{{Short description|Country in Southeast Europe (1992–2006)}}
{{Redirect|FRY}}
{{For|the relations of the modern-day sovereign states of Serbia and Montenegro|Montenegro–Serbia relations}}
{{Redirect-distinguish-text|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]]}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2025}}
{{Infobox former country
| conventional_long_name = {{nowrap|Federal Republic of Yugoslavia
{{No bold|(1992–2003)}}}}{{Clear}}{{Smaller|{{No bold|{{Lang|sh-Cyrl|Савезна Република Југославија}}{{Clear}}{{Lang|sh-Latn|Savezna Republika Jugoslavija}}}}}}
{{Nowrap|State Union of Serbia and Montenegro
{{No bold|(2003–2006)}}}}
{{Smaller|{{No bold|{{Lang|sh-Cyrl|Државна заједница Србија и Црна Гора}}{{Clear}}{{Lang|sh-Latn|Državna zajednica Srbija i Crna Gora}}}}}}
| common_name = Serbia and Montenegro
| image_flag = Flag of Serbia and Montenegro (1992–2006).svg
| flag_caption = Flag
| image_coat = [[File:Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro.svg|80px]]
| symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of Serbia and Montenegro|Coat of arms]]
| image_map = Serbia and Montenegro (1992-2006).png
| map_caption = Serbia and Montenegro in 1998
| national_anthem = "[[Hej Sloveni|Хеј, Словени]]" / "{{Lang|sh|Hej, Sloveni|italic=no}}"
{{small|"Hey, Slavs"}}{{parabr}}{{center|}}[[File:United States Navy Band - Hey, Slavs.ogg]]
| official_languages = [[Serbian language|Serbian]]{{ref label|b|b}} (1992–2003)
None at the union level{{ref label|b|b}} (2003–2006)
| capital = [[Belgrade]]{{ref label|a|a}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|44|48|N|20|28|E|type:city}}
| largest_city = capital
| demonym = [[Yugoslavs|Yugoslav]] (until 2003)
[[Serbia]]n{{·}}[[Montenegro|Montenegrin]] (from 2003)
| government_type = Federal [[parliamentary republic]] (1992–2000)
----
Federal [[semi-presidential republic]] (2000–2003)
----
Confederated [[constitutional republic]] (2003–2006)
| title_leader = [[President of Serbia and Montenegro|President]]
| leader1 = [[Dobrica Ćosić]]
| year_leader1 = 1992–1993
| leader2 = [[Zoran Lilić]]
| year_leader2 = 1993–1997
| leader3 = [[Slobodan Milošević]]
| year_leader3 = 1997–2000
| leader4 = [[Vojislav Koštunica]]
| year_leader4 = 2000–2003
| leader5 = [[Svetozar Marović]]
| year_leader5 = 2003–2006
| title_deputy = [[Prime Minister of Serbia and Montenegro|Prime Minister]]
| deputy1 = [[Milan Panić]]
| year_deputy2 = 1993–1998
| deputy2 = [[Radoje Kontić]]
| year_deputy3 = 1998–2000
| year_deputy1 = 1992–1993
| deputy5 = [[Dragiša Pešić]]
| year_deputy6 = 2003–2006
| deputy6 = [[Svetozar Marović]]
| deputy3 = [[Momir Bulatović]]
| year_deputy4 = 2000–2001
| deputy4 = [[Zoran Žižić]]
| year_deputy5 = 2001–2003
| legislature = [[Parliament of Serbia and Montenegro|Federal Assembly]]
| era = [[Yugoslav Wars]] (1992–1999)
| year_start = 1992
| year_end = 2006
| event_start = [[1992 Yugoslav Constitution|Constitution]] adopted
| date_start = 27 April
| event1 = [[International sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro|Sanctions]]
| date_event1 = 1992–1995
| event2 = [[Kosovo War]]
| date_event2 = 1998–1999
| event3 = [[Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević|Bulldozer revolution]]
| date_event3 = 5 October 2000
| event4 = [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1326|Admitted]] to the [[United Nations]]{{ref label|c|c}}
| date_event4 = 1 November 2000
| event5 = [[Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro|State Union]]
| date_event5 = 4 February 2003
| event6 = [[2006 Montenegrin independence referendum|Independence]] of [[Montenegro]]
| date_event6 = 3 June 2006
| event_end = [[History of Serbia#Republic of Serbia (2006–present)|Serbia confirms sovereignty]]
| date_end = 5 June
| population_estimate = 10,832,545
| population_estimate_rank =
| population_estimate_year = 2006
| currency = Serbia:
* [[Yugoslav dinar]]
(1992–2003)
* [[Serbian dinar]]
(2003–2006)
Montenegro:{{ref label|d|d}}
* [[Yugoslav dinar]]
(1992–2000)
* [[Deutsche Mark]]
(1999–2002)
* [[Euro]]
(2003–2006)
| iso3166code = CS
| cctld = [[.yu]]
| time_zone = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset = [[UTC+1|+1]]
| utc_offset_DST = [[UTC+2|+2]]
| time_zone_DST = [[Central European Summer Time|CEST]]
| calling_code = +381
| today = [[Serbia]]
[[Montenegro]]
| footnote_a = {{Note|a}} After 2003, no city was the official capital, but legislative and executive institutions remained located in [[Belgrade]]. [[Podgorica]] served as the seat of the Supreme Court.
| footnote_b = {{Note|b}} The 2003 Constitutional Charter did not mention the official language. In Serbia, the Serbo-Croatian language is in official use,[{{cite web |url=http://www.parlament.sr.gov.yu/content/lat/akta/ustav/ustav_ceo.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060908044936/http://www.parlament.sr.gov.yu/content/lat/akta/ustav/ustav_ceo.asp |archive-date=8 September 2006 |access-date=22 January 2023 |title=Ustav Republike Srbije |trans-title=Constitution of the Republic of Serbia |year=1990 |quote=Član 8. U Republici Srbiji u službenoj je upotrebi srpskohrvatski jezik i ćiriličko pismo, a latiničko pismo je u službenoj upotrebi na način utvrđen zakonom. [...] |trans-quote=In the Republic of Serbia, the Serbo-Croatian language and the Cyrillic alphabet are in official use, while the Latin alphabet is in official use in the manner established by law.}}] while in Montenegro it is Serbian of Ijekavian pronunciation.[{{cite web|url=https://www.venice.coe.int/webforms/documents/?pdf=CDL(2005)096-e|title=Constitution of the Republic of Montenegro|quote=Article 9}}] Before that, the 1992 Constitution made Serbian official in the federation.[{{cite wikisource |quote=In the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the Serbian language ... shall be official. |wslink=Constitution of Yugoslavia (1992) |section=Article 15 |title=Constitution of Yugoslavia (1992) }}]
| footnote_c = {{Note|c}} Membership as the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.
| footnote_d = {{Note|d}} The dinar and German mark had joint legal tender status in Montenegro in 1999 and 2000. N.B. United Nations Administered Kosovo have ''ad hoc'' used the mark since 1999 and the euro since 2002.
| area_km2 = 102173
| area_rank =
| GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $21.6 billion[{{cite web |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/yugoslavia_nhdr1996.pdf |title=Human Development Report Yugoslavia 1996 |publisher=UNDP |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801203605/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/yugoslavia_nhdr1996.pdf |archive-date=1 August 2020 |url-status=dead }}]
| map_width = 315px
| flag_width = 150px
| symbol_width =
| status = [[Sovereign state]]
([[Rump state]] of the [[SFR Yugoslavia]]; claimed sole succession until 2001)
| p1 = Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia{{!}}SFR Yugoslavia
| flag_p1 = Flag of Yugoslavia (1946-1992).svg
| p2 = Socialist Republic of Serbia{{!}}''SR Serbia''
| flag_p2 = Flag of Serbia (1947–1992); Flag of Montenegro (1946–1993).svg
| p3 = Socialist Republic of Montenegro{{!}}''SR Montenegro''
| flag_p3 = Flag of Serbia (1947–1992); Flag of Montenegro (1946–1993).svg
| s1 = United Nations–administered Kosovo{{!}}'''1999:'''
Kosovo Administered by the United Nations
| flag_s1 = Flag of the United Nations.svg
| s2 = Montenegro{{!}}'''2006:'''
Montenegro
| flag_s2 = Flag of Montenegro.svg
| s3 = Serbia{{!}}'''2006:'''
Serbia
| flag_s3 = Flag of Serbia (2004–2010).svg
}}
The '''State Union of Serbia and Montenegro'''{{efn|{{lang-sr-Cyrl-Latn|Државна заједница Србија и Црна Гора|Državna zajednica Srbija i Crna Gora}}}} (often shortened to '''Serbia and Montenegro'''),{{efn|{{lang-sr-Cyrl-Latn|Cрбија и Црна Гора|Srbija i Crna Gora}}}} known from 1992 to 2003 as the '''Federal Republic of Yugoslavia'''{{efn|{{lang-sr-Cyrl-Latn|Савезна Република Југославија|Savezna Republika Jugoslavija}}}} ('''FRY''') and commonly referred to as '''Yugoslavia''',{{efn|{{lang-sr-Cyrl-Latn|Југославија|Jugoslavija}}}} was a country in [[Southeast Europe]]. It was established on 27 April 1992 as a [[federation]] comprising the [[Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)|Republic of Serbia]] and the [[Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)|Republic of Montenegro]], following the [[Breakup of Yugoslavia|breakup]] of the [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia]] (SFR Yugoslavia). In February 2003, the federation was reconstituted as a [[state union]]. Following the secession of [[Montenegro]] in June 2006, [[Serbia]] asserted state continuity with the former union.
Its aspirations to be the sole legal [[successor state]] to the SFR Yugoslavia were not recognized by the [[United Nations]], following the passing of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 777]],[{{cite book |author-link=Sean D. Murphy |last=Murphy |first=Sean D. |year=2002 |title=United States Practice in International Law: 1999–2001 |volume=1 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=130 |isbn=978-0-521-75070-7 }}] which affirmed that the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia had ceased to exist, and the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was a new state. All former republics were entitled to state succession while none of them continued the SFR Yugoslavia's international legal personality. The government of [[Slobodan Milošević]] opposed any such claims, and as such, the FR Yugoslavia was not allowed to join the United Nations.
Throughout its existence, the FR Yugoslavia had a tense relationship with the international community, as [[International sanctions against Serbia and Montenegro|economic sanctions]][{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/29/world/yugoslavs-face-hard-winter-as-the-blockade-bites.html |title=Yugoslavs Face Hard Winter as the Blockade Bites |first=Paul |last=Lewis |date=29 October 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=5 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210205230653/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/10/29/world/yugoslavs-face-hard-winter-as-the-blockade-bites.html |url-status=live }}] were issued against the state during the course of the [[Yugoslav Wars]] and [[Kosovo War]]. This also resulted in [[Hyperinflation in Serbia and Montenegro|hyperinflation between 1992 and 1994]].[{{Cite web |url=https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/worlds-greatest-unreported-hyperinflation |title=The World's Greatest Unreported Hyperinflation |date=7 May 2007 |publisher=Cato Institute |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726181455/https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/worlds-greatest-unreported-hyperinflation |url-status=live }}] The Yugoslav Wars ended with the [[Dayton Agreement]], which recognized the independence of the Republics of [[Croatia]], [[Slovenia]], and [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], as well as establishing diplomatic relationships between the states, and a guaranteed role of the Serbian population within Bosnian politics.[{{Cite web |url=http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/icty/dayton/daytonsum.html |title=Summary of the Dayton Peace Agreement on Bosnia-Herzegovina |website=HR library |place=UMN |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817225957/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/icty/dayton/daytonsum.html |url-status=live }}]
Later on, growing separatism within the [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija]], a region of Serbia heavily populated by ethnic [[Albanians]], resulted in an insurrection by the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]], an Albanian separatist group.[{{Cite journal |url=https://pureportal.coventry.ac.uk/en/publications/from-a-terrorist-group-to-a-civil-defence-corps-the-transformatio |title=From a 'terrorist' group to a 'civil defence' corps: The 'transformation' of the Kosovo Liberation Army |first=Alpaslan |last=Ozerdem |date=27 July 2003 |journal=International Peacekeeping |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=79–101 |via=Coventry |place=UK |doi=10.1080/13533310308559337 |s2cid=144017700 |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726082755/https://pureportal.coventry.ac.uk/en/publications/from-a-terrorist-group-to-a-civil-defence-corps-the-transformatio |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army |title=Kosovo Liberation Army History & Facts |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=24 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190924065434/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Kosovo-Liberation-Army |url-status=live }}] The outbreak of the [[Kosovo War]] reintroduced [[International sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|international sanctions]], as well as eventual [[NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|NATO involvement in the conflict]]. The conflict ended with the adoption of [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244]], which guaranteed economic and political separation of [[Kosovo]] from the FR Yugoslavia, to be placed under an UN [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|administration]].[{{Cite web |url=https://undocs.org/S/RES/1244(1999) |title=S/RES/1244(1999) - E - S/RES/1244(1999) |website=UN docs |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308040644/https://undocs.org/S/RES/1244(1999) |url-status=live }}]
Economic hardship and war resulted in growing discontent with the government of Milošević and his allies, who ran both Serbia and Montenegro as an effective dictatorship.[{{Cite web |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2010/10/05/slobodan-milosevic-twisted-firestarter/ |title=Slobodan Milosevic – The Dictator |work=Balkan Insight |date=5 October 2010 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429010220/https://balkaninsight.com/2010/10/05/slobodan-milosevic-twisted-firestarter/ |url-status=live }}] This eventually cumulated in the [[Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević|Bulldozer Revolution]], which saw his government overthrown, and replaced by one led by the [[Democratic Opposition of Serbia]] and [[Vojislav Koštunica]], which also joined the UN.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/24/world/un-expulsion-of-yugoslavia-breeds-defiance-and-finger-pointing.html |title=U.N. Expulsion of Yugoslavia Breeds Defiance and Finger-Pointing |first=Chuck |last=Sudetic |date=24 September 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408113225/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/09/24/world/un-expulsion-of-yugoslavia-breeds-defiance-and-finger-pointing.html |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/02/world/a-different-yugoslavia-8-years-later-takes-its-seat-at-the-un.html |title=A Different Yugoslavia, 8 Years Later, Takes Its Seat at the UN |agency=Associated Press |date=2 November 2000 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726083550/https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/02/world/a-different-yugoslavia-8-years-later-takes-its-seat-at-the-un.html |url-status=live }}] The Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ended in 2003 after the [[Parliament of Serbia and Montenegro|Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia]] voted to enact the [[Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro]], which established the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro. As such, the name ''Yugoslavia'' was consigned to history.[{{Cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2724047.stm |title=Yugoslavia consigned to history |date=4 February 2003 |work=BBC News |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=8 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221108060047/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2724047.stm |url-status=live }}] A growing independence movement in Montenegro, led by [[Milo Đukanović]], caused the new constitution of Serbia and Montenegro to include a clause allowing for a referendum on the question of Montenegrin independence after three years.[{{cite web |url=https://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=1061276 |title=Priželjkivao sam da na čelu Srbije bude – Srbijanac |work=Vreme |language=bs |date=5 July 2012 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=17 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210917004219/https://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=1061276 |url-status=live }}] In 2006, the [[2006 Montenegrin independence referendum|referendum]] was called, passing by a narrow margin.[{{Cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5043462.stm |title=Montenegro declares independence |date=4 June 2006 |work=BBC News |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911232150/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/5043462.stm |url-status=live }}] This led to the dissolution of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro and the establishment of the independent republics of [[Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]], turning Serbia into a [[landlocked country]]. Some consider this the last act in the [[breakup of Yugoslavia]].[{{Cite web |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5006380.stm |title=Recount call in Montenegro vote |date=22 May 2006 |work=BBC News |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728085307/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5006380.stm |url-status=live }}]
== Name ==
When the state was established in 1992 following the [[breakup of Yugoslavia|breakup of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia)]], it adopted the official name ''Federal Republic of Yugoslavia'' (FR Yugoslavia) and claimed to continue the international legal personality and United Nations membership of the SFR Yugoslavia. This claim was not accepted by the United Nations. [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 777|Security Council Resolution 777]] determined that the SFR Yugoslavia had ceased to exist and that the FR Yugoslavia could not automatically continue its United Nations membership. [[United Nations General Assembly Resolution 47/1|General Assembly Resolution 47/1]] consequently required the FR Yugoslavia to apply for membership and barred it from participating in the work of the General Assembly.[{{cite web |title=Resolution 777 (1992) |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/150175 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |date=19 September 1992 |access-date=21 July 2026}}][{{cite web |title=Recommendation of the Security Council of 19 September 1992 |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/150880 |publisher=United Nations General Assembly |date=22 September 1992 |access-date=21 July 2026}}] The FR Yugoslavia applied for membership in 2000 and was admitted to the United Nations as a new member on 1 November under General Assembly Resolution 55/12.[{{cite web |title=Admission of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to membership in the United Nations |url=https://digitallibrary.un.org/record/426193 |publisher=United Nations General Assembly |date=1 November 2000 |access-date=21 July 2026}}] In 2003, the country was reconstituted as the [[State Union of Serbia and Montenegro]].[{{Cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.rs/Facts/const_scg.pdf |title=Constitutional Charter of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro |quote=The name of the state union shall be Serbia and Montenegro. |date=2003 |access-date=26 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226024403/http://www.mfa.gov.rs/Facts/const_scg.pdf |archive-date=26 February 2009 |url-status=dead }}]
== History ==
During the collapse of the SFR Yugoslavia in the 1990s the republics of Serbia and Montenegro agreed to remain as part of a state of Yugoslavia, and established a new constitution in 1992, which established the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia essentially as a [[rump state]], with a population consisting of a majority of Serbs.[{{cite book |title=World Business & Economic Review |date=1995 |publisher=Kogan Page |isbn=9780749414603 |page=694}}] The new state abandoned the Communist legacy: the red star was removed from the national flag, and the communist coat of arms was replaced in 1993 by a new coat of arms representing Serbia and Montenegro. The new state also established the office of the president, held by a single person, initially appointed with the consent of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro until 1997 after which the president was democratically elected. The President of Yugoslavia acted alongside the Presidents of the republics of Serbia and Montenegro. Initially, all three offices were dominated by allies of Slobodan Milosevic and his [[Socialist Party of Serbia]].[{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GkBmdCwHuDsC&q=anti-bureaucratic+revolution&pg=PA550 |title=The Road to War in Serbia: Trauma and Catharsis |date=1 January 2000 |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=9789639116566 |via=Google Books |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417062019/https://books.google.com/books?id=GkBmdCwHuDsC&q=anti-bureaucratic+revolution&pg=PA550 |url-status=live |page=550}}]
=== Foundation ===
On 26 December 1991, Serbia, Montenegro, and the Serb rebel-held territories in Croatia agreed that they would form a new "third Yugoslavia".[Sabrina P. Ramet. ''Serbia Since 1989: Politics and Society Under Milošević and After''. University of Washington Press, 2005. pp. 55–56] Efforts were also made in 1991 to include the [[Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] within the federation, with negotiations between Miloševic, Bosnia's [[Serbian Democratic Party (Bosnia and Herzegovina)|Serbian Democratic Party]], and the Bosniak proponent of union – Bosnia's Vice-president [[Adil Zulfikarpašić]] taking place on this matter.[Steven L. Burg, Paul S. Shoup. ''The War in Bosnia-Herzegovina: Ethnic Conflict and International Intervention''. Armonk, New York, US: M.E. Sharpe, 2000. {{ISBN|9781563243097}} pp. 72–73.] Zulfikarpašić believed that Bosnia could benefit from a union with Serbia, Montenegro, and Krajina, thus he supported a union which would secure the unity of Serbs and Bosniaks.[{{Cite web |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/un-suspends-former-yugoslavia-1553074.html |title=UN suspends former Yugoslavia |date=23 September 1992 |website=The Independent |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726142309/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/un-suspends-former-yugoslavia-1553074.html |url-status=live }}] This was due to the ongoing [[Yugoslav Wars]] during the 1990s, which had prevented agreement being reached on the disposition of federal assets and liabilities, particularly the national debt. The Government of Yugoslavia supported Croatian and Bosnian Serbs in the wars from 1992 to 1995. Because of that, the country was under economic and political sanctions.[{{cite book |title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2004 |date=2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=9781857431865 |page=526 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5J_gAU8c9NIC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA526}}] War and sanctions resulted in economic disaster, which forced thousands of its young citizens to emigrate from the country.
The FR Yugoslavia acted to support Serb separatist movements in breakaway states, including the [[Republic of Serbian Krajina]] and the [[Republika Srpska (1992–1995)|Republika Srpska]], and sought to establish them as independent Serbian republics, with potential eventual reintegration with FR Yugoslavia.[{{Cite web |url=https://theconversation.com/au/topics/bosnian-war-37515 |title=Bosnian war News, Research and Analysis |website=The Conversation |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726142311/https://theconversation.com/au/topics/bosnian-war-37515 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/01/magazine/carving-out-a-greater-serbia.html |title=Carving Out a Greater Serbia |first=Stephen |last=Engelberg |date=1 September 1991 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=2 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200902023906/https://www.nytimes.com/1991/09/01/magazine/carving-out-a-greater-serbia.html |url-status=live }}] The Government of FR Yugoslavia treated these republics as separate entities, and gave unofficial, rather than active, aid by transferring control of units from the now-defunct [[Yugoslav National Army|JNA]] to the secessionist movements.[{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/27/world/yugoslav-army-reported-fighting-in-bosnia-to-help-serbian-forces.html#:~:text=Soon%20after%20fighting%20broke%20out,army%20of%20the%20Bosnian%20Serbs |title=Yugoslav Army Reported Fighting In Bosnia to Help Serbian Forces |work=The New York Times |last=Kifner |first=John |date=27 January 1994 |access-date=22 June 2021 |url-access=subscription |archive-date=30 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210430034027/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/01/27/world/yugoslav-army-reported-fighting-in-bosnia-to-help-serbian-forces.html#:~:text=Soon%20after%20fighting%20broke%20out,army%20of%20the%20Bosnian%20Serbs |url-status=live }}] In this way, FR Yugoslavia avoided potential accusations of committing acts of aggression against the breakaway republics recognised by the international community.[{{cite journal |url=https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/library/pubs/rp/1995-96/96rp15.pdf |title=The UN's Role in the Former Yugoslavia: the Failure of the Middle Way |date=1995 |author=Parliamentary Research Service |journal=Research Paper |publisher=Department of the Parliamentary Library (Australia) |issn=1321-1579 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=3 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403071057/https://www.aph.gov.au/binaries/library/pubs/rp/1995-96/96rp15.pdf |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/08/world/us-recognizes-3-yugoslav-republics-as-independent.html |title=U.S. Recognizes 3 Yugoslav Republics as Independent |first=David |last=Binder |date=8 April 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726142309/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/04/08/world/us-recognizes-3-yugoslav-republics-as-independent.html |url-status=live }}]
Following the transfer of Yugoslav Army units, Yugoslavia ceased to play an important military role in the Yugoslav Wars, barring conflicts on the border with Croatia, such as the [[Siege of Dubrovnik]]. It instead provided economic and political aid,[{{Cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Bosnian-War |title=Bosnian War | Facts, Summary, & War Crimes |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=14 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211114061646/https://www.britannica.com/event/Bosnian-War |url-status=live }}] to avoid provoking the international community further, and to preserve the FR Yugoslavia as the republics of Serbia and Montenegro, rather than 'Greater Serbia.'[{{cite web |url=https://iwpr.net/global-voices/greater-serbia-myth-or-plan |title=Greater Serbia: Myth or Plan? |work=Institute for War & Peace Reporting |date=15 December 2004 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622230810/https://iwpr.net/global-voices/greater-serbia-myth-or-plan |url-status=live }}]
In 1995, following [[Operation Storm]], a military offensive by the [[Croatian Army]], and [[Operation Deliberate Force|NATO involvement]] in the Bosnian War, President Slobodan Milošević agreed to negotiate, as the Serbian position within Bosnia had become substantially worse. Under threat of economically crippling the Republika Srpska, he took over negotiating powers for all Serbian secessionist movements, as well as the FR Yugoslavia.[{{cite web |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/decision-to-intervene-how-the-war-in-bosnia-ended/ |title=Decision to Intervene: How the War in Bosnia Ended |work=Brookings |last=Daalder |first=Ivo H. |date=1 December 1998 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=9 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210609125409/https://www.brookings.edu/articles/decision-to-intervene-how-the-war-in-bosnia-ended/ |url-status=live }}] The ensuing [[Dayton Agreements]], signed between representatives from the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, the [[Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina]] and the [[Croatia|Republic of Croatia]], resulted in each state being recognised as sovereign states. It also provided recognition for Serbian [[Republika Srpska|institutions]] and a rotating presidency within Bosnia and Herzegovina, and the Serbian populated areas of the former [[Socialist Republic of Bosnia]] were absorbed into Bosnia and Herzegovina.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global/2015/nov/10/bosnia-bitter-flawed-peace-deal-dayton-agreement-20-years-on |title=Bosnia's bitter, flawed peace deal, 20 years on |first=Julian |last=Borger |date=10 November 2015 |work=The Guardian |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=21 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221210846/https://www.theguardian.com/global/2015/nov/10/bosnia-bitter-flawed-peace-deal-dayton-agreement-20-years-on |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.osce.org/bih/126173 |title=Dayton Peace Agreement |website=[[osce.org]] |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225062013/https://www.osce.org/bih/126173 |url-status=live }}] Thus the Yugoslav Wars ended, and international sanctions on the FR Yugoslavia were lifted.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol3_1/Delvic.htm |title=Economic Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool: The Case of Yugoslavia - Milica Delvic |website=gmu.edu |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=15 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715025823/http://www.gmu.edu/programs/icar/ijps/vol3_1/Delvic.htm |url-status=live }}] Slobodan Milošević did not achieve his dreams of admitting the FR Yugoslavia to the United Nations as the successor state of the SFR Yugoslavia, as an 'outer wall' of international sanctions prohibited this.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-20-mn-1984-story.html |title=Security Council Denies Yugoslavia Its U.N. Seat |date=20 September 1992 |website=Los Angeles Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726145747/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-09-20-mn-1984-story.html |url-status=live }}]
=== Economic collapse during Yugoslav Wars ===
{{Main|Hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|International sanctions against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia}}
Following the adoption of economic sanctions by the international community against the FR Yugoslavia, its economy experienced a collapse. Sanctions on fuel meant that fuel stations across the country ran out of petrol,[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/25/world/crisis-in-the-balkans-fuel-oil-flowing-to-yugoslavia-despite-nato-s-exertions.html |title=CRISIS IN THE BALKANS: FUEL; Oil Flowing to Yugoslavia Despite NATO's Exertions |first=Raymond |last=Bonner |date=25 May 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726221326/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/05/25/world/crisis-in-the-balkans-fuel-oil-flowing-to-yugoslavia-despite-nato-s-exertions.html |url-status=live }}] and foreign assets were seized. The average income of inhabitants of the FR Yugoslavia was halved from $3,000 to $1,500.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/30/world/embargo-leaves-serbia-thriving.html |title=Embargo Leaves Serbia Thriving |first=Roger |last=Cohen |date=30 May 1994 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=27 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727040324/https://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/30/world/embargo-leaves-serbia-thriving.html |url-status=live }}] and hospitals lacked basic equipment. Along with this, supply links were cut, which meant that the Yugoslav economy could not grow, and imports or exports needed for industries could not be obtained, forcing them to close.[{{Cite web |url=http://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/dukanoviceva-strategija-za-pripajanje-srpske-88103 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180112021508/http://www.vijesti.me/vijesti/dukanoviceva-strategija-za-pripajanje-srpske-881034 |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 January 2018 |title=Đukanovićeva strategija za pripajanje Srpske |work=Vijesti.me |date=12 January 2018 }}] The crippled state of the Yugoslav economy also affected its ability to wage war, and after 1992, Yugoslavia had an extremely limited military role within the Yugoslav Wars, due to Yugoslav Army (VJ) units being unable to operate without oil or munitions.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/31/world/un-votes-13-0-for-embargo-on-trade-with-yugoslavia-air-travel-and-oil-curbed.html |title=U.n. Votes 13-0 for Embargo on Trade with Yugoslavia; Air Travel and Oil Curbed |first=Paul |last=Lewis |date=31 May 1992 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726221329/https://www.nytimes.com/1992/05/31/world/un-votes-13-0-for-embargo-on-trade-with-yugoslavia-air-travel-and-oil-curbed.html |url-status=live }}][{{Cite press release |url=https://www.un.org/press/en/1995/19951122.sc6127.html |title=Security Council Decides on Phased Lifting of Arms Embargo Against Former Yugoslavia by Vote of 14 to None, With Russian Federation Abstaining |website=un.org |date=22 November 1995 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=31 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210731054956/https://www.un.org/press/en/1995/19951122.sc6127.html |url-status=live }}]
On top of this, starting in 1992 and until 1994, the Yugoslav dinar [[hyperinflation in the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|experienced a major hyperinflation]], leading to inflation reaching 313 million percent,[{{cite web |url=https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/worlds-greatest-unreported-hyperinflation#:~:text=Starting%20in%20January%201992%2C%20what,but%20well%20below%20Hungary's%20record. |title=The World's Greatest Unreported Hyperinflation |work=Cato Institute |last=Hanke |first=Steve H. |date=7 May 2007 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=18 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518230354/https://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/worlds-greatest-unreported-hyperinflation#:~:text=Starting%20in%20January%201992%2C%20what,but%20well%20below%20Hungary's%20record. |url-status=live }}] the third worst hyperinflation in history. Many parts of the FR Yugoslavia, including all of Montenegro, adopted the [[Deutsche Mark]] and [[Euro]] currencies instead of the Yugoslav dinar.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2000/0302/p8s1.html |title=German currency leaves its mark across the Balkans |date=2 March 2000 |work=The Christian Science Monitor |last=Kim |first=Lucian |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=5 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210805014844/https://www.csmonitor.com/2000/0302/p8s1.html |url-status=live }}] International sanctions crippled the Yugoslav economy, and prevented it from playing an active role in aiding Serb breakaway republics. Following the Dayton Agreement, the UN Security Council voted to lift most sanctions, but they were reissued following the outbreak of an Albanian insurgency in Kosovo. The lasting economic impact can be attributed to the eventual downfall of the FR Yugoslavia and Slobodan Milošević's government, as well as a deeper desire in Montenegro to leave Yugoslavia.[{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/balkans/stories/montenegro062599.htm |title=Montenegro Easing Away From Serb Ally |newspaper=The Washington Post |last=Dobbs |first=Michael |date=25 June 1999 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201051350/https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/longterm/balkans/stories/montenegro062599.htm |url-status=live }}]
=== Kosovo War ===
{{Main|Kosovo War}}
In the [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija]], a growing desire for independence emerged among the Albanian majority population. Already, an unrecognised [[Republic of Kosova]] had emerged with underground institutions.[{{cite web |url=http://www.keshilliministrave.al/index.php?fq=brenda&m=news&lid=7323&gj=gj2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316032633/http://www.keshilliministrave.al/index.php?fq=brenda&m=news&lid=7323&gj=gj2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 March 2012 |title=Keshilli i Ministrave |date=16 March 2012 }}] In 1996, the [[Kosovo Liberation Army]], an Albanian militia promoting Kosovar independence, launched attacks against Serbian police stations, killing at least ten Serbian policemen in direct attacks between 1996 and 1998.["Unknown Albanian 'liberation army' claims attacks". Agence France Presse. 17 February 1996.][{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=myEuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT103 |title=Islamic Terror and the Balkans |first=Shaul |last=Shay |date=12 July 2017 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781351511384 |via=Google Books |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111165731/https://books.google.com/books?id=myEuDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT103 |url-status=live }}] The low level [[Insurgency in Kosovo (1995–1998)|insurgency]] eventually escalated. After Slobodan Milošević was elected President of Yugoslavia in 1997, having served his maximum two terms as President of Serbia, he ordered Yugoslav Army (VJ) units to move into Kosovo to aid in the suppression of the insurrection. The governments of the FR Yugoslavia and the US declared the Kosovo Liberation Army a terrorist organisation, following repeated deadly attacks against Yugoslav law enforcement agencies.[{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vELQpx1U9EcC |title=Humanitarian Law Violations in Kosovo |first1=Fred |last1=Abrahams |first2=Elizabeth |last2=Andersen |date=27 July 1998 |publisher=Human Rights Watch |isbn=9781564321947 |via=Google Books |access-date=28 October 2020 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111165737/https://books.google.com/books?id=vELQpx1U9EcC |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SlHqkxGk4Q8C |title=Kosovo Liberation Army: The Inside Story of an Insurgency |first=Henry H. |last=Perritt |date=1 October 2010 |publisher=University of Illinois Press |isbn=9780252092138 |via=Google Books }}][{{cite web |url=http://judiciary.house.gov/legacy/muts1213.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226123208/http://judiciary.house.gov/legacy/muts1213.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 February 2005 |title=12/13/00 Committee on the Judiciary - Mutschke Testimony |date=26 February 2005 }}] US intelligence also mentioned illegal arms sources of the Kosovo Liberation Army, including conducting raids during the course of the [[1997 Albanian civil unrest]], and drug dealing.[{{cite web |url=http://www.kosovo.net/kla3.html |title=Articles on KLA-Kosovo-Drugs-Mafia and Fundraising |website=kosovo.net |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=20 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200720005552/http://kosovo.net/kla3.html |url-status=live }}] Despite this, substantial evidence now shows that the [[Central Intelligence Agency|CIA]] had aided in training units of the KLA,[{{cite web |url=https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/192/38782.html |title=CIA Aided Kosovo Guerrilla Army All Along |website=www.globalpolicy.org |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729120536/https://www.globalpolicy.org/component/content/article/192/38782.html |url-status=live }}] although not necessarily providing them with arms and funding.
In 1998, the Kosovo War began, following increased open combat with Yugoslav police and army units deployed by Milošević. The KLA found itself heavily outnumbered and outgunned in open combat, and had to use guerrilla tactics.[{{cite web |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2010/12/14/the-kla-from-guerilla-wars-to-party-plenums1/ |title=KLA : From Guerilla Wars to Party Plenums |date=14 December 2010 |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=26 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200726191830/https://balkaninsight.com/2010/12/14/the-kla-from-guerilla-wars-to-party-plenums1/ |url-status=live }}] Serbian police and VJ units attacked KLA outposts, attempting to destroy them, as KLA units attempted to avoid direct confrontation and use terrorist attacks, including bombings and ambushes, to weaken Yugoslav control.[{{cite web |url=https://www.bundesheer.at/pdf_pool/publikationen/01_kse1_02_tck.pdf |title=The Kosovo Conflict |last=Troebst |first=Stefan |website=bundesheer.at |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227033819/https://www.bundesheer.at/pdf_pool/publikationen/01_kse1_02_tck.pdf |url-status=live }}] Although unable to gain a strategic advantage, Yugoslav Army units found themselves in a tactical advantage against KLA units which lacked proper training. VJ units themselves lacked morale, and attacks were often directed against civilian targets rather than military targets.[{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B4YbP0fPcMYC&pg=PA332 |title=The Serbs: History, Myth, and the Destruction of Yugoslavia |first=Tim |last=Judah |date=27 July 2000 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0300085079 |via=Google Books |access-date=27 December 2021 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417062019/https://books.google.com/books?id=B4YbP0fPcMYC&pg=PA332 |url-status=live }}]{{NoteTag|The [[Kosovo Liberation Army]] had limited active members; as such, Yugoslav units could often not find any KLA units throughout their stay in Kosovo.}} 863,000 Albanian civilians were forcibly expelled between March and June 1999 from Kosovo.[{{Cite book |url=https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/d/d/17772.pdf |title=KOSOVO / KOSOVA As Seen, As Told |publisher=OSCE Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights |year=1999 |location=Warsaw, Poland |pages=167 |access-date=13 October 2021 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029173415/https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/d/d/17772.pdf |url-status=live }}] 169,824 Serb and Romani civilians were estimated by the UNHCR's Belgrade office to have fled from Kosovo-Metohija to either [[Serbia Proper|Serbia proper]], [[Vojvodina|the Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]], or [[Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)|the constituent Republic of Montenegro]] by 20 June 1999.[{{Cite web |date=August 1999 |title=FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF YUGOSLAVIA ABUSES AGAINST SERBS AND ROMA IN THE NEW KOSOVO |url=http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929140659/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/#N_3_ |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}] Out of 10,317 civilians, 8,676 Albanians, 1,196 Serbs and 445 Roma, Bosniaks, Montenegrins and others were killed or went missing in connection with the war between 1 January 1998 - 31 December 2000.[{{cite web |url=http://www.kosovomemorybook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Expert_Evaluation_of_Kosovo_Memory_Book_Database_Prishtina_04_02_2015.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111055051/http://www.kosovomemorybook.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Expert_Evaluation_of_Kosovo_Memory_Book_Database_Prishtina_04_02_2015.pdf |url-status=dead |title=Kosovo Memory Book Database |archive-date=11 January 2019 |date=11 January 2019 }}] The Serbian government attributed 1,953 Serbian, 361 Albanian and 266 other civilian deaths or disappearances from 1 January 1998 - 1 November 2001 to "Albanian terrorism in Kosovo-Metohija".[{{Cite web |url=http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/news/2002-07/08/325076.html |title=Serbian Government >> News >> Missing persons in Kosovo >> Victims of the Albanian terrorism in Kosovo-Metohija (Killed, kidnapped, and missing persons, January 1998 - November 2001) |website=www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs |access-date=13 October 2021 |archive-date=23 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211023192953/http://www.arhiva.serbia.gov.rs/news/2002-07/08/325076.html |url-status=live }}]
The international community was quick to respond, issuing a [[Rambouillet Agreement|peace proposal]] to Yugoslavia in 1999. The agreement was seen as essentially an ultimatum[{{Cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/mar/24/serbia-kosovo |title=Ian Bancroft: Nato's bombardment of Serbia was an important precursor to the invasion of Iraq |first=Ian |last=Bancroft |date=24 March 2009 |work=The Guardian |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=1 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220501162102/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/mar/24/serbia-kosovo |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last=Clark |first=Christopher |year=2012 |title=The Sleepwalkers: How Europe Went To War in 1914 |edition=2012 |location=London |publisher=Allen Lane |pages=456–457 |isbn=978-0-713-99942-6}}.] by [[NATO]] to Yugoslavia, and this was rejected by the Yugoslav government. NATO responded in March 1999 by ordering airstrikes against Yugoslav military targets and infrastructure, including roads, railroads, administrative buildings and the headquarters of [[Radio Television Serbia]].[{{Cite web |url=https://mondediplo.com/2000/07/03kosovo |title=Was the Serbian TV station really a legitimate target? |first=Claudio Cordone & Avner |last=Gidron |date=1 July 2000 |website=Le Monde diplomatique |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131185456/https://mondediplo.com/2000/07/03kosovo |url-status=live }}] NATO's bombing campaign was not approved by the UN Security Council, for fear of a veto by Russia, which would cause controversy as to its [[Legitimacy of the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia|legality]].[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/08/world/rights-group-says-nato-bombing-in-yugoslavia-violated-law.html |title=Rights Group Says NATO Bombing in Yugoslavia Violated Law |first=Steven |last=Erlanger |date=8 June 2000 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=23 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223162203/http://www.nytimes.com/2000/06/08/world/rights-group-says-nato-bombing-in-yugoslavia-violated-law.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.znetwork.org/sustainers/content/1999-06/june_15herman.htm |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20020916122240/http://www.znetwork.org/sustainers/content/1999-06/june_15herman.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 September 2002 |title=Kosovo and Doublespeak |last=Herman |first=Edward S. |publisher=Library of Congress Archives |date=15 June 1999 |access-date=22 June 2021 }}] The UN Security Council adopted [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1160]], renewing arms and oil sanctions against the FR Yugoslavia, and thus crippling its economy. The effects of continuous aerial bombardment and sanctions cost the Yugoslav economy hundreds of billions of USD[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/29/world/yugoslavia-gives-nato-100-billion-damage-bill.html |title=Yugoslavia Gives NATO $100 Billion Damage Bill |first=Christopher S. |last=Wren |date=29 September 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=24 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220824152037/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/09/29/world/yugoslavia-gives-nato-100-billion-damage-bill.html |url-status=live }}] and eventually forced Milošević's government to comply with an agreement put forward by an international delegation. [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1244]] led to substantial autonomy for Kosovo, and the establishment of a [[United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo|UN mission]] to Kosovo, as well as the complete withdrawal of units of the Yugoslav National Army.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/04/opinion/the-kosovo-peace-plan.html |title=Opinion | The Kosovo Peace Plan |date=4 June 1999 |work=The New York Times |access-date=29 July 2020 |archive-date=2 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200802222119/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/04/opinion/the-kosovo-peace-plan.html |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/june99/plantext03.htm |title=Text of Kosovo Peace Plan |newspaper=The Washington Post |agency=Associated Press |date=3 June 1999 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=4 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704192317/http://washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl/daily/june99/plantext03.htm |url-status=live }}] As such, Kosovo remained an Autonomous Province of Serbia, but politically and economically independent. The damage to The FR Yugoslavia was immense, with the government estimating $100 billion in infrastructure damage,[{{Cite web |url=https://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2006&mm=06&dd=09&nav_id=35250 |title=Seven years since end of NATO bombing |website=B92.net |date=9 June 2006 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=22 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220322053522/https://www.b92.net/eng/news/politics.php?yyyy=2006&mm=06&dd=09&nav_id=35250 |url-status=live }}]
In the aftermath of the Kosovo War, a low level [[Insurgency in the Preševo Valley|insurgency]] continued in the [[Preševo Valley|Presevo valley]] in southern Serbia, which had Albanian minorities. The insurgent ([[Liberation Army of Preševo, Medveđa and Bujanovac|UCPMB]]) lacked resources, and the Yugoslav Armed Forces and police were able to put down the insurgency.
=== Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević ===
{{Main|Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević}}
The string of defeats, as well as a complete collapse of the Yugoslav economy, led to mass unpopularity of Slobodan Milošević and his allies in the [[Socialist Party of Serbia]]. In September 2000, amongst accusations of electoral fraud, large scale protests struck the nation. Milošević was eventually removed from power, as his [[Socialist Party of Serbia]] lost in the federal elections to the [[Democratic Opposition of Serbia]].[{{cite web |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2010/10/05/timeline-the-bulldozer-revolution/ |title=The Bulldozer Revolution |last=Barlovac |first=Bojana |work=BalkanInsight |date=5 October 2010 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=29 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429030144/https://balkaninsight.com/2010/10/05/timeline-the-bulldozer-revolution/ |url-status=live }}] In the aftermath, a new government in Yugoslavia negotiated with the United Nations, accepting that it was not the sole legal successor to the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, and was allowed to join the UN.[{{cite web |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/enlargement/news/yugoslavia-joins-un-as-new-member/ |title=Yugoslavia joins UN as new member |work=Euractiv |date=1 November 2000 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=18 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210618062530/https://www.euractiv.com/section/enlargement/news/yugoslavia-joins-un-as-new-member/ |url-status=live }}] Milošević would later be put on trial for corruption and war crimes,[{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/11/warcrimes.milosevictrial#:~:text=Slobodan%20Milosevic%20was%20the%20main,wars%20in%20the%20early%201990s |title=The charges against Milosevic |last=Kenny |first=Sean |work=The Guardian |date=11 March 2006 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=22 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210622184111/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/mar/11/warcrimes.milosevictrial#:~:text=Slobodan%20Milosevic%20was%20the%20main,wars%20in%20the%20early%201990s |url-status=live }}] especially during the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia,[{{cite web |url=https://www.icty.org/en/case/slobodan_milosevic |title=ICTY file for Milosevic |work=International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia |access-date=23 November 2021 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123142344/https://www.icty.org/en/case/slobodan_milosevic |url-status=live }}] although he died in prison before his trial could end in 2006.[{{cite web |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/milosevic-war-crime-deniers-feed-receptive-audience/27910664.html |title=Milosevic 'Exonerated'? War-Crime Deniers Feed Receptive Audience |work=Radio Free Europe-Radio Liberty |last=Knezevic |first=Gordana |date=9 August 2016 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=15 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210615142016/https://www.rferl.org/a/milosevic-war-crime-deniers-feed-receptive-audience/27910664.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://balkaninsight.com/2016/08/16/milosevic-s-old-allies-celebrate-his-innocence-08-16-2016/ |title=Milosevic's Old Allies Celebrate His 'Innocence' |last=Dragojlo |first=Sasa |work=BalkanInsight |date=16 August 2016 |access-date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412163849/https://balkaninsight.com/2016/08/16/milosevic-s-old-allies-celebrate-his-innocence-08-16-2016/ |url-status=live }}] His culpability remains a subject of controversy within Serbia.
=== Gradual dissolution ===
In March 2002, the governments of Montenegro and Serbia, along with the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (FRY), signed the Accord on Principles in Relations between Serbia and Montenegro (commonly known as the Belgrade Agreement), which outlined the restructuring of their mutual relations. This agreement led to the adoption of the [[Constitutional Charter of Serbia and Montenegro]] on 4 February 2003, officially transforming the FRY into the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro and formally retiring the name "Yugoslavia" after 74 years.[{{cite book|title=Central and South-Eastern Europe 2004|author= Europa Publications|editor-first=Imogen|editor-last=Bell|url=https://books.google.at/books?id=5J_gAU8c9NIC|isbn=978-1-85-743186-5|publisher=Psychology Press|page=44|year=2003}}]
The Constitutional Charter included a provision allowing either republic to hold a referendum on independence after a three-year period. On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held such a referendum.[[[Dieter Nohlen|Nohlen, D]] & Stöver, P (2010) ''Elections in Europe: A data handbook'', p1372 {{ISBN|978-3-8329-5609-7 }}] The final results showed that 55.5% of voters supported independence, narrowly surpassing the 55% threshold set by the [[European Union]] for the referendum's validity.[{{Cite web |title=REPUBLIC OF MONTENEGRO REFERENDUM ON STATE-STATUS 21 May 2006 |url=https://www.osce.org/files/f/documents/f/0/20098.pdf }}][{{Cite web |title=Observation of the conduct of the referendum on state status of the Republic of Montenegro (Serbia and Montenegro) on 21 may 2006 |url=https://assembly.coe.int/nw/xml/XRef/X2H-Xref-ViewHTML.asp?FileID=11276&lang=en |access-date=7 May 2025 |website=assembly.coe.int }}][{{Cite web |title=INTERNATIONAL REFERENDUM OBSERVATION MISSION Referendum on State-Status, Republic of Montenegro (Serbia and Montenegro) 21 May 2006 |url=https://www.oscepa.org/en/documents/election-observation/election-observation-statements/montenegro/statements-17/2111-2006-referendum/file }}] Voter turnout was 86.5%.[{{Cite web |title=Referendum on independence 2006 Montenegro |url=https://www.robert-schuman.eu/en/monitor/518-after-twenty-four-years-of-union-with-serbia-montenegro-is-independent-again |access-date=7 May 2025 |website=www.robert-schuman.eu |language=fr }}][Lampe, John R., Allcock, John B., Poulsen, Thomas M.. "Montenegro". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 April 2025, https://www.britannica.com/place/Montenegro. Accessed 7 May 2025]
Following the referendum, [[Montenegro]]'s parliament formally declared independence on 3 June 2006.[[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/5043462.stm Montenegro declares independence] BBC News, 4 June 2006][{{Cite news |date=8 April 2008 |title=Serbia Declares Independence |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/1068925.html |access-date=7 May 2025 |work=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |language=en }}]
== Politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Serbia and Montenegro}}
The Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia, representing the FR Yugoslavia (1992–2003) was composed of two chambers: the Council of Citizens and the Council of Republics. Whereas the Council of Citizens served as an ordinary assembly, representing the people, the Council of Republics was made equally by representatives from the federation's constituent republics, to ensure federal equality between Serbia and Montenegro.
The first president from 1992 to 1993 was [[Dobrica Ćosić]], a former communist [[Yugoslav partisan]] during World War II and later one of the fringe contributors of the controversial [[Memorandum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts]].[{{cite book |last=Velikonja |first=Mitja |title=Religious Separation and Political Intolerance in Bosnia-Herzegovina |publisher=Texas A&M University Press |year=2003 |pages=239-240 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rqjLgtYDKQ0C&pg=PA240}}][{{cite book |editor-last1=Brambilla |editor-first1=Chiara |editor-last2=Laine |editor-first2=Jussi |editor-last3=Scott |editor-first3=James W. |editor-last4=Bocchi |editor-first4=Gianluca |title=Borderscaping: Imaginations and Practices of Border Making |publisher=Routledge |year=2015 |page=91 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZTHUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA91}}] Despite being head of the country, Ćosić was forced out of office in 1993 due to his opposition to Serbian President [[Slobodan Milošević]]. Ćosić was replaced by [[Zoran Lilić]] who served from 1993 to 1997, and then followed by Milošević becoming Yugoslav President in 1997 after his last legal term as Serbian president ended in 1997.[{{cite book |last=Shoemaker |first=M. Wesley |title=Russia, Eurasian States, and Eastern Europe |publisher=Stryker-Post Publications |year=2000 |url=https://books.google.com/books?newbks=0&redir_esc=y&id=pmDvAAAAMAAJ |page=365-366}}] The FR Yugoslavia was dominated by Milosevic and his allies, until the presidential election in 2000. There were accusations of vote fraud and Yugoslav citizens took to the streets and engaged in [[Overthrow of Slobodan Milošević|riots in Belgrade]] demanding that Milošević be removed from power. Shortly afterwards Milošević resigned and [[Vojislav Koštunica]] took over as Yugoslav president and remained president until the state's reconstitution as the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro.
Federal Prime Minister [[Milan Panić]] became frustrated with Milošević's domineering behaviour during diplomatic talks in 1992 and told Milošević to "shut up" because Milošević's position was officially subordinate to his position.[James Gow. ''Triumph of the Lack of Will: International Diplomacy and the Yugoslav War'', Columbia University Press (1997). New York City. p. 228.] Milošević later forced Panić to resign.[Sabrina P. Ramet. ''Serbia Since 1989: Politics and Society Under Milošević and After''. University of Washington Press, 2005. p. 61.] This situation changed after 1997 when Milošević's second and last legal term as Serbian President ended. He then had himself elected Federal President, thus entrenching the power that he already de facto held.[[[Sabrina P. Ramet]]. ''Serbia Since 1989: Politics and Society Under Milošević and After''. University of Washington Press, 2005. p. 61. (During Milošević's tenure as President of Serbia, the government of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was de facto subordinate to his government, with Milošević installing and forcing the removal of several Federal Presidents and Prime Ministers. However this changed after 1997 when Milošević's last legal term as Serbian President ended and he became Federal President that year, in which Milošević entrenched the power of the Federal Presidency.)]
After the federation was reconstituted as a State Union, the new [[Parliament of Serbia and Montenegro|Assembly of the State Union]] was created. It was unicameral and was made up of 126 deputies, of which 91 were from Serbia and 35 were from Montenegro. The Assembly convened in the building of the old Federal Assembly of Yugoslavia, which now houses the [[National Assembly of Serbia]].
In 2003, after the constitutional changes and creation of the [[State Union of Serbia and Montenegro]], a new [[President of Serbia and Montenegro]] was elected. He was also president of the [[Council of Ministers of Serbia and Montenegro]]. [[Svetozar Marović]] was the first and last President of Serbia and Montenegro until its breakup in 2006.
On 12 April 1999, the Federal Assembly of the [[FR Yugoslavia]] passed the "Decision on the accession of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the [[Union State|Union State of Russia and Belarus]]".[{{cite news |newspaper=Službeni list SRJ |url=https://www.pravno-informacioni-sistem.rs/SlGlasnikPortal/eli/rep/slsrj/skupstina/odluka/1999/25/1/reg |title=Одлука о приступању Савезне Републике Југославије Савезу Русије и Белорусије: 25/1999-1 |trans-title=Decision on the accession of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia to the Alliance of Russia and Belarus: 25/1999-1 |issue=25 |date=12 April 1999 |publisher=Pravno informacioni sistem RS |location=Belgrade |access-date=22 January 2023 |archive-date=23 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221223062432/https://www.pravno-informacioni-sistem.rs/SlGlasnikPortal/eli/rep/slsrj/skupstina/odluka/1999/25/1/reg |url-status=live }}] Although Serbia is, according to constitutional and international law, the successor state to this decision (as well as many others made during Milošević's regime), in practice, after the Bulldozer Revolution, nothing has been done in this direction, as the country is a candidate for the [[European Union]].{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}
== Military ==
The '''[[Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro]]''' ([[Serbian language|Serbian]]: Војска Србије и Црне Горе/Vojska Srbije i Crne Gore, ВСЦГ/VSCG), previously known as '''Army of Yugoslavia''' ([[Serbian language|Serbian]]: Војска Југославије/Vojska Jugoslavije, ВЈ/VJ) included [[ground forces]] with internal and [[Border guard|border troops]], [[Navy|naval forces]], [[Air force|air and air defense forces]], and [[civil defense]]. It was established from the remnants of the [[Yugoslav People's Army]] (JNA), the military of the [[SFR Yugoslavia]]. Several Bosnian Serb units of the VJ were transferred over to the [[Republika Srpska (1992–1995)|Republika Srpska]], during the course of the [[Bosnian War]], leaving only units directly from Serbia and Montenegro in the armed forces. The VJ saw military action during the [[Yugoslav Wars]], including the [[Siege of Dubrovnik]], as well as the [[Kosovo War]], and played combat roles during ethnic [[Insurgency in the Preševo Valley|insurgencies]]. Following the Kosovo War, the VJ was forced to evacuate Kosovo, and in 2003 it was renamed the ''Armed Forces of Serbia and Montenegro.'' Following the dissolution of the Union between Serbia and Montenegro, units from each army were assigned to the independent republics of Serbia and Montenegro, as recruitment in the army was on a local, rather than Federal, level. Montenegro inherited the small navy of the FR Yugoslavia, due to Serbia being landlocked.{{Citation needed|date=November 2025}}
== Administrative divisions ==
[[File:Kosovo1999 location map.png|thumb|Map of the territorial subdivisions of the FR Yugoslavia]]
The FR Yugoslavia was composed of two Republics:
*The [[Republic of Serbia (1990–2006)|Republic of Serbia]] (capital: [[Belgrade]]), which included two autonomous provinces:
** [[Autonomous Province of Vojvodina|Vojvodina]], Autonomous province within Serbia (capital: [[Novi Sad]]).
** [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija|Kosovo and Metohija]] – Autonomous province within Serbia (capital: [[Priština]]). In June 1999, [[Kosovo]] became an entity under [[United Nations Administered Kosovo|interim international administration]].
*The [[Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)|Republic of Montenegro]] (capital: [[Podgorica]], Royal capital: [[Cetinje]]).
FR Yugoslavia operated under [[cooperative federalism]], where federal and regional governments cooperate with each other by overlapping certain responsibilities and duties.[{{cite web |title=PRIMER ON FEDERALISM |url=https://peacemaker.un.org/sites/default/files/document/files/2022/07/faqrefederalism.pdf |website=peacekeeper.un.org |publisher=[[United Nations]] |format=PDF |quote=In “cooperative federalism”, both the federal and state governments share responsibilities in certain areas / services to ensure the operation of national programs throughout the country; Examples of countries with this type of federalism are Ethiopia, Germany, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, United States, Venezuela and Yugoslavia.}}]
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Name
! Capital
! Flag
! Coat of arms or emblem
|-
|[[Republic of Serbia (1992–2006)|'''Republic of Serbia''']]
|[[Belgrade]]
|[[File:Flag of Serbia (1992–2004).svg|100x100px]]
[[File:Flag of Serbia (2004–2010).svg|90x90px]]
|[[File:Coat of arms of Serbia (1947–2004).svg|96x96px]]
[[File:Coat of Аrms of Serbia (2004-2010).svg|94x94px]]
|-
|[[Autonomous Province of Vojvodina]]
|[[Novi Sad]]
|[[File:Flag of Vojvodina.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:Coat of arms of Vojvodina.svg|93x93px]]
|-
|[[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija]]
|[[Pristina]]
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |[[Republic of Montenegro (1992–2006)|'''Republic of Montenegro''']]
|[[Cetinje]]
|[[File:Flag of Montenegro (1993–2004).svg|120x120px]]
|[[File:Coat of arms of Montenegro (1992-2004).svg|91x91px]]
|-
|[[Podgorica]]
|[[File:Flag of Montenegro.svg|100x100px]]
|[[File:Coat of arms of Montenegro.svg|87x87px]]
|}
=== Serbia ===
{{Main|Subdivisions of Serbia}}
The territorial organisation of the Republic of Serbia was regulated by the Law on Territorial Organisation and Local Self-Government, adopted in the [[Assembly of Serbia]] on 24 July 1991. Under the Law, the municipalities, cities and settlements make the bases of the territorial organization.[[http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/akta/akta_detalji.asp?Id=466&t=Z# Law on Territorial Organization and Local Self-Government] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091211190546/http://www.parlament.gov.rs/content/cir/akta/akta_detalji.asp?Id=466&t=Z |date=11 December 2009 }}, Parliament of Serbia {{in lang|sr }}]
Serbia was divided into 195 [[Municipalities and cities of Serbia|municipalities]] and 4 [[Municipalities and cities of Serbia|cities]], which were the basic units of local autonomy. It had two autonomous provinces: [[Kosovo and Metohija]] in the south (with 30 municipalities), which was under the administration of [[UNMIK]] after 1999, and [[Vojvodina]] in the north (with 46 municipalities and 1 city). The territory between Kosovo and Vojvodina was called [[Central Serbia]]. Central Serbia was not an administrative division on its own and had no regional government of its own.
In addition, there were four cities: Belgrade, [[Niš]], [[Novi Sad]] and [[Kragujevac]], each having an assembly and budget of its own. The cities comprised several municipalities, divided into "urban" (in the city proper) and "other" (suburban). Competences of cities and their municipalities were divided.
Municipalities were gathered into [[Districts of Serbia|districts]], which are regional centres of state authority, but have no assemblies of their own; they present purely administrative divisions, and host various state institutions such as funds, office branches and courts. The Republic of Serbia was then and is still today divided into 29 districts (17 in Central Serbia, 7 in Vojvodina and 5 in Kosovo, which are now defunct), while the city of Belgrade presents a district of its own.
=== Montenegro ===
{{Main|Municipalities of Montenegro}}
Montenegro was divided into [[Municipalities of Montenegro|21 municipalities]].
== Geography ==
{{see also|Geography of Serbia|Geography of Montenegro}}
Serbia and Montenegro had an area of 102,350 square kilometres (39,518 sq mi), with 199 kilometres (124 mi) of coastline. The terrain of the two republics is extremely varied, with much of Serbia comprising plains and low hills (except in the more mountainous region of Kosovo and Metohija) and much of Montenegro consisting of high mountains. Serbia is entirely landlocked, with the coastline belonging to Montenegro. The climate is similarly varied. The north has a [[continental climate]] (cold winters and hot summers); the central region has a combination of a continental and [[Mediterranean climate]]; the southern region had an [[Adriatic Sea|Adriatic climate]] along the coast, with inland regions experiencing hot, dry summers and autumns and relatively cold winters with heavy snowfall inland.
[[Belgrade]], with its population of 1,574,050, is the largest city in the two nations: and the only one of significant size. The country's other principal cities were [[Novi Sad]], [[Niš]], [[Kragujevac]], [[Podgorica]], [[Subotica]], [[Pristina]], and [[Prizren]], each with populations of about 100,000–250,000 people.
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Serbia and Montenegro|}}
{{Pie chart
|thumb = right
|caption = Demographics of the FR Yugoslavia in 1992{{sfn|Kovačević|1993|p=55-56}}
|label1 = [[Serbs]]
|value1 = 62.6
|color1 = Red
|label2 = [[Albanians]]
|value2 = 16.5
|color2 = Green
|label3 = [[Montenegrins (ethnic group)|Montenegrins]]
|value3 = 5
|color3 = Blue
|label4 = Others
|value4 = 15.9
|color4 = Gray
}}
The FR Yugoslavia had more demographic variety than most other European countries. According to the 1992 census, the Federal Republic had 10,394,026 inhabitants.{{sfn|Kovačević|1993|p=55-56}} The three largest named nationalities were [[Serbs]] (6,504,048 inhabitants, or 62.6%), [[Albanians]] (1,714,768 inhabitants, or 16.5%), and [[Montenegrins (ethnic group)|Montenegrins]] (519,766 inhabitants, or 5%).{{sfn|Kovačević|1993|p=55-56}} The country also had significant populations of [[Hungarians]], [[ethnic Yugoslavs]], [[Muslims (South-Slavic ethnic group)|ethnic Muslims]], [[Romani people|Romani]], [[Croats]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Macedonians (ethnic group)|Macedonians]], [[Romanians]] and [[Vlachs of Serbia|Vlachs]], and others (under 1%). Most of the ethnic diversity was situated in the autonomous provinces of [[Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija|Kosovo]] and [[Autonomous Province of Vojvodina|Vojvodina]], where smaller numbers of other minority groups could be found. The large Albanian population was chiefly [[Kosovo Albanians|concentrated in Kosovo]], with smaller populations in the [[Preševo Valley]], and in the [[Ulcinj]] municipality in Montenegro. The ''Muslim'' ([[Muslims (South-Slavic ethnic group)|Slavic Muslims]], including [[Bosniaks]] and [[Gorani people|Gorani]]) population lived mostly in the [[Sandžak|federal border region]] (mainly [[Novi Pazar]] in Serbia, and [[Rožaje]] in Montenegro). The Montenegrin population at the time often considered themselves to be Serbs.[{{Cite news |last=Hedges |first=Chris |date=10 July 1999 |title=Montenegrins, Angry at Serbs, Talk of a Split |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/10/world/montenegrins-angry-at-serbs-talk-of-a-split.html |access-date=5 August 2020 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131231558/https://www.nytimes.com/1999/07/10/world/montenegrins-angry-at-serbs-talk-of-a-split.html |url-status=live }}]
;Total population of the FR Yugoslavia – 10,019,657
* [[Republic of Serbia (federal)|Serbia]] (total): 9,396,411
**Vojvodina: 2,116,725
**Central Serbia: 5,479,686
**Kosovo: 1,800,000
* [[Republic of Montenegro (federal)|Montenegro]]: 623,246
*Major cities (over 100,000 inhabitants) – 2002 data (2003 for Podgorica):
** [[Beograd]] (Belgrade): 1,280,639 (1,574,050 metro)
** [[Novi Sad]]: 215,600 (298,139 metro)
** [[Pristina]]: 200,000 (2002 estimate)
** [[Niš]]: 173,390 (234,863 metro)
** [[Kragujevac]]: 145,890 (175,182 metro)
** [[Podgorica]]: 139,500 (169,000 metro)
** [[Prizren]]: 121,000 (2002 estimate)
** [[Subotica]]: 99,471 (147,758 metro)
More than half of [[Kosovo Serbs|Kosovo's pre-1999 Serb population]] (226,000),[{{Cite web |url=https://www.srbija.gov.rs/kosovo-metohija/20031 |title=Интерно расељена и прогнана лица са Косова и Метохије |access-date=19 December 2022 |archive-date=19 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221219225709/https://www.srbija.gov.rs/kosovo-metohija/20031 |url-status=live }}] including 37,000 [[Romani people|Romani]], 15,000 [[Islam in Europe|Balkan Muslims]] (including [[Ashkali and Balkan Egyptians|Ashkali]], [[Bosniaks]], and [[Gorani people|Gorani]]), and 7,000 other non-Albanian civilians were expelled to central Serbia and Montenegro, following the [[Kosovo War]].[{{•}} {{cite book |author-last=Vladisavljević |author-first=Nebojša |year=2012 |chapter=Kosovo and Two Dimensions of the Contemporary Serb-Albanian Conflict |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkQ3I6GyClEC&pg=PA29 |editor1-last=Hudson |editor1-first=Robert |editor2-last=Bowman |editor2-first=Glenn |title=After Yugoslavia: Identities and Politics Within the Successor States |location=Cham, Switzerland |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=29–30 |doi=10.1057/9780230305137_3 |isbn=9780230201316 |access-date=12 December 2022}}]
{{•}} {{cite book |author-last=Wills |author-first=Siobhán |year=2009 |title=Protecting Civilians: The Obligations of Peacekeepers |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219 |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=219 |isbn=978-0-19-953387-9 |access-date=12 December 2022 |archive-date=11 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230111171634/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoqQ7kBrlSAC&pg=PA219 |url-status=live}}
{{•}} {{cite web |title=Abuses against Serbs and Roma in the new Kosovo |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |date=August 1999 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221113211702/http://www.hrw.org/reports/1999/kosov2/ |archive-date=13 November 2022 |access-date=12 December 2022}}
{{•}} {{cite web |title=The Violence: Ethnic Albanian Attacks on Serbs and Roma |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/kosovo0704/7.htm |date=July 2004 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712101508/https://www.hrw.org/reports/2004/kosovo0704/7.htm |archive-date=12 July 2022 |access-date=12 December 2022}}
{{•}} {{cite web |title=Kosovo Crisis Update |url=http://www.unhcr.org/3ae6b80f2c.html |date=4 August 1999 |url-status=live |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees|UNHCR]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702170303/https://www.unhcr.org/3ae6b80f2c.html |archive-date=2 July 2022 |access-date=12 December 2022}}
{{•}} {{cite web |title=Forced Expulsion of Kosovo Roma, Ashkali and Egyptians from OSCE Participated state to Kosovo |url=http://www.osce.org/odihr/21342 |date=6 October 2006 |url-status=live |publisher=[[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe|OSCE]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220528105950/https://www.osce.org/odihr/21342 |archive-date=28 May 2022 |access-date=12 December 2022 }}
According to a 2004 estimate, the State Union had 10,825,900 inhabitants. According to a July 2006 estimate, the State Union had 10,832,545 inhabitants.
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Serbia and Montenegro}}
The state suffered significantly economically due to the breakup of Yugoslavia and mismanagement of the economy, and an extended period of economic sanctions. In the early 1990s, the FRY suffered from hyperinflation of the Yugoslav dinar. By the mid-1990s, the FRY had overcome the inflation. Further damage to Yugoslavia's infrastructure and industry caused by the [[Kosovo War]] left the economy only half the size it was in 1990. Since the ousting of former Federal Yugoslav President [[Slobodan Milošević]] in October 2000, the [[Democratic Opposition of Serbia]] (DOS) coalition government has implemented stabilization measures and embarked on an aggressive market reform program. FRY renewed its membership in the [[International Monetary Fund]] in December 2000.[{{cite book |title=Parliamentary Assembly Texts adopted 2001 Ordinary Session, first part, January 2001 |date=2001 |publisher=Council of Europe |isbn=9789287145840 |page=41 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBTjCfAVrCkC&newbks=0&printsec=frontcover&pg=PA41}}] Afterwards, it continued to reintegrate with other world nations by rejoining organizations like the [[World Bank]] and the [[European Bank for Reconstruction and Development]].[{{cite book |title=Country Profile: Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro) |date=2001 |publisher=Economist Intelligence Unit |page=17 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2sMbAQAAMAAJ}}][{{cite book |last1=Clements |first1=John |title=Clements' Encyclopedia of World Governments Volume 15 |date=2003 |publisher=Political Research Inc. |page=456}}]
The smaller republic of [[Montenegro]] severed its economy from federal control and from Serbia during the Milošević era. Afterwards, the two republics had separate central banks whilst Montenegro began to use different currencies – it first adopted the [[Deutsche Mark]] and continued to use it until the Mark fell into disuse to be replaced by the [[Euro]]. Serbia continued to use the Yugoslav Dinar, renaming it the ''[[Serbian Dinar]]''.
The complexity of the FRY's political relationships, slow progress in privatisation, and stagnation in the European economy were detrimental to the economy. Arrangements with the IMF, especially requirements for fiscal discipline, were an important element in policy formation. Severe unemployment was a key political and economic problem. Corruption also presented a major problem, with a large [[black market]] and a high degree of criminal involvement in the formal economy.
== Transport ==
[[File:Passport of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia.jpg|thumb|Passport of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia ([[Yugoslav passport]])|alt=]]
Serbia, and in particular the valley of the [[Great Morava|Morava]] is often described as "the crossroads between the [[Eastern world|East]] and the [[Western world|West]]" – one of the primary reasons for its turbulent history. The valley is by far the easiest land route from continental Europe to Greece and [[Asia Minor]].
Major [[European route|international highways]] going through Serbia were [[European route E75|E75]] and [[European route E70|E70]]. [[European route E763|E763]]/[[European route E761|E761]] was the most important route connecting Serbia with Montenegro.
The [[Danube]], an important international waterway, flowed through Serbia.
The [[Port of Bar]] was the largest seaport located in Montenegro.
== Holidays ==
{|class="wikitable"
|+ Holidays
|-
! Date
! Name
! Notes
|-
| 1 January
| [[New Year's Day]]
| (non-working holiday)
|-
| 7 January
| [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]] [[Christmas]]
| (non-working)
|-
| 27 January
| [[Saint Sava]]'s feast Day – Day of Spirituality
|
|-
| 27 April
| [[Constitution Day]]
|
|-
| 29 April
| Orthodox [[Good Friday]]
| Date for 2005 only
|-
| 1 May
| Orthodox [[Easter]]
| Date for 2005 only
|-
| 2 May
| Orthodox [[Easter Monday]]
| Date for 2005 only
|-
| 1 May
| [[Labour Day]]
| (non-working)
|-
| 9 May
| [[Victory Day]]
|
|-
| 28 June
| [[Vidovdan]] ([[Martyr]]'s Day)
| In memory of soldiers fallen at the [[Battle of Kosovo]]
|-
| 29 November
| [[Republic Day]]
|}
;Holidays celebrated only in Serbia
*15 February – Sretenje ([[National Day]], non-working)
;Holidays celebrated only in Montenegro
*13 July – Statehood Day (non-working)
== Proposed national flag and anthem for the State Union ==
[[File:Proposed flag of Serbia and Montenegro (2003).svg|thumb|Proposed flag for Serbia and Montenegro|alt=]]
After the formation of the State Union of Serbia and Montenegro, the Yugoslav tricolour was to be replaced by a new compromise flag. Article 23 of the Law for the implementation of the Constitutional Charter[{{cite web |url=http://www.ssinf.sv.gov.yu/default.php?id=87&je= |title=Zakon o sprovođenju Ustavne povelje |access-date=12 July 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929155125/http://www.ssinf.sv.gov.yu/default.php?id=87&je= |archive-date=29 September 2007 }}] stated that a law specifying the new flag was to be passed within 60 days of the first session of the new joint parliament. Among the flag proposals, the popular choice was a flag with a shade of blue in between the Serbian tricolor and the Montenegrin tricolor of 1993 through 2004. The color shade Pantone 300C was perceived as the best choice.[{{cite news |url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/3170416.stm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031009024659/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3170416.stm |url-status=live |archive-date=9 October 2003 |title=Belgrade flag flap reveals identity crisis |work=BBC News |location=United Kingdom |publisher=British Broadcasting Corporation |access-date=9 October 2003 |date=7 October 2003 |first=Matthew |last=Price }}] However, the parliament failed to vote on the proposal within the legal time-frame. In 2004, Montenegro adopted a radically different flag, as its independence-leaning government sought to distance itself from Serbia. Proposals for a compromise flag were dropped after this and the Union of Serbia and Montenegro never adopted a flag.
A similar fate befell the country's state anthem and coat-of-arms to be; the above-mentioned Article 23 also stipulated that a law determining the State Union's flag and anthem was to be passed by the end of 2003. The official proposal for a state anthem was a combination piece consisting of one verse of the former (now current) Serbian national anthem "[[Bože pravde]]" followed by a verse of the Montenegrin folk song, "[[Oj, svijetla majska zoro]]". This proposal was dropped after some public opposition, notably by Serbian Patriarch [[Serbian Patriarch Pavle II|Pavle]].[{{cite web |url=http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=387870 |title=Nova drzavna himna: Boze zore |date=12 August 2004 |publisher=Vreme |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-date=6 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110606004833/http://www.vreme.com/cms/view.php?id=387870 |url-status=live }}] Another legal deadline passed and no state anthem was adopted. Serious proposals for the coat of arms were never put forward, probably because the coat of arms of the FRY, adopted in 1994 combining Serbian and Montenegrin heraldic elements, was considered adequate.
Thus, the State Union never officially adopted state symbols and continued to use the flag and national anthem of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by inertia until its dissolution in 2006.{{citation needed|date=May 2025}}
== Sports ==
=== Association football ===
{{Main|Football Association of Serbia and Montenegro}}
The FR Yugoslavia, later Serbia and Montenegro, was considered by [[FIFA]] and [[UEFA]] to be the only successor-state of Yugoslavia.[[http://www.fss.rs/sr/savez/istorijat.html History] {{webarchive |url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111227044239/http://www.fss.rs/sr/savez/istorijat.html |date=27 December 2011 }}, FSS, Retrieved 4 October 2012 {{in lang|sr }}][[https://web.archive.org/web/20070603185848/http://www.fifa.com/associations/association=srb/ Serbia], [[FIFA]], 2007 Jun 3.][[http://www.uefa.com/under17/news/newsid=1610531.html News: Serbia] {{Webarchive|url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170925121412/http://www.uefa.com/under17/news/newsid=1610531.html |date=25 September 2017}} at [[UEFA]] official website, published 1 January 2011, Retrieved 4 October 2012] Football was experiencing major success during the 1980s and early 1990s, but due to the imposed economic sanctions, the country was excluded from all international competitions between 1992 and 1996. After the sanctions were lifted, the national team qualified for two [[FIFA World Cup]]s—in [[1998 FIFA World Cup|1998]] as FR Yugoslavia and in [[2006 FIFA World Cup|2006]] as Serbia and Montenegro. It also qualified for [[Euro 2000]], as FR Yugoslavia.
[[File:Fans of Montenegro and Serbia, 2006 WC.jpg|thumb|right|Supporters of the [[Serbia and Montenegro national football team|national football team]] during the [[2006 FIFA World Cup]]]]
They played their last ever international on 21 June 2006, a 3–2 loss to [[Ivory Coast national football team|Ivory Coast]]. Following the World Cup, this team has been inherited by Serbia, while a [[Montenegro national football team|new one]] was to be organized to represent Montenegro in future international competitions.
=== Basketball ===
The [[Serbia and Montenegro national basketball team|senior men's basketball team]] dominated European and world basketball during the mid-to-late 1990s and early 2000s, with three [[EuroBasket]] titles ([[1995 EuroBasket|1995]], [[1997 EuroBasket|1997]], and [[2001 EuroBasket|2001]]), two [[FIBA World Cup]] titles ([[1998 FIBA World Championship|1998]] and [[2002 FIBA World Championship|2002]]), and a [[Basketball at the Summer Olympics|Summer Olympic Games]] silver medal ([[Basketball at the 1996 Summer Olympics – Men's tournament|1996]]).
The national team started competing internationally in 1995, after a three-year exile, due to a UN trade embargo. During that time, the FR Yugoslavia was not allowed to compete at the [[Basketball at the 1992 Summer Olympics|1992 Summer Olympics]] in [[Barcelona]], the [[1993 EuroBasket]], and also the [[1994 FIBA World Championship]], which was originally supposed to be hosted by [[Belgrade]], before being taken away from the city and moved to [[Toronto|Toronto, Canada]].
[[File:Maskota 2003ep.JPG|thumb|right|Mascot of the [[EuroBasket 2005]], hosted by Serbia and Montenegro]]
At the [[1995 EuroBasket]] in [[Athens]], its first international competition, the FR Yugoslav team, which was led by head coach [[Dušan Ivković]], featured a starting five full of world-class talent, with established European stars at positions [[point guard|one]] through [[power forward|four]] — 27-year-old [[Saša Đorđević]], 25-year-old [[Predrag Danilović]], 29-year-old [[Žarko Paspalj]], 22-year-old [[Dejan Bodiroga]] — capped off with 27-year-old [[Vlade Divac]], the starting center for the [[LA Lakers]] at the [[center (basketball)|five]] position. With a bench that was just as capable — with experienced [[Zoran Sretenović]] (the only player over 30 in the team), [[Saša Obradović]], talisman power forward [[Zoran Savić]], and up-and-coming young center [[Željko Rebrača]] — the team rampaged through its preliminary group, which featured medal contenders [[Greek national basketball team|Greece]] and [[Lithuania men's national basketball team|Lithuania]], with a 6–0 record. At the first direct elimination stage, the quarterfinals, the FR Yugoslavia scored 104 points to destroy [[French national basketball team|France]], thus setting up a semifinal clash with the tournament hosts Greece. In the highly charged atmosphere of the [[O.A.C.A. Olympic Indoor Hall|OAKA Indoor Arena]], the FR Yugoslav team demonstrated its versatility, using defensive prowess in that game to pull off a famous eight-point win, in a tense, low-scoring 60–52 game. In the final, the FR Yugoslavia played against the experienced Lithuanian team, which was led by basketball legend [[Arvydas Sabonis]], in addition to other world class players like [[Šarūnas Marčiulionis]], [[Rimas Kurtinaitis]], and [[Valdemaras Chomičius]]. The final became a classic game of international basketball, with the Yugoslavs prevailing, by a score of 96–90, behind Đorđević's 41 points.
They were represented by a single team at the [[2006 FIBA World Championship]] as well, even though the tournament was played in mid/late-August and early-September of that year, and the Serbia–Montenegro breakup had occurred in May. That team was also inherited by [[Serbia]] after the tournament, while [[Montenegro]] created a separate senior national basketball team afterwards, as well as their own national teams in all other team sports.
== Entertainment ==
Serbia and Montenegro participated in the [[Eurovision Song Contest]] on two occasions and in [[Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2005]] only on one occasion. The country debuted in the Eurovision Song Contest under the name Serbia and Montenegro in 2004, when [[Željko Joksimović]] got second place. In 2006, the year of Montenegrin independence, the country Serbia and Montenegro did not have a representative due to the scandal in [[Evropesma#2006 event and controversy|Evropesma 2006]], but was still able to vote in both the semi-final and the final.
== See also ==
{{Portal|Serbia|1990s|2000s}}
* [[List of national border changes since World War I]]
* [[Military of Serbia and Montenegro|Military of the FR Yugoslavia]]
* [[Yugo-nostalgia]]
== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{notelist}}
{{Reflist}}
=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite book |last=Bataković |first=Dušan T. |author-link=Dušan T. Bataković |title=Kosovo, la spirale de la haine: Les faits, les acteurs, l'histoire |language=fr |year=1993 |edition=1st |location=Lausanne |publisher=L'Age d'Homme |isbn=978-282510389-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CI5pAAAAMAAJ |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417062020/https://books.google.com/books?id=CI5pAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Bataković |editor-first=Dušan T. |editor-link=Dušan T. Bataković |title=Histoire du peuple serbe |trans-title=History of the Serbian People |language=fr |year=2005 |location=Lausanne |publisher=L’Age d’Homme |isbn=978-282511958-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a0jA_LdH6nsC |access-date=2 March 2018 |archive-date=23 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230123132942/https://books.google.com/books?id=a0jA_LdH6nsC |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Bataković |first=Dušan T. |author-link=Dušan T. Bataković |chapter=Kosovo and Metohija: History, Memory and Identity |title=The Christian Heritage of Kosovo and Metohija: the Historical and Spiritual Heartland of the Serbian People |year=2015 |location=Los Angeles |publisher=Sebastian Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8LK2DAEACAAJ |pages=569–608 |isbn=978-868268539-5 |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=17 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230417062020/https://books.google.com/books?id=8LK2DAEACAAJ |url-status=live }}
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* {{Cite book |last=Goati |first=Vladimir |title=Izbori u Srbiji i Crnoj Gori od 1990. do 2013. i u SRJ od 1992. do 2003. |year=2013 |location=Beograd |publisher=Centar za slobodne izbore i demokratiju |url=http://www.cesid.rs/images/1372054311_Vladimir%20Goati_knjiga.pdf |access-date=12 September 2020 |archive-date=4 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201004173815/http://www.cesid.rs/images/1372054311_Vladimir%20Goati_knjiga.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Kovačević |first=Miladin and other |title=Statistical Yearbook of Yugoslavia 1993 |url=https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G1993/Pdf/G19932004.pdf |location=Beograd |year=1993 |access-date=1 April 2020 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807025405/https://publikacije.stat.gov.rs/G1993/Pdf/G19932004.pdf |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Miller |first=Nicholas |chapter=Serbia and Montenegro |title=Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture |year=2005 |volume=3 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |location=Santa Barbara, [[California|CA]] |pages=529–81 |isbn=978-157607800-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C |access-date=7 March 2018 |archive-date=21 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230121122343/https://books.google.com/books?id=lVBB1a0rC70C |url-status=live }}
* {{Cite book |last=Morrison |first=Kenneth |title=Montenegro: A Modern History |year=2009 |location=London-New York |publisher=I.B. Tauris |url=https://epdf.pub/download/montenegro-a-modern-history.html }}
{{refend}}
==External links==
{{Commons category|Serbia and Montenegro}}
* {{Wikivoyage inline|Serbia and Montenegro}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/*/http://www.gov.yu/|title=Official website, government of Yugoslavia (Serbia and Montenegro)}}
* [https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1039269.stm Country Profile: Serbia and Montenegro], [[BBC]]
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{{Coord|43.15|N|19.78|E|display=title}}
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[[Category:Serbia and Montenegro| ]]
[[Category:Former federations]]
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[[Category:Modern history of Serbia]]
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