media-affects-teenagers/ |access-date=2022-10-20 |website=Child Mind Institute |language=en-us}}]
What is socially acceptable is now heavily based on social media.[{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Monica |last2=Jiang |first2=Jingjing |title=1. Teens and their experiences on social media |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/11/28/teens-and-their-experiences-on-social-media/ |website=Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech |access-date=21 November 2020 |date=28 November 2018 |archive-date=16 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201116014913/https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/11/28/teens-and-their-experiences-on-social-media/ |url-status=live }}] The [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] reported that bullying, the making of non-inclusive friend groups, and sexual experimentation have increased cyberbullying, privacy issues, and sending sexual images or messages. [[Sexting]] and [[revenge porn]] became rampant, particularly among minors, with legal implications and resulting trauma risk.[{{cite journal |last1=Lalli |first1=Jaideep Singh |title=Maryland's Underage Sexting Case: Punishing Revenge Porn Victims?: Case Analysis of In Re: S.K., 215 A.3d 300 (Md. 2019) |journal=Journal of Victimology and Victim Justice |date=April 2021 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=88–95 |doi=10.1177/25166069211033212 }}][{{Cite journal|last=Osterday|first=Mitchell|date=2015–2016|title=Protecting Minors from Themselves: Expanding Revenge Porn Laws to Protect the Most Vulnerable|url=https://journals.iupui.edu/index.php/inlawrev/article/view/21002|journal=Indiana Law Review|volume=49|issue=2|page=555|doi=10.18060/4806.0075|doi-access=free}}][{{cite book |last1=Phippen |first1=Andy |last2=Brennan |first2=Maggie |title=Sexting and Revenge Pornography |date=2020 |doi=10.4324/9781315149691 |isbn=978-1-315-14969-1 }}{{pn|date=January 2026}}][{{cite journal |last1=Paat |first1=Yok-Fong |last2=Markham |first2=Christine |title=Digital crime, trauma, and abuse: Internet safety and cyber risks for adolescents and emerging adults in the 21 st century |journal=Social Work in Mental Health |date=2 January 2021 |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=18–40 |doi=10.1080/15332985.2020.1845281 }}] However, adolescents can learn basic social and technical skills online.[{{Cite web |last1=Mir |first1=Eline |last2=Novas |first2=Caroline |last3=Seymour |first3=Meg |date=2018-08-10 |title=Social Media and Adolescents' and Young Adults' Mental Health |url=http://www.center4research.org/social-media-affects-mental-health/ |access-date=2020-02-29 |website=National Center for Health Research |language=en-US}}] Social media, can strengthen relationships just by keeping in touch, making more friends, and engaging in community activities.[{{cite news |last=Cooper |first=Mex |date=July 30, 2014 |title=Social media users could be charged for sharing WikiLeaks story |url=http://www.brisbanetimes.com.au/national/social-media-users-could-be-charged-for-sharing-wikileaks-story-20140730-zye0b.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |publisher=[[Brisbane Times]]}}]
In November 2024, the federal government passed the ''[[Online Safety Amendment|Online Safety Amendment (Social Media Minimum Age) Act 2024]]'' introduced by the [[Albanese government]], banning people under the age of 16 from using most social media platforms, which would come into effect in December 2025.[{{cite news |last1=Kaye |first1=Byron |last2=Menon |first2=Praveen |title=Australia passes social media ban for children under 16 |url=https://www.reuters.com/technology/australia-passes-social-media-ban-children-under-16-2024-11-28/ |access-date=3 December 2024 |publisher=[[Reuters]] |date=29 November 2024}}] Presented by Minister for Communications [[Michelle Rowland]], the bill was created as an attempt at reducing social media harms for young people and responding to the concerns of parents.[{{cite Hansard |date=21 November 2024 |house=[[Australian House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] |jurisdiction=[[Parliament of Australia]] |hansard=House of Representatives Official Hansard |title=Online Safety Amendment (Social Media Minimum Age) Bill 2024 Second Reading |speaker=Rowland, Michelle |position=[[Minister for Communications (Australia)|Minister for Communications]] |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/api/hansard/link/?id=chamber/hansardr/28041/toc&linktype=pdf&fulltranscript=True |publisher=Commonwealth of Australia |pages=8270–8274 |access-date=3 December 2024 }}{{Dead link|date=March 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}] The stated penalty for breach of the new laws on the part of social media platforms was a financial penalty of [[Australian dollar|AU$]]49.5{{nbsp}}million.[{{cite news |last1=Manfield |first1=Evelyn |title=YouTube exemption backed by group behind push for under-16 social media ban |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-11-21/youtube-allowed-under-social-media-ban-under-16s/104629944 |access-date=3 December 2024 |publisher=[[ABC News (Australia)|ABC News]] |date=21 November 2024 |archive-date=10 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251210193952/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-11-21/youtube-allowed-under-social-media-ban-under-16s/104629944 |url-status=live }}] and media corporation [[News Corp Australia]] which ran a campaign titled ''Let Them Be Kids'',[{{cite news |last1=Kapernick |first1=Kerri |last2=Moseley |first2=Amelia |title=Federal government's looming social media ban may be bad for isolated, marginalised teenagers |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-10-24/social-media-ban-detrimental-isolated-teens/104500932 |access-date=3 December 2024 |work=ABC News |date=24 October 2024 |archive-date=2 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241202230947/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2024-10-24/social-media-ban-detrimental-isolated-teens/104500932 |url-status=live }}] and that the ban could stifle creativity and freedom of expression amongst young people.[{{cite news |last1=Touma |first1=Rafqa |title=Protecting or restricting? The effect of social media bans on the big dreams of young Australians |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2024/dec/03/australia-labor-social-media-ban-impact-children |access-date=3 December 2024 |work=[[Guardian Australia|The Guardian]] |date=3 December 2024}}]
==== Egypt ====
On 27 July 2020, in Egypt, two women were sentenced to two years of imprisonment for posting TikTok videos, which the government claimed as "violating family values".[{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Declan |date=28 July 2020 |title=Egypt Sentences Women to 2 Years in Prison for TikTok Videos |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/28/world/middleeast/egypt-women-tiktok-prison.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728211112/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/28/world/middleeast/egypt-women-tiktok-prison.html |archive-date=2020-07-28 |access-date=28 July 2020 |website=The New York Times}}]
==== Thailand ====
In the [[2014 Thai coup d'état]], the public was explicitly instructed not to 'share' or 'like' dissenting views on social media or face prison.{{Citation needed|date=July 2024}}
==== United States ====
Historically, platforms were responsible for moderating the content that they presented. They set rules for what was allowable, decided which content to promote and which to ignore. The US enacted the [[Communications Decency Act]] in 1996. [[Section 230]] of that act exempted internet platforms from legal liability for content authored by third parties.
{{Blockquote|text=No provider or user of an interactive computer service shall be treated as the publisher or speaker of any information provided by another information content provider." (47 U.S.C. § 230(c)(1)).|author=US Congress|title=Communications Decency Act Section 230}}In 2024, legislation was enacted in [[Florida]] requiring social media companies to verify the age of people with accounts, and to prohibit holding an account for people aged under 14, and between 14 and 16 in the absence of parental approval.[{{Cite web |last1=Hatter |first1=Lynn |last2=Andrews |first2=Adrian |date=2024-03-25 |title=DeSantis signs social media ban for minors, among the strictest in the nation |url=https://health.wusf.usf.edu/health-news-florida/2024-03-25/desantis-signs-social-media-ban-for-minors-among-the-strictest-in-the-nation |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=Health News Florida |language=en |archive-date=29 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529204456/https://health.wusf.usf.edu/health-news-florida/2024-03-25/desantis-signs-social-media-ban-for-minors-among-the-strictest-in-the-nation |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2024-03-26 |title=Ron DeSantis signs Florida social media ban for children into law |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2024/mar/26/ron-desantis-florida-social-media-ban-children |access-date=2024-07-30 |work=The Guardian }}]
==== European Union ====
The [[European Union]] initially took a similar approach.[{{cite journal |last1=Schlag |first1=Gabi |title=European Union's Regulating of Social Media: A Discourse Analysis of the Digital Services Act |journal=Politics and Governance |date=24 May 2023 |volume=11 |issue=3 |doi=10.17645/pag.v11i3.6735 |doi-access=free }}] However, in 2020, the [[European Commission]] presented two legislative proposals: The [[Digital Services Act|Digital Services Act (DSA)]] and the [[Digital Markets Act|Digital Markets Act (DMA)]]. Both proposals were enacted in July 2022. The DSA entered into force on 17 February 2024, the DMA in March 2024.[{{Cite web |date=2023-11-15 |title=The Digital Services Act package {{!}} Shaping Europe's digital future |url=https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-services-act-package |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu |language=en |archive-date=11 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251211084839/https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/digital-services-act-package |url-status=live }}] This legislation can be summarized in the following four objectives, articulated by [[Member of the European Parliament|MEPs]]:
* "What is illegal offline must also be illegal online".[{{Cite news |last=O'Carroll |first=Lisa |date=2023-08-25 |title=How the EU Digital Services Act affects Facebook, Google and others |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/aug/25/how-the-eu-digital-services-act-affects-facebook-google-and-others |access-date=2023-11-26 }}]
Violators could face a complete ban in Europe or fines of up to 6% of global sales. Such content moderation requires extensive investment by platform providers.[{{Cite web |last=Puig Larrauri |first=Helena |date=2023-04-06 |title=SOCIETAL DIVIDES AS A TAXABLE NEGATIVE EXTERNALITY OF DIGITAL PLATFORMS. An exploration of the rationale for regulating algorithmically mediated platforms differently. |url=https://www.next-now.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/Societal%20Divides%20as%20a%20taxable%20negative%20externality%20of%20digital%20platforms_0.pdf |access-date=17 March 2026 |archive-date=31 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251031001720/https://www.next-now.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/Societal%20Divides%20as%20a%20taxable%20negative%20externality%20of%20digital%20platforms_0.pdf |url-status=live }}] Enforcement resources may not be sufficient to ensure compliance.[{{Cite web |title=What impact will the EU's Digital Services Act have? |publisher=DW |date=August 25, 2023 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/what-impact-will-the-eus-digital-services-act-have/a-66631337 |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=dw.com |language=en}}]
The DSA allows a country to require information to be deleted that is illegal only in that jurisdiction. According to Patrick Breyer from the [[German Pirate Party]], a problem could arise from the Hungarian government requesting a video to be deleted that is critical of Victor Orban, as he foresaw the potential for such determinations to be applied EU-wide.[{{Cite web |last=Beckmann |first=Holger |title=Digital Services Act: Was illegal ist, muss raus aus dem Netz |url=https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/europa/digital-services-act-100.html |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=tagesschau.de |language=de |archive-date=30 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260130103120/https://www.tagesschau.de/ausland/europa/digital-services-act-100.html |url-status=live }}]
=== Discussions and proposals ===
==== General ====
[[List of Nobel laureates|2018 Nobel Laureate]] [[Paul Romer]][{{Cite news |last=Romer |first=Paul |date=2019-05-06 |title=Opinion {{!}} A Tax That Could Fix Big Tech |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/05/06/opinion/tax-facebook-google.html |access-date=2023-11-26 }}] advocated taxing negative externalities of social media platforms.[{{Cite web |last=Writer |first=Guest |date=2023-04-06 |title=Negative Externalities of Digital Platforms Should Be Taxed Today |url=https://www.ictworks.org/tax-negative-externalities-of-digital-platforms/ |access-date=2023-11-26 |website=ICTworks}}] Assuming that the tax did not deter the actions that produced the externalities, the revenue raised could be used to address them. However, consensus has yet to emerge on how to measure or mitigate the harms, nor to craft a tax, .
Another proposal is to invoke [[European Union competition law|competition law]].[{{cite journal |last1=Mazúr |first1=Ján |last2=Patakyová |first2=Mária T. |title=Regulatory Approaches to Facebook and Other Social Media Platforms: Towards Platforms Design Accountability |journal=Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology |date=30 September 2019 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=219–242 |doi=10.5817/MUJLT2019-2-4 |doi-access=free }}] The idea is to restrict the platforms' market power by controlling mergers ''[[ex ante]]'' and tightening the law. This would be achieved through a supranational enforcement mechanism and the deterrent effect of high fines.
In a 2024 opinion piece, Megan Moreno and Jenny Radesky, professors of pediatrics, wrote about the need for "nuanced" policy.[{{cite journal |last1=Moreno |first1=Megan A. |last2=Radesky |first2=Jenny S. |title=Benefits and Harms of Proposed Social Media Legislation |journal=JAMA Pediatrics |date=September 2024 |volume=178 |issue=9 |pages=857–858 |doi=10.1001/jamapediatrics.2024.2380 |pmid=39037793 }}] They regarded access which is contingent upon parental consent as harmful. They commented that a focus on increasing age restrictions "may serve to distract from making sure platforms are following guidelines and best practices for all ages".[{{Cite web |last1=Radesky |first1=Jenny |last2=Moreno |first2=Megan |date=2024-04-04 |title=Online child safety laws could help or hurt – 2 pediatricians explain what's likely to work and what isn't |url=http://theconversation.com/online-child-safety-laws-could-help-or-hurt-2-pediatricians-explain-whats-likely-to-work-and-what-isnt-226436 |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}}]
==== United States ====
In June 2024, US Surgeon General [[Vivek Murthy]] called for social media platforms to contain a warning about the impact they have on the mental health of young people.[{{Cite news |last=Murthy |first=Vivek H. |date=2024-06-17 |title=Opinion {{!}} Surgeon General: Why I'm Calling for a Warning Label on Social Media Platforms |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/17/opinion/social-media-health-warning.html |access-date=2024-06-17 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |archive-date=10 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250210202242/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/17/opinion/social-media-health-warning.html |url-status=live }}]
== Business models ==
The business model of most social media platforms is based on selling slots to advertisers. Platforms provide access to data about each user, which allows them to deliver ads that are individually relevant to them. This strongly incents platforms to arrange their content so that users view as much content as possible, increasing the number of ads that they see. Platforms such as X add paid user subscriptions in part to reduce their dependence on advertising revenues.[{{Cite web |last=L |first=Frank |date=March 1, 2023 |title=5 Winning Social Media Business Models + Examples |url=https://getstream.io/blog/social-media-business-models/ |access-date=2024-05-28 |website=getstream.io |language=en}}]
==Criticism, debate and controversy{{anchor|Criticisms}}==
The enormous reach and impact of social media has naturally led to a stream of criticism, debate, and controversy. Criticisms include platform capabilities, content moderation and reliability,[{{cite journal |last1=Flanagin |first1=Andrew J. |last2=Metzger |first2=Miriam J. |title=The role of site features, user attributes, and information verification behaviors on the perceived credibility of web-based information |journal=New Media & Society |date=April 2007 |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=319–342 |doi=10.1177/1461444807075015 }}] impact on concentration, mental health,[{{cite journal |last1=Paul |first1=Jomon Aliyas |last2=Baker |first2=Hope M. |last3=Cochran |first3=Justin Daniel |title=Effect of online social networking on student academic performance |journal=Computers in Human Behavior |date=November 2012 |volume=28 |issue=6 |pages=2117–2127 |doi=10.1016/j.chb.2012.06.016}}] content ownership, and the meaning of interactions, and poor cross-platform [[interoperability]],[{{cite web |last=Hinchiffe |first=Don |title=Are social media silos holding back business |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/are-social-media-silos-holding-back-business-results/ |date=2013-06-25 |publisher=ZDNet.com |access-date=2014-02-15 |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714194216/https://www.zdnet.com/article/are-social-media-silos-holding-back-business-results/ |url-status=live }}] decrease in face-to-face interactions, [[cyberbullying]], [[sexual predator|sexual predation]], particularly of children, and [[child pornography]].[{{cite journal |last1=Greene-Colozzi |first1=Emily A. |last2=Winters |first2=Georgia M. |last3=Blasko |first3=Brandy |last4=Jeglic |first4=Elizabeth L. |title=Experiences and Perceptions of Online Sexual Solicitation and Grooming of Minors: A Retrospective Report |journal=Journal of Child Sexual Abuse |date=2 October 2020 |volume=29 |issue=7 |pages=836–854 |doi=10.1080/10538712.2020.1801938 |pmid=33017275 }}][{{cite book |last1=Henshaw |first1=Marie |last2=Darjee |first2=Rajan |last3=Clough |first3=Jonathan A. |title=Child Sexual Abuse |chapter=Online child sexual offending |date=2020 |pages=85–108 |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-819434-8.00005-2 |isbn=978-0-12-819434-8 }}]
In 2007 [[Andrew Keen]] wrote, "Out of this anarchy, it suddenly became clear that what was governing the infinite monkeys now inputting away on the Internet was the law of digital Darwinism, the survival of the loudest and most opinionated. Under these rules, the only way to intellectually prevail is by infinite filibustering."[{{Cite book |last=Keen |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Keen |title=The Cult of the Amateur |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-0-385-52081-2 |page=15|year=2007 }}]
===Trustworthiness and reliability===
{{See also|The Disinformation Project}}
Social media has become a regular source of news and information. A 2021 Pew Research Center poll reported roughly 70% of users regularly get news from social media,[{{Cite news |date=February 12, 2020 |title=Facebook starts fact-checking partnership with Reuters |newspaper=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-facebook-partnership-reuters-idUSKBN2062K4 |access-date=March 2, 2022 }}][{{Cite magazine |last=Watercutter |first=Angela |title=Two to Tango: Twitter Fact-Checks the Fact-Checkers |url=https://www.wired.com/story/trump-speech-twitter-fact-check/ |magazine=Wired |access-date=March 2, 2022}}][{{Cite web |title=See fact checks in YouTube search results - YouTube Help |url=https://support.google.com/youtube/answer/9229632?hl=en |access-date=March 2, 2022 |website=support.google.com}}] Content distribution algorithms otherwise typically ignore substance, responding instead to the contents' virality.
In 2018, researchers reported that fake news spread almost 70% faster than truthful news on X.[{{cite magazine |last=Gladwell |first=Malcolm |date=October 4, 2010 |title=Small Changes – Why the revolution will not be tweeted |url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2010/10/04/small-change-3 |access-date=2012-11-15 |magazine=[[The New Yorker]]}}] Gladwell claimed that social media are built around weak ties and argues that "social networks are effective at increasing participation—by lessening the level of motivation that participation requires."[{{cite journal |last1=Kwak |first1=Nojin |last2=Lane |first2=Daniel S |last3=Weeks |first3=Brian E |last4=Kim |first4=Dam Hee |last5=Lee |first5=Slgi S |last6=Bachleda |first6=Sarah |title=Perceptions of Social Media for Politics: Testing the Slacktivism Hypothesis |journal=Human Communication Research |date=April 2018 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=197–221 |doi=10.1093/hcr/hqx008 }}]
===Content ownership===
Social media content is generated by users. However, content ownership is defined by the Terms of Service to which users agree. Platforms control access to the content, and may make it available to third parties.[{{cite web |url=http://groups.csail.mit.edu/mac/classes/6.805/student-papers/fall05-papers/facebook.pdf |last1=Jones |first1=Harvey |last2=Soltren |first2=José Hiram |title=Facebook: Threats to Privacy |publisher=MIT Computer Science & Artificial Intelligence Lab |year=2005 |access-date=2018-04-04 |archive-date=28 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080528040207/http://www.swiss.ai.mit.edu/6095/student-papers/fall05-papers/facebook.pdf |url-status=live }}]
Although platform's terms differ, generally they all give permission to utilize users' copyrighted works at the platform's discretion.[{{Cite web |last=Thompson |first=Cadie |date=2015-05-20 |title=What you really sign up for when you use social media |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2015/05/20/what-you-really-sign-up-for-when-you-use-social-media.html |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=[[CNBC]] |language= |archive-date=3 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230903161309/https://www.cnbc.com/2015/05/20/what-you-really-sign-up-for-when-you-use-social-media.html |url-status=live }}]
After its acquisition by Facebook in 2012, Instagram revealed it intended to use content in ads without seeking permission from or paying its users.[{{Cite web |last=McCullagh |first=Declan |date=2012-12-17 |title=Instagram says it now has the right to sell your photos |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/tech-industry/instagram-says-it-now-has-the-right-to-sell-your-photos/ |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=[[CNET]]}}][{{Cite web |last=Rodriguez |first=Salvador |date=2012-12-17 |title=Instagram may have ads, let companies use your photos for the ads |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-xpm-2012-dec-17-la-fi-tn-instagram-sell-photos-terms-of-service-20121217-story.html |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=[[Los Angeles Times]]}}] It then reversed these changes, with then-CEO [[Kevin Systrom]] promising to update the terms of service.[{{Cite web |last1=McCullagh |first1=Declan |last2=Tam |first2=Donna |title=Instagram apologizes to users: We won't sell your photos |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/instagram-apologizes-to-users-we-wont-sell-your-photos/ |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=[[CNET]] |date=18 December 2012 }}][{{Cite web |last=Sottek |first=T.C. |date=2012-12-18 |title=Instagram says 'it's not our intention to sell your photos' |url=https://www.theverge.com/2012/12/18/3781860/instagram-on-its-new-tos-its-not-our-intention-to-sell-your-photos |access-date=2023-09-03 |website=[[The Verge]]}}]
===Privacy===
{{main|Privacy concerns with social networking services}}
Privacy rights advocates warn users about the collection of their personal data. Information is captured without the user's knowing [[consent]]. Data may be applied to law enforcement or other governmental purposes.[{{cite journal |last=Auer |first=Matthew R. |year=2011 |title=The Policy Sciences of Social Media |journal=Policy Studies Journal |volume=39 |issue=4 |pages=709–736 |doi=10.1111/j.1541-0072.2011.00428.x |ssrn=1974080 }}][ Information may be offered for third party use.
Young people are prone to sharing personal information that can attract predators.][{{Cite web|url=http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/05/21/teens-social-media-and-privacy/|title=Teens, Social Media, and Privacy|last1=Madden|first1=Mary|last2=Lenhart|first2=Amanda|last3=Cortesi|first3=Sandra|last4=Gasser|first4=Urs|last5=Duggan|first5=Maeve|last6=Smith|first6=Aaron|last7=Beaton|first7=Meredith|date=May 21, 2013|website=Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech|access-date=2016-11-29|archive-date=6 December 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151206131805/http://www.pewinternet.org/2013/05/21/teens-social-media-and-privacy/|url-status=live}}]
While social media users claim to want to keep their data private, their behavior does not reflect that concern, as many users expose significant personal data on their profiles.
In addition, platforms collect data on user behaviors that are not part of their personal profiles. This data is made available to third parties for purposes that include targeted advertising.[{{Cite web|title=Social Media Privacy Issues for 2020: Threats & Risks|date=8 November 2019 |url=https://sopa.tulane.edu/blog/key-social-media-privacy-issues-2020|access-date=2020-11-12|publisher=Tulane University}}]
A 2014 [[Pew Research Center]] survey reported that 91% of Americans "agree" or "strongly agree" that people have lost control over how personal information is collected and used. Some 80% of social media users said they were concerned about advertisers and businesses accessing the data they share on social media platforms, and 64% said the government should do more to regulate advertisers.[{{Cite news|url=http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/03/27/americans-complicated-feelings-about-social-media-in-an-era-of-privacy-concerns/|last=Rainie|first=Lee|title=Americans' complicated feelings about social media in an era of privacy concerns|date=March 27, 2018|work=Pew Research Center|access-date=2018-06-13|language=en-US|archive-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180620055010/http://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/03/27/americans-complicated-feelings-about-social-media-in-an-era-of-privacy-concerns/|url-status=live}}] In 2019, UK legislators criticized Facebook for not protecting certain aspects of user data.[{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/u-k-committee-rebukes-facebook-in-call-for-social-media-regulation-11550448060#comments_sector|title=U.K. Lawmakers Rebuke Facebook in Call for Social-Media Regulation|last1=Fidler|first1=Stephen|last2=Wells|first2=Georgia|date=2019-02-17|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|access-date=2022-08-29}}]
In 2019 the [[The Pentagon|Pentagon]] issued guidance to the military, Coast Guard and other government agencies that identified "the potential risk associated with using the TikTok app and directs appropriate action for employees to take in order to safeguard their personal information."[{{cite news |date=21 December 2019 |title=US Navy bans TikTok from mobile devices saying it's a cybersecurity threat |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2019/dec/21/us-navy-bans-tiktok-from-mobile-devices-saying-its-a-cybersecurity-threat |access-date=6 January 2023 |work=The Guardian}}] As a result, the military, Coast Guard, [[Transportation Security Administration]], and [[Department of Homeland Security]] banned the installation and use of TikTok on government devices.[{{cite news |date=25 February 2020 |title=US government agencies are banning TikTok, the social media app teens are obsessed with, over cybersecurity fears — here's the full list |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/us-government-agencies-have-banned-tiktok-app-2020-2 |access-date=6 January 2023 |work=Business Insider}}]
In 2020, the US government attempted to ban TikTok and [[WeChat]] from the United States over national security concerns. However, a federal court blocked the move.[{{Cite web|date=2020-10-30|title=Judge postpones Trump's TikTok ban in suit brought by users|url=https://apnews.com/article/donald-trump-entertainment-pennsylvania-courts-3573972d3aa6bee78304e3195ffe4ade|last=O'Brien|first=Matt|access-date=2020-11-29|website=AP NEWS}}] In 2024, the US Congress passed a law directing TikTok's parent company, [[ByteDance]], to divest the service or see the service banned from operating in the US. The company sued, challenging the constitutionality of the law,[{{Cite web |date=2024-05-28 |title=U.S. court to hear challenges to potential TikTok ban in September |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2024/05/28/us-court-to-hear-challenges-to-potential-tiktok-ban-in-september.html |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=CNBC |language=en}}] but the US Supreme Court upheld the ban as constitutional in January 2025.[{{Cite web |last1=Lennett |first1=Ben |last2=Hendrix |first2=Justin |date=2025-01-17 |title=US Supreme Court Upholds Constitutionality of Law That May Result in Ban of TikTok |url=https://techpolicy.press/us-supreme-court-upholds-constitutionality-of-law-that-may-result-in-ban-of-tiktok |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=Tech Policy Press |language=en}}] An agreement was reached in January 2026 that allowed TikTok to continue operating in the US by creating a new American entity called [[TikTok USDS|TikTok US Joint Venture]]. Under this deal, ByteDance retains a 19.9% share of the stock while investors including Oracle, Silver Lake, and MGX hold the remaining stake.[{{Cite news |last= |first= |date=2026-01-22 |title=TikTok finalizes deal to form new American entity |url=https://www.npr.org/2026/01/22/nx-s1-5685456/tiktok-finalizes-deal-to-form-new-american-entity |access-date=2026-04-23 |work=NPR |language=en}}]
===Addiction===
{{Main|Problematic social media use}}
{{See also|Digital media use and mental health}}
{{Excerpt|Internet addiction disorder|only=paragraphs}}Research suggests that social media platforms trigger a cycle of compulsive behavior, which reinforces addictive patterns and makes it harder for individuals to break the cycle.[{{Cite journal |last1=Huo |first1=Yubo |last2=Xiong |first2=Dan |last3=Jiang |first3=Tonglin |last4=Song |first4=Lily |last5=Wang |first5=Qi |date=February 21, 2019 |title=Social media addiction: Its impact, mediation, and intervention |url=https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-4 |journal=Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace |volume=13 |issue=1 |doi=10.5817/CP2019-1-4 }}]
Various lawsuits have been brought regarding social media addiction, such as the Multi-District Litigation alleging harms caused by social media addiction on young users.[{{Cite web |title=Meta Limits But Can't Shake Social Media Addiction MDL - Law360 |url=https://www.law360.com/articles/1890319/meta-limits-but-can-t-shake-social-media-addiction-mdl |access-date=2025-02-04 |website=www.law360.com |language=en}}]
===Debate over use by young people===
{{See also|Social media in education}}
Whether to restrict the use of phones and social media among young people has been debated since smartphones became ubiquitous.[{{cite magazine |last=Kist |first=W. |date=December 2012 |title=Class, Get Ready to Tweet: Social Media in the Classroom |url=https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ991339 |journal=Our Children: The National PTA Magazine |pages=10–11 |volume=38 |number=3 |access-date=30 August 2022 |archive-date=30 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220830043041/https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ991339 |url-status=live }}] A study of Americans aged 12–15, reported that teenagers who used social media over three hours/day doubled their risk of negative mental health outcomes, including depression and anxiety.[{{Cite web |last=KATELLA |first=KATHY |date=January 8, 2024 |title=How Social Media Affects Your Teen's Mental Health: A Parent's Guide |url=https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/social-media-teen-mental-health-a-parents-guide |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=Yale Medicine |language=en |archive-date=8 March 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260308160232/https://www.yalemedicine.org/news/social-media-teen-mental-health-a-parents-guide |url-status=live }}] Platforms have not tuned their algorithms to prevent young people from viewing inappropriate content. A 2023 study of Australian youth reported that 57% had seen disturbingly violent content, while nearly half had regular exposure to sexual images.[{{Cite web |date=August 2023 |title=Inappropriate content: factsheet |url=https://www.esafety.gov.au/educators/training-for-professionals/professional-learning-program-teachers/inappropriate-content-factsheet |access-date=29 May 2024 |archive-date=29 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529204454/https://www.esafety.gov.au/educators/training-for-professionals/professional-learning-program-teachers/inappropriate-content-factsheet |url-status=live }}] Further, youth are prone to misuse social media for [[cyberbullying]].[{{cite journal |last1=Santre |first1=Siriporn |title=Cyberbullying in adolescents: a literature review |journal=International Journal of Adolescent Medicine and Health |date=March 2023 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=1–7 |doi=10.1515/ijamh-2021-0133 |pmid=35245420 }}] As result, phones have been banned from some schools, and in the US some schools have blocked social media websites.[{{Cite web |agency=Associated Press |date=2024-02-27 |title=Phones are distracting students in class. More states are pressing schools to ban them |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/phones-are-distracting-students-class-states-are-pressing-schools-ban-rcna140629 |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=NBC News |language=en |archive-date=29 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240529204454/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/phones-are-distracting-students-class-states-are-pressing-schools-ban-rcna140629 |url-status=live }}]
Intense discussions are taking place regarding the imposition of certain restrictions on children's access to social media. It is argued that using social media at a young age brings with it many problems. For example, according to a survey{{when|date=February 2026}} conducted by [[Ofcom]], the media regulator in the UK, 22% of children aged 8–17 lied about being over 18 on social media. According to a system implemented in Norway, more than half of nine-year-olds and the vast majority of 12-year-olds spend time on social media. A series of measures, which can be categorized into [[Parental responsibility (criminal)|parental responsibility]] and [[Online service provider law|online service provider responsibility]],[{{cite journal | last1=Jarvie | first1=Chelsea | last2=Renaud | first2=Karen | title=Online Age Verification: Government Legislation, Supplier Responsibilization, and Public Perceptions | journal=Children | volume=11 | issue=9 | date=2024 | issn=2227-9067 | pmid=39334601 | pmc=11429505 | doi=10.3390/children11091068 | doi-access=free | page=1068}}] have begun to be taken to prevent the risks caused by such problems. The countries that have taken concrete steps in this regard are Norway and France. Since June 2023, France has started requiring social media platforms to verify the ages of their users and to obtain parental consent for those under the age of 15. In Norway, there is a minimum age requirement of 13 to access social media. The Online Safety Law in the UK gave social media platforms until mid-2025 to strengthen their [[Age verification system|age verification systems]].[{{Cite web |date=2024-11-29 |title=Çocuklara sosyal medya yasağı: Türkiye ve dünyada tartışılan kısıtlama modelleri ne? |url=https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/czj7rn2g4m3o |access-date=2024-12-30 |website=BBC News Türkçe |language=tr |archive-date=30 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241230210545/https://www.bbc.com/turkce/articles/czj7rn2g4m3o |url-status=live }}] Building on a framework for age or functionality restrictions already established by UK law and parliamentary action, the UK government announced in June 2024 that it would ban social media for under-16s as a child-safety measure, planning to use an Australia-style model.[{{cite web |url=https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-10468/CBP-10468.pdf |title=Proposals to ban social media for children |publisher=House of Commons Library |date=2024-06-26 |access-date=2024-12-30}}][{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/fact-sheet-new-rules-to-protect-children-online/fact-sheet-new-rules-to-protect-children-online |title=Fact sheet: New rules to protect children online |publisher=GOV.UK |access-date=2024-12-30}}][{{cite news |work=Associated Press News |date=2024-06-26 |title=UK bans under-16s from using social media apps including TikTok and YouTube |url=https://apnews.com/article/uk-teen-social-media-ban-starmer-55de428636b586ff5553b604783f6fb3 |access-date=2024-12-30}}]
===Censorship{{anchor|Censorship_incidents}}===
{{Main|Internet censorship|Internet censorship in China|Internet censorship in India}}
Social media often features in political struggles. In some countries, [[Internet police]] or [[secret police]] monitor or control citizens' use of social media. For example, in 2013 some social media was banned in [[Turkey]] after the Taksim [[Gezi Park protests]]. Both X and YouTube were temporarily suspended in the country by a court's decision. A law granted immunity to Telecommunications Directorate (TİB) personnel. The TİB was also given the authority to block access to specific websites without a court order.[{{cite web|first=Salih|last=Sarıkaya |title=Social Media Ban In Turkey: What Does It Mean? by Salih Sarıkaya |url=http://www.salihsarikaya.com/en/social-media-ban-in-turkey-what-does-it-mean-by-salih-sarikaya/ |date=October 30, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006012638/http://www.salihsarikaya.com/en/social-media-ban-in-turkey-what-does-it-mean-by-salih-sarikaya/ |archive-date=2014-10-06 }}] Yet TİB's 2014 blocking of [[Twitter|X]] was ruled by the constitutional court to violate free speech.[{{Cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-twitter-ban-idUSBREA311BF20140402 |title=Turkey's Twitter ban violates free speech: constitutional court |work=Reuters |date=April 2, 2014|access-date=2022-08-29}}]
==== United States ====
{{Excerpt|Internet censorship in the United States|only=paragraphs}}
===Decentralization and open standards===
While the dominant social media platforms are not interoperable, open source protocols such as [[ActivityPub]] have been adopted by platforms such as [[Mastodon (software)|Mastodon]], [[GNU social]], [[Diaspora (social network)|Diaspora]], and [[Friendica]]. They operate as a loose federation of mostly volunteer-operated servers, called the [[Fediverse]].
In December 2019, [[Twitter|X]] CEO [[Jack Dorsey]] advocated an "open and decentralized standard for social media". He joined [[Bluesky (social network)|Bluesky]] to bring it to reality.[{{Cite magazine |last=Kang |first=Jay Caspian |date=2023-05-12 |title=What Bluesky Tells Us About the Future of Social Media |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/what-bluesky-tells-us-about-the-future-of-social-media |access-date=2024-05-29 |magazine=The New Yorker }}]
===Deplatforming===
{{see also|Twitter suspensions}}
{{excerpt|Deplatforming|only=paragraphs}}
=== Threat to democracy ===
{{See also|Democratic backsliding|The Social Dilemma}}
A number of commentators and experts have argued that social media companies have incentives that to maximize user engagement with [[Sensationalism|sensational]], emotive and controversial material that discourages a healthy discourse that democracies depend on.[{{Cite web |last=Gal |first=Uri |date=2024-01-26 |title=Opinion: Anti-social media: What can be done to stop platforms from driving democracies apart? |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/ethics-social-media-tiktok-pulling-democratic-society-apart/103393442 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=ABC Religion & Ethics |language=en-AU}}] Zack Beauchamp of [[Vox Media]] calls it an authoritarian medium because of how it is incentivized to stir up hate and division that benefits aspiring autocrats.[{{Cite web |last=Beauchamp |first=Zack |date=2019-01-22 |title=Social media is rotting democracy from within |url=https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/1/22/18177076/social-media-facebook-far-right-authoritarian-populism |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=Vox |language=en-US |archive-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125171545/https://www.vox.com/policy-and-politics/2019/1/22/18177076/social-media-facebook-far-right-authoritarian-populism |url-status=live }}] ''[[The Economist]]'' describes social media as vulnerable to manipulation by autocrats.[{{Cite news |date=November 4, 2017 |title=Once considered a boon to democracy, social media have started to look like its nemesis |url=https://www.economist.com/briefing/2017/11/04/once-considered-a-boon-to-democracy-social-media-have-started-to-look-like-its-nemesis |access-date=2024-07-15 |newspaper=The Economist }}] Informed dialogue, a shared sense of reality, mutual consent and participation can all suffer due to the business model of social media.[{{Cite web |last1=Deb |first1=Anamitra |last2=Donohue |first2=Stacy |last3=Glaisyer |first3=Tom |date=October 31, 2017 |title=Is Social Media a Threat to Democracy? |url=https://gijn.org/stories/is-social-media-a-threat-to-democracy/ |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=[[Global Investigative Journalism Network]] |language=en-US}}] [[#Political polarization|Political polarization]] can be one byproduct.[{{Cite news |date=February 20, 2017 |title='#Republic' Author Describes How Social Media Hurts Democracy |url=https://www.npr.org/2017/02/20/516292286/-republic-author-describes-how-social-media-hurts-democracy |work=NPR}}][{{Cite web |last=Hull |first=Gordon |date=2017-11-06 |title=Why social media may not be so good for democracy |url=http://theconversation.com/why-social-media-may-not-be-so-good-for-democracy-86285 |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=28 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240728050212/https://theconversation.com/why-social-media-may-not-be-so-good-for-democracy-86285 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |date=2023-05-31 |title=What's driving America's partisan divide and what might be done to reverse it |url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/whats-driving-americas-partisan-divide-and-what-might-be-done-to-reverse-it |access-date=2024-07-14 |website=PBS News |language=en-us |archive-date=14 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240714203946/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/whats-driving-americas-partisan-divide-and-what-might-be-done-to-reverse-it |url-status=live }}] This can have implications for the likelihood of [[political violence]].[{{Cite news |last=Goo |first=Sara Kehaulani |date=Jun 28, 2022 |title=Nobelist Maria Ressa: Social media is corroding U.S. democracy |url=https://www.axios.com/2022/06/28/maria-ressa-social-media-democracy |work=Axios}}][{{Cite news |last=Naughton |first=John |date=2018-06-25 |title=Anti-Social Media: How Facebook Disconnects Us and Undermines Democracy by Siva Vaidhyanathan – review |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/jun/25/anti-social-media-how-facebook-disconnects-us-undermines-democracy-siva-vaidhyanathan-review |access-date=2024-07-14 |work=The Observer }}] [[Andrew Leonard]] describes [[Pol.is]] as one possible solution to the divisiveness of traditional discourse on social media that has damaged democracies, citing the use of its algorithm to instead prioritize finding consensus.[{{Cite magazine |last=Leonard |first=Andrew |date=July 30, 2020 |title=How Taiwan's Unlikely Digital Minister Hacked the Pandemic |url=https://www.wired.com/story/how-taiwans-unlikely-digital-minister-hacked-the-pandemic/ |access-date=2024-05-04 |magazine=Wired |archive-date=12 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240712062307/https://www.wired.com/story/how-taiwans-unlikely-digital-minister-hacked-the-pandemic/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |last=Miller |first=Carl |author-link=Carl Miller (author) |date=2020-09-27 |title=How Taiwan's 'civic hackers' helped find a new way to run the country |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/sep/27/taiwan-civic-hackers-polis-consensus-social-media-platform |access-date=2024-02-27 |work=The Guardian }}]
=== Extremist groups ===
{{Main|Terrorism and social media}}
According to ''Like War: The Weaponization of Social Media'',[{{Cite news|last=Giangreco|first=Leigh|date=2018-11-29|title=How Trump, ISIS and Russia have mastered the Internet as a weapon|language=en-US|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/how-trump-isis-and-russia-have-mastered-the-internet-as-a-weapon/2018/11/29/5a6e44c8-c58e-11e8-9b1c-a90f1daae309_story.html|access-date=2021-01-22|archive-date=3 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230803091311/https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/how-trump-isis-and-russia-have-mastered-the-internet-as-a-weapon/2018/11/29/5a6e44c8-c58e-11e8-9b1c-a90f1daae309_story.html|url-status=live}}] The use of social media by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]] and [[Al-Qaeda]] has been used to influence public opinion where it operates and gain the attention of sympathizers. Social media platforms and encrypted-messaging applications have been used to recruit members, both locally and internationally.[{{cite journal |last1=Awan |first1=Imran |title=Cyber-Extremism: Isis and the Power of Social Media |journal=Society |date=April 2017 |volume=54 |issue=2 |pages=138–149 |doi=10.1007/s12115-017-0114-0 |doi-access=free }}] Platforms have endured backlash for [[Use of social media by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|allowing this content]]. Extreme nationalist groups, and more prominently, US [[Right wing extremist|right-wing extremists]] have used similar online tactics. As many traditional social media platforms banned [[Online hate speech|hate speech]], several platforms became popular among right-wing extremists to carry out planning and communication including of events; these application became known as "[[Alt-tech]]". Platforms such as [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]], [[Parler]], and [[Gab (social network)|Gab]] were used during the [[January 6 United States Capitol attack]], to coordinate attacks.[{{Cite web|title=Experts say echo chambers from apps like Parler and Gab contributed to attack on Capitol|url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/experts-echo-chambers-apps-parler-gab-contributed-attack/story?id=75141014|last=Romero|first=Laura|date=2021-01-12|access-date=2021-01-22|website=ABC News|language=en|archive-date=13 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210113154444/https://abcnews.go.com/US/experts-echo-chambers-apps-parler-gab-contributed-attack/story?id=75141014|url-status=live}}] Members shared tips on how to avoid law enforcement and their plans on carrying out their objectives; some users called for killing law enforcement officers and politicians.[{{Cite web|last=Murdock|first=Jason|date=2021-01-13|title=Amazon shut down Parler after users called for politicians, police to be killed: Lawsuit|url=https://www.newsweek.com/amazon-web-services-parler-lawsuit-user-threats-1561179|access-date=2021-01-22|website=Newsweek|language=en}}]
== Deceased users ==
{{Further|Death and the Internet}}
Social media content persists unless the user deletes it. After a user dies, unless the platform is notified, their content remains.[{{Cite web|date=2018-12-30|title=What happens to social media after you die|url=https://www.news.com.au/technology/online/social/this-is-what-happens-to-all-your-social-media-accounts-after-you-die/news-story/6af9db68910ec664752bdd7693875541|access-date=2020-11-27|website=NewsComAu|language=en|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201191042/https://www.news.com.au/technology/online/social/this-is-what-happens-to-all-your-social-media-accounts-after-you-die/news-story/6af9db68910ec664752bdd7693875541|url-status=live}}] Each platform has created guidelines for this situation.[{{Cite web|date=2017-03-08|title=Social Media Accounts After a Loved One Dies|url=https://beyond.life/help-centre/admin-legal/social-media-accounts-loved-one-dies/|access-date=2020-11-27|website=Beyond|language=en-GB|archive-date=4 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230404022713/https://beyond.life/help-centre/admin-legal/social-media-accounts-loved-one-dies/|url-status=live}}] In most cases on social media, the platforms require a next-of-kin to prove that the user is deceased, and give them the option of closing the account or maintaining it in a 'legacy' status.
{| class="wikitable"
|+Guidelines for users who have died, by platform[{{Cite web|title=How to contact Twitter about a deceased family member's account|url=https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/contact-twitter-about-a-deceased-family-members-account|access-date=2020-11-28|website=help.twitter.com|language=en|archive-date=30 August 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230830212056/https://help.twitter.com/en/rules-and-policies/contact-twitter-about-a-deceased-family-members-account|url-status=live}}]
|The company works with an immediate family member to deactivate the account. Additionally, X will not give the account to any other person, regardless of the relationship.
|-
|Facebook
|Users have the option of having their account permanently deleted after death. Users can identify a 'legacy contact' who would take over the account after.
|-
|Instagram[{{Cite web|title=Instagram Help Center|url=https://help.instagram.com/contact/452224988254813?helpref=faq_content|access-date=2020-12-01|website=help.instagram.com|archive-date=19 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219035203/https://help.instagram.com/contact/452224988254813?helpref=faq_content|url-status=live}}]
|Users can have the account memorialized or deleted with proof of death.
|-
|LinkedIn[{{Cite web|title=Deceased LinkedIn Member|url=https://www.linkedin.com/help/linkedin/answer/2842/deceased-linkedin-member?lang=en|access-date=2020-12-01|website=LinkedIn Help|language=en|archive-date=23 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221023072649/https://www.linkedin.com/help/linkedin/answer/2842/deceased-linkedin-member?lang=en|url-status=live}}]
|A family member can request that the account be deleted. The family member must identify the account, submit proof of relationship, the user's email address, date of death, a link to the obituary, and the name of the last company the deceased worked for.
|-
|Pinterest
|Must email the company with the URL of the account along with a death certificate or a link to the obituary, as well as proof of relationship to the deceased.
|-
|YouTube[{{Cite web|title=Submit a request regarding a deceased user's account |url=https://support.google.com/accounts/troubleshooter/6357590?hl=en#ts=6357650 |website=google.account.help.com |language=en}}]
|A representative can close the account, transfer payments from the account to an immediate family member and legal representative of the user's estate, and can provide the data in the account to a family member. All three capabilities require the requestor's government-issued ID or driver's license, the decedent's death certificate, and additional supporting documentation.
|-
|[[WeChat]]
|The heir must supply the user's death certificate, authentication of family relationship. The successor can then obtain the assets.
|}
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* {{Annotated link |Algorithmic bias}}
* {{Annotated link |Attention inequality}}
* {{Annotated link |Citizen media}}
* {{Annotated link |Connectivism}}
* {{Annotated link |Connectivity (media)}}
* {{Annotated link |News aggregator|Content aggregator}}
* {{Annotated link |Culture jamming}}
* {{Annotated link |Digital detox}}
* {{Annotated link |List of social bookmarking websites}}
* {{Annotated link |List of social networking services}}
* {{Annotated link |Metcalfe's law}}
* {{Annotated link |Networked learning}}
* {{Annotated link |New media}}
* {{Annotated link |Online presence management}}
* {{Annotated link |Online research community}}
* {{Annotated link |Participatory media}}
* {{Annotated link |Psychological effects of Internet use}}
* {{Annotated link |Social influence bias}}
* {{Annotated link |Social media and psychology}}
* {{Annotated link |Social media in education}}
* {{Annotated link |Social media mining}}
* {{Annotated link |Social media optimization}}
* {{Annotated link |Social media surgery}}
* {{Annotated link |Social networking service}}
* {{Annotated link |The medium is the message}}
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Aral |first=Sinan |year=2020 |title=The Hype Machine: How Social Media Disrupts Our Elections, Our Economy, and Our Health—and How We Must Adapt |isbn=978-0-525-57451-4 |publisher=Currency}}
* {{cite book |last=Fuchs |first=Christian |year=2021 |title=Social Media: A Critical Introduction |publisher=Sage |location=London|author-link=Christian Fuchs (sociologist)|isbn=978-1-5297-5274-8 |edition=3rd}}
* Hou, Yubo, Dan Xiong, Tonglin Jiang, Lily Song, and Qi Wang. "Social Media Addiction: Its Impact, Mediation, and Intervention". Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace 13, no. 1 (February 21, 2019). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-4.
==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Wikibooks}}
{{Wikiversity}}
{{Scholia|topic}}
{{Wikinews|New American Psychological Association guidelines: Parents should advise teenagers on social media use, impose restrictions}}
*{{Commons category-inline}}
* [https://www.bildungsserver.de/bildung-weltweit/social-media-ban-in-which-countries-7610_eng.html ''Social media bans worldwide''], a webdossier by the German Education Server, February 2026
{{Online social networking}}{{Computer-mediated communication}}{{Media culture}}
{{Authority control|state=expanded}}
[[Category:Social media| ]]
[[Category:Collaborative projects]]
[[Category:Crowdsourcing]]
[[Category:News aggregators]]
[[Category:Social networks]]