{{short description|Person who conducts scientific research}}
{{About|the profession|other uses|Scientist (disambiguation)}}
{{Distinguish|Scientologist}}
{{Infobox occupation
| name           = Scientist
| image          = Pierre and Marie Curie.jpg
| caption        = [[Pierre Curie]] and [[Marie Curie]] demonstrating an apparatus that detects [[radioactivity]]. They received the 1903 [[Nobel Prize]] in Physics for their scientific research; Marie also received the 1911 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.
| official_names = Scientist
<!------------Details------------------->
| type               = [[Profession]]
| activity_sector    = [[Laboratory]], [[research university]], [[field research]]
| competencies       = [[Research#Scientific research|Scientific research]]
| formation          = [[Science]]
| employment_field   = [[Academy|Academia]], [[Private industry|industry]], [[Government scientist|government]], [[Nonprofit organization|nonprofit]]
| related_occupation = [[Engineer]]s, [[Mathematician]]s, [[Medical researcher]]
}}
{{Science|expanded=Overview}}

A '''scientist''' is an [[Expert|expert]] in one or more specific fields of [[science]] and who habitually uses [[scientific methods]] in carrying out scientific research to advance knowledge in science.<ref>{{cite dictionary |title=scientist |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/scientist |dictionary=Cambridge Dictionary |access-date=27 September 2023}}</ref><ref name = "researchcouncil">{{cite web | url = https://sciencecouncil.org/about-science/our-definition-of-a-scientist/ | title = Our definition of a scientist | publisher = Science Council | access-date = 7 September 2018 | quote = A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.}}</ref> 

In [[classical antiquity]], there was no real ancient analog of a modern scientist. Instead, [[philosopher]]s engaged in the philosophical study of nature called [[natural philosophy]].<ref name="Lehoux">{{cite book|last1=Lehoux|first1=Daryn|editor1-last=Shank|editor1-first=Michael|editor2-last=Numbers|editor2-first=Ronald|editor3-last=Harrison|editor3-first=Peter|title=Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science|date=2011|publisher=University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226317830|page=39|chapter=2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World}}</ref> Though [[Thales]] ({{circa}} 624–545 BC) was arguably the first scientist for describing how cosmic events may be seen as natural, not necessarily caused by [[deity|gods]],<ref>[[Aristotle]], Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.</ref><ref name="CPM">{{cite DGRBM |title=Thales |year=1870 |url=https://archive.org/stream/dictionaryofgree03smituoft#page/1016  |page=1016}}</ref><ref>Michael Fowler, [http://galileoandeinstein.physics.virginia.edu/lectures/thales.html Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato], University of Virginia [Retrieved 2016-06-16]</ref><ref name="books.google.com">Frank N. Magill, [https://books.google.com/books?id=_CMl8ziTbKYC&pg=PA1121 ''The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography'', Volume 1], Routledge, 2003 {{isbn|1135457395}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Singer |first=C. |title=A Short History of Science to the 19th century |publisher=Streeter Press |year=2008 |page=35 }}<!--(copied from [[Thales]]--></ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Needham |first=C. W. |title=Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain |publisher=Loose Leaf |year=1978 |page=75 |isbn=978-0-398-03754-3}}<!--(copied from [[Thales]]--></ref> it was not until the [[19th century in science|19th century]] that the term ''scientist'' came into regular use: it was coined by the [[theologian]], philosopher, and historian of science [[William Whewell]] to describe [[Mary Somerville]].<ref name="Cahan Natural Philosophy">{{cite book | editor1-last=Cahan | editor1-first=David | title=From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science | date=2003 | publisher=University of Chicago Press | location=Chicago, Illinois |isbn=0-226-08928-2}}</ref><ref name = "Lightman2011">{{cite book|last1=Lightman|first1=Bernard|editor1-last=Shank|editor1-first=Michael|editor2-last=Numbers|editor2-first=Ronald|editor3-last=Harrison|editor3-first=Peter|title=Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science|date=2011|publisher=University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0226317830|page=367|chapter = Science and the Public}}</ref>

==History==

[[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|right|upright|"No one in the history of civilization has shaped our understanding of science and natural philosophy more than the great Greek philosopher and scientist [[Aristotle]] (384&ndash;322 BC), who exerted a profound and pervasive influence for more than two thousand years" —Gary B. Ferngren<ref>Gary B. Ferngren (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33 Science and religion: a historical introduction] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316104643/http://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&pg=PA33&dq&hl=en |date=2015-03-16 }}''". [[JHU Press]]. p.33. {{ISBN|0-8018-7038-0}}</ref>]]

[[File:Georgius Agricola.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Georgius Agricola]] gave [[chemistry]] its modern name. Generally referred to as the father of [[mineralogy]] and the founder of [[geology]] as a scientific discipline.<ref name=berk>{{cite web|url=https://ucmp.berkeley.edu/history/agricola.html |title= Georgius Agricola   | publisher = University of California - Museum of Paleontology |access-date= April 4, 2019  }}</ref><ref name="Rafferty 2012 p. 10">Rafferty, John P. (2012). ''Geological Sciences; Geology: Landforms, Minerals, and Rocks''. New York: Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 10. {{ISBN|9781615305445}}</ref>]]
[[File:JKepler.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Johannes Kepler]], one of the founders and fathers of modern [[astronomy]], the [[scientific method]], [[Natural science|natural]] and [[modern science]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dpma.de/english/our_office/publications/milestones/greatinventors/johanneskepler/index.html | title=Johannes Kepler´s 450th birthday |publisher=German Patent and Trade Mark Office }}</ref>]]
[[File:Alessandro Volta.jpeg|thumb|upright|180px|[[Alessandro Volta]], the inventor of the [[Battery (electricity)|electrical battery]] and discoverer of [[methane]], is widely regarded as one of the greatest scientists in history.]]
[[File:Francesco Redi.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Francesco Redi]], referred to as the "father of modern parasitology", is the founder of experimental biology.]]
[[File:Portrait of Sir Isaac Newton, 1689 (brightened).jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Isaac Newton]], who is regarded as "the towering figure of the [[Scientific Revolution]]",<ref name=":92">{{Cite book |last=Matthews |first=Michael R. |author-link=Michael R. Matthews |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JrcqBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA181 |title=Time for Science Education: How Teaching the History and Philosophy of Pendulum Motion Can Contribute to Science Literacy |date=2000 |publisher=Springer Science+Business Media, LLC |isbn=978-0-306-45880-4 |series= |location=New York |pages=181 |language=en}}</ref> and who achieved the [[Unification of theories in physics#Unification of gravity and astronomy|first great unification in physics]], created classical mechanics, calculus and refined the scientific method.]]

[[File:Thomas_Phillips_-_Mary_Fairfax,_Mrs_William_Somerville,_1780_-_1872._Writer_on_science_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Mary Somerville]], for whom the word "scientist" was coined.]]
[[File:Albert Einstein photo 1921.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist [[Albert Einstein]] developed the general theory of relativity and made many substantial contributions to physics.]]
[[File:Enrico Fermi 1943-49.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Physicist [[Enrico Fermi]] is credited with the creation of the world's first atomic bomb and nuclear reactor.]]
[[File:Niels Bohr.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Atomic physicist [[Niels Bohr]] made fundamental contributions to understanding atomic structure and quantum theory.]]
[[File:Rachel-Carson.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Marine Biologist [[Rachel Carson]] launched the 20th century [[environmental movement]].]]

The roles of "scientists", and their predecessors before the emergence of modern scientific disciplines, have evolved considerably over time. Scientists of different eras (and before them, natural philosophers, mathematicians, natural historians, natural theologians, engineers, and others who contributed to the development of science) have had widely different places in society, and the [[social norms]], [[ethical values]], and [[epistemic virtues]] associated with scientists—and expected of them—have changed over time as well. Accordingly, many different historical figures can be identified as early scientists, depending on which characteristics of modern science are taken to be essential.

Some historians point to the [[Scientific Revolution]] that began in 16th century as the period when science in a recognizably modern form developed. It was not until the 19th century that sufficient socioeconomic changes had occurred for scientists to emerge as a major profession.<ref>On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008). ''The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation''.  Chicago: Chicago University Press. {{ISBN|0-226-75024-8}}</ref>

===Classical antiquity===
[[History of science in classical antiquity|Knowledge about nature in classical antiquity]] was pursued by many kinds of scholars. [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] contributions to science—including works of geometry and mathematical astronomy, early accounts of biological processes and catalogs of plants and animals, and theories of knowledge and learning—were produced by [[philosopher]]s and [[physician]]s, as well as practitioners of various trades. These roles, and their associations with scientific knowledge, spread with the [[Roman Empire]] and, with the [[History of Christianity#Roman Empire|spread of Christianity]], became closely linked to religious institutions in most European countries. [[Astrology]] and [[astronomy]] became an important area of knowledge, and the role of astronomer/astrologer developed with the support of political and religious [[patronage]]. By the time of the [[medieval university]] system, knowledge was divided into the ''[[Trivium (education)|trivium]]''—philosophy, including [[natural philosophy]]—and the ''[[quadrivium]]''—mathematics, including astronomy. Hence, the medieval analogs of scientists were often either philosophers or mathematicians. Knowledge of plants and animals was broadly the province of physicians.

===Middle Ages===

[[Science in medieval Islam]] developed new approaches to acquiring natural knowledge, although these developments remained within existing social roles such as philosopher and mathematician. Many proto-scientists of the [[Islamic Golden Age]] are considered [[polymath]]s, partly because there were no clearly defined [[scientific discipline]]s as understood today. 

Several of these early polymaths were also religious scholars. For example, [[Alhazen]] and [[Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī|al-Biruni]] were associated with [[Kalam|mutakallimiin]]; the physician [[Avicenna]] was a [[Hafiz (Quran)|hafiz]]; the physician [[Ibn al-Nafis]] was a hafiz, [[muhaddith]], and [[ulema]]; the botanist [[Otto Brunfels]] was a theologian and historian of Protestantism; and the astronomer and physician [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] was a cleric. 

During the [[Italian Renaissance]], figures such as [[Leonardo da Vinci]], [[Michelangelo]], [[Galileo Galilei]], and [[Gerolamo Cardano]] are often regarded as notable polymaths.

===Renaissance===

During the [[Renaissance]], Italian scholars made significant contributions to science. [[Leonardo da Vinci]] made notable observations in paleontology and anatomy. [[Galileo Galilei]], sometimes referred to as the father of modern science,<ref name="father of science Einstein">[[#Reference-Einstein-1954|Einstein (1954, p. 271)]]. "Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether."</ref><ref>Stephen Hawking, [http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science ''Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324162930/http://www.medici.org/press/galileo-and-birth-modern-science |date=2012-03-24 }}, American Heritage's Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36</ref> improved the thermometer and telescope, enabling more detailed observations of the [[Solar System]].

[[René Descartes|Descartes]] pioneered [[analytic geometry]], formulated a [[theory]] of [[mechanics]],<ref>{{cite book | title = Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman | publisher = Springer Science & Business Media | year = 2004 | page = 6 | chapter = Introduction | author = Peter Damerow}}</ref> and proposed ideas concerning [[muscle contraction|animal movement]] and [[perception]].

Research into [[visual perception|vision]] engaged physicists such as [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]] and [[Hermann von Helmholtz|Hermann von Helmholtz]], who also studied [[optics]], [[hearing]], and [[music]]. [[Isaac Newton]] expanded upon earlier mathematical developments by co-inventing [[calculus]] (independently of [[Gottfried Leibniz|Leibniz]]). He formulated the principles of [[classical mechanics]] and conducted extensive investigations into [[light]] and optics.

[[Joseph Fourier]] developed the theory of [[Fourier series|infinite periodic series]], studied [[heat]] transfer and [[infrared radiation]], and described what later became known as the [[greenhouse effect]]. Mathematicians including [[Girolamo Cardano]], [[Blaise Pascal]], [[Pierre de Fermat]], [[John von Neumann]], [[Alan Turing]], [[Aleksandr Khinchin]], [[Andrey Markov]], and [[Norbert Wiener]] made major contributions to mathematics and [[probability theory]], including foundational work relevant to [[computer science]], [[statistical mechanics]], and [[quantum mechanics]]. Several mathematically inclined scientists, including Galileo, were also accomplished [[musician]]s.

Developments in [[medicine]] and [[biology]] included advances in understanding the circulation of [[blood]], from [[Galen]] to [[William Harvey|Harvey]]. Some scholars and historians have argued that [[Christianity]] contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Harrison|first1=Peter|title=Christianity and the rise of western science|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=8 May 2012|url=http://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm|access-date=28 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{citation | last = Noll | first = Mark | author-link = Mark Noll | title = Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" | publisher = The Biologos Foundation | page = 4 | url = http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf | access-date = 14 January 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/http://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf | archive-date = 22 March 2015 | url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Citation | last1 = Lindberg | first1 = David C. | last2 = Numbers | first2 = Ronald L. | title = God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science | place = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1986 | chapter = Introduction | pages = 5, 12 | isbn = 978-0-520-05538-4}}</ref><ref name="Gilley1">{{cite book |last= Gilley |first= Sheridan |others=Brian Stanley|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=0-521-81456-1|page=164}}</ref><ref>Lindberg, David. (1992) ''The Beginnings of Western Science'' University of Chicago Press. p. 204.</ref>

===Age of Enlightenment===

During the [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[Luigi Galvani]], a pioneer of [[bioelectromagnetics]], investigated what he termed "animal electricity." He observed that applying an electrical charge to the spinal cord of a frog could produce muscular spasms throughout its body. Even detached frog legs were seen to twitch when exposed to electrical stimulation. In one experiment, Galvani noted that a steel scalpel touching a brass hook holding a frog's leg caused the leg to contract. 

Further experiments reinforced these observations, leading Galvani to conclude that he was witnessing a form of intrinsic electrical force within animal tissue. At the [[University of Pavia]], his colleague [[Alessandro Volta]] replicated the results but questioned Galvani's interpretation.<ref name=Routledge>{{cite book|title=A popular history of science|author=Robert Routledge|url=https://archive.org/details/b24869880|page=[https://archive.org/details/b24869880/page/553 553] |edition=2nd|year=1881|publisher=G. Routledge and Sons|isbn=0-415-38381-1}}</ref>

[[Lazzaro Spallanzani]] was a prominent figure in experimental physiology and the natural sciences. His investigations had a lasting influence on medical science, particularly in the experimental study of bodily functions and animal reproduction.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www-3.unipv.it/webbio/spalla99/spallanz.htm|title=Spallanzani - Uomo e scienziato|publisher=Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani|language=it|access-date=2010-06-07|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100603044941/http://www-3.unipv.it/webbio/spalla99/spallanz.htm|archive-date=2010-06-03}}</ref>

[[Francesco Redi]] demonstrated that [[microorganism]]s could cause [[disease]].

===19th century===

Until the late 19th or early 20th century, scientists were commonly referred to as "[[Natural philosophy|natural philosophers]]" or "men of science".<ref>Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science. {{cite web |url=http://www.rpi.edu/~rosss2/book.html |title=Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science |access-date=2008-01-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309165847/http://www.rpi.edu/~rosss2/book.html |archive-date=2008-03-09 }}</ref><ref>Friedrich Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner's sons v.1, 1887</ref><ref>Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43. {{ISBN|0-231-13428-2}}</ref><ref>''Science'' by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun. [https://books.google.com/books?id=4gcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274 Page 274] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302180539/https://books.google.com/books?id=4gcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA274&as_brr=1&ei=_TiNR7znI5mmiQGXo4TEBQ |date=2017-03-02 }}.</ref>

English philosopher and historian of science [[William Whewell]] coined the term ''scientist'' in 1833. It first appeared in print in his anonymous 1834 review of [[Mary Somerville]]'s ''[[On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences]]'', published in the ''[[Quarterly Review]]''.<ref name=Ross1962>{{Cite journal| author = Ross, Sydney | year = 1962 | title = Scientist: The story of a word | journal = [[Annals of Science]] | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 65–85 | doi = 10.1080/00033796200202722| doi-access = free }} To be exact, the person who coined the term ''scientist'' was referred to in Whewell 1834 only as "some ingenious gentleman." Ross later identified this as Whewell himself. Ross 1962, p.72.</ref>

In the review, Whewell discussed what he described as an increasing tendency toward specialization within the sciences. As highly specific terms such as ''chemist'', ''mathematician'', and ''naturalist'' became common, the broader term ''philosopher'' no longer adequately described those engaged in scientific study. Whewell contrasted this trend with Somerville's aim of demonstrating how distinct branches of science had historically been unified through general principles.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Whewell |first1=William |editor1-last=Murray |editor1-first=John |title=On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences By Mrs. Sommerville |journal=The Quarterly Review |issue=March & June 1834 |volume=LI |pages=54–68}}</ref>

Whewell reported that members of the [[British Association for the Advancement of Science]] had expressed concern over the absence of a suitable collective term for "students of the knowledge of the material world." Referring indirectly to himself, he noted that "some ingenious gentleman" had proposed the word ''scientist'' by analogy with ''artist'', arguing that similar formations such as ''[[economist]]'' and ''[[atheist]]'' were already in use. The suggestion, however, was not immediately well received.<ref name=Holmes>{{cite book |last1= Holmes|first1= R|title= The age of wonder: How the romantic generation discovered the beauty and terror of science|year= 2008|publisher= Harper Press|location= London|isbn= 978-0-00-714953-7|page= 449}}</ref>

Whewell later proposed the term again, more explicitly, in his 1840 work ''The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences''.<ref name=Whewell>{{cite book |last1=Whewell|first=William|title=The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Volume 1|location=Cambridge|page=cxiii}} or {{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/philosophyinduc01whewgoog |title=The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2 |last1=Whewell |first1=William |year=1847|page=[https://archive.org/details/philosophyinduc01whewgoog/page/n580 560]|publisher=New York, Johnson Reprint Corp. }}. In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560.</ref>

{{blockquote|
The terminations ''ize'' (rather than ''ise''), ''ism'', and ''ist'', are applied to words of all origins: thus we have to ''pulverize'', to ''colonize'', ''Witticism'', ''Heathenism'', ''Journalist'', ''Tobacconist''. Hence we may make such words when they are wanted. As we cannot use ''physician'' for a cultivator of physics, I have called him a ''Physicist''. We need very much a name to describe a cultivator of science in general. I should incline to call him a ''Scientist''. Thus we might say, that as an Artist is a Musician, Painter, or Poet, a Scientist is a Mathematician, Physicist, or Naturalist.
}}

He also proposed the term ''physicist'' as a counterpart to the French ''physicien''. Neither term gained widespread acceptance immediately. ''Scientist'' became common in the late 19th century in the United States and around the turn of the 20th century in [[Great Britain]].<ref name=Ross1962/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.victorianweb.org/science/whewell.html|title= William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science|access-date= 2007-05-19|url-status= live|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070625171128/http://www.victorianweb.org/science/whewell.html|archive-date= 2007-06-25}}</ref><ref>Tamara Preaud, Derek E. Ostergard, The Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory. Yale University Press 1997. 416 pages. {{ISBN|0-300-07338-0}} Page 36.</ref>

By the twentieth century, the modern concept of science as a distinct body of knowledge, practiced by a specialized community and pursued through recognized methods, had become firmly established.

===20th century===
[[Marie Curie]] became the first woman to win the Nobel Prize and the first person to win it twice. Her efforts led to the development of nuclear energy and Radiotherapy for the treatment of cancer. In 1922, she was appointed a member of the International Commission on Intellectual Co-operation by the Council of the League of Nations. She campaigned for scientist's right to patent their discoveries and inventions. She also campaigned for free access to international scientific literature and for internationally recognized scientific symbols.

==Profession==
As a profession, the scientist of today is widely recognized<ref>{{Cite web |title=Being a scientist, not just a job {{!}} ESWI |url=https://eswi.org/activities/podcasts/eswi-airborne-life-scientist/being-scientist-not-just-job |access-date=2026-06-13 |website=eswi.org |language=en}}</ref>. However, there is no formal process to determine who is a scientist and who is not a scientist. Anyone can be a scientist in some sense. Some professions have legal requirements for their practice (e.g. [[licensure]]) and some scientists are [[independent scientist]]s meaning that they practice science on their own, but to practice science there are no known licensure requirements.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.unimelb.edu.au/sciencecommunication/2014/08/07/everyone-is-a-scientist/|title=Everyone is a Scientist – Scientific Scribbles}}</ref>

===Education===
In modern times, many professional scientists are trained in an [[Academy|academic setting]] (e.g., [[universities]] and [[research institute]]s), mostly at the level of [[graduate school]]s. Upon completion, they would normally attain an [[academic degree]], with the highest degree being a [[doctorate]] such as a [[Doctor of Philosophy]] (PhD).<ref name="Cyranoski2011">{{cite journal | last1 = Cyranoski | first1 = David | last2 = Gilbert | first2 = Natasha | last3 = Ledford | first3 = Heidi | last4 = Nayar | first4 = Anjali | last5 = Yahia | first5 = Mohammed | year = 2011 | title = Education: The PhD factory | journal = Nature | volume = 472 | issue = 7343 | pages = 276–279 | doi = 10.1038/472276a | pmid=21512548| bibcode = 2011Natur.472..276C | doi-access = free }}</ref> Although [[Postgraduate education|graduate education]] for scientists varies among institutions and countries, some common training requirements include [[Academic specialization|specializing]] in an [[Branches of science|area]] of interest,<ref name="Editorial2015">{{cite journal | year = 2015 | title = STEM education: To build a scientist | journal = Nature | volume = 523 | issue = 7560 | pages = 371–373 | doi = 10.1038/nj7560-371a | doi-access = free }}</ref> publishing research findings in [[Peer review|peer-reviewed]] [[scientific journal]]s<ref name="Gould2016">{{cite journal | last1 = Gould | first1 = Julie | year = 2016 | title = What's the point of the PhD thesis? | journal = Nature | volume = 535 | issue = 7610 | pages = 26–28 | doi = 10.1038/535026a | pmid = 27383968 | bibcode = 2016Natur.535...26G | doi-access = free }}</ref> and presenting them at [[Academic conference|scientific conferences]],<ref name="Kruger2018">{{cite journal | last1 = Kruger | first1 = Philipp | year = 2018 | title = Why it is not a 'failure' to leave academia | journal = Nature | volume = 560 | issue = 7716 | pages = 133–134 | doi = 10.1038/d41586-018-05838-y | pmid = 30065341 | bibcode = 2018Natur.560..133K | doi-access = free }}</ref> giving [[lecture]]s or [[Teacher|teaching]],<ref name="Kruger2018"/> and defending a [[Thesis|thesis (or dissertation)]] during an [[oral exam]]ination.<ref name="Cyranoski2011"/> To aid them in this endeavor, graduate students often work under the guidance of a [[Mentorship|mentor]], usually a senior scientist, which may continue after the completion of their doctorates whereby they work as [[postdoctoral researcher]]s.<ref name="Lee2007">{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = Adrian | last2 = Dennis | first2 = Carina | last3 = Campbell | first3 = Phillip | year = 2007 | title = Nature's guide for mentors | journal = Nature | volume = 447 | issue = 7146 | pages = 791–797 | doi = 10.1038/447791a | pmid = 17568738 | bibcode = 2007Natur.447..791L | doi-access = free }}</ref>

===Career===
After the completion of their training, many scientists pursue careers in a variety of work settings and conditions.<ref name="Kwok2017">{{cite journal | last1 = Kwok | first1 = Roberta | title = Flexible working: Science in the gig economy | journal = Nature | volume = 550 | pages = 419–421 | doi = 10.1038/nj7677-549a | year=2017| doi-access = free }}</ref> In 2017, the British [[scientific journal]] ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' published the results of a large-scale survey of more than 5,700 doctoral students worldwide, asking them which [[Economic sector|sectors of the economy]] they would like to work in. A little over half of the respondents wanted to pursue a career in academia, with smaller proportions hoping to work in industry, government, and nonprofit environments.<ref name="Editorial2017a">{{cite journal | year = 2007 | title = Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects | journal = Nature | editor = Editorial | volume = 550 | pages = 549–552| doi = 10.1038/nj7677-549a | last1 = Woolston | first1 = Chris| doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="Woolston2017">{{cite journal | last1 = Lee | first1 = Adrian | last2 = Dennis | first2 = Carina | last3 = Campbell | first3 = Phillip | year = 2007 | title = Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship | journal = Nature | volume = 550 | issue = 7677 | pages = 549–552 | doi = 10.1038/nj7677-549a| doi-access = free }}</ref>

Other motivations are recognition by their peers and prestige. The [[Nobel Prize]], a widely regarded prestigious award,<ref name = "Stockton2014">{{citation | last = Stockton | first = Nick | title = How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth? | newspaper = Wired | date = 7 October 2014 | url = https://www.wired.com/2014/10/whats-nobel-prize-become-biggest-award-planet | access-date = 3 September 2018}}</ref> is awarded annually to those who have achieved scientific advances in the fields of [[medicine]], [[physics]], and [[chemistry]].

====Research interests====
Scientists include [[experiment]]alists who mainly perform experiments to test hypotheses, and [[Scientific theory|theoreticians]] who mainly develop [[Scientific modelling|models]] to explain existing data and predict new results. There is a continuum between the two activities and the division between them is not clear-cut, with many scientists performing both tasks.

Those considering science as a [[career]] often look to the frontiers. These include [[physical cosmology|cosmology]] and [[biology]], especially [[molecular biology]] and the [[human genome]] project. Other areas of active research include the exploration of [[matter]] at the scale of [[elementary particle]]s as described by [[particle physics|high-energy physics]], and [[materials science]], which seeks to discover and design new materials. Others choose to study [[Human brain|brain]] function and [[neurotransmitter]]s, which is considered by many to be the "final frontier".<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234155/ | title=Foreword | year=1992 | publisher=National Academies Press (US) }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://stanfordmag.org/contents/the-brain-the-final-frontier | title=The Brain: The Final Frontier? | date=November 2014 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cmu.edu/homepage/health/2010/summer/the-last-frontier.shtml | title=The Last Frontier - Carnegie Mellon University &#124; CMU }}</ref> There are many important discoveries to make regarding the nature of the [[mind]] and [[human]] [[thought]], much of which still remains unknown.
Some scientists have a desire to apply scientific knowledge for the benefit of people's health, the nations, the world, nature, or industries (academic scientist and [[industrial scientist]]).{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} A 2025 study found a fraction of scientists prioritize [[ideology]] over [[truth]] or report [[self-censorship]] in their work.<ref name="j182">{{cite journal | last1=Clark | first1=Cory J. | last2=Fjeldmark | first2=Matias | last3=Lu | first3=Louise | last4=Baumeister | first4=Roy F. | last5=Ceci | first5=Stephen | last6=Frey | first6=Komi | last7=Miller | first7=Geoffrey | last8=Reilly | first8=Wilfred | last9=Tice | first9=Dianne | last10=von Hippel | first10=William | last11=Williams | first11=Wendy M. | last12=Winegard | first12=Bo M. | last13=Tetlock | first13=Philip E. | title=Taboos and Self-Censorship Among U.S. Psychology Professors | journal=Perspectives on Psychological Science | volume=20 | issue=5 | date=2025 | issn=1745-6916 | pmid=38752984 | pmc=12408927 | doi=10.1177/17456916241252085 | pages=941–957 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/17456916241252085 | access-date=2026-08-30}}</ref>

===By specialization===

====Natural science====
=====Physical science=====
{| class=wikitable
|
* [[Chemist]]
**[[Agrochemistry|Agrochemist]]
** [[Analytical chemist]]
** [[Astrochemist]]
** [[Atmospheric chemist]]
**[[Biophysical chemistry|Biophysical chemist]]
**[[Clinical chemistry|Clinical chemist]]
**[[Computational chemistry|Computational chemist]]
**[[Electrochemistry|Electrochemist]]
**[[Femtochemistry|Femtochemist]]
**[[Geochemist]]
**[[Green chemistry|Green chemist]]
**[[Laboratory technician|Chemical laboratory technician]]
**[[Inorganic chemist]]
**[[Medicinal chemistry|Medicinal chemist]]
**[[Nuclear chemistry|Nuclear chemist]]
**[[Organic chemist]]
**[[Organometallic chemistry|Organometallic chemist]]
**[[Pharmacology|Pharmacologist]]
**[[Physical chemist]]
**[[Quantum chemistry|Quantum chemist]]
**[[Solid-state chemistry|Solid-state chemist]]
**[[Stereochemistry|Stereochemist]]
**[[Structural chemistry|Structural chemist]]
**[[Supramolecular chemistry|Supramolecular chemist]]
**[[Theoretical chemistry|Theoretical chemist]]
**[[Thermochemistry|Thermochemist]]
|
* [[Earth science|Earth scientist]]
** [[Astrogeology|Astrogeologist]]
** [[Biogeochemistry|Biogeochemist]]
** [[Climatology|Climatologist]]
** [[Dendroarchaeology|Dendroarchaeologist]]
** [[Dendrology|Dendrologist]]
** [[Edaphology|Edaphologist]]
** [[Gemology|Gemologist]]
** [[Geoarchaeology|Geoarchaeologist]]
** [[Geobiology|Geobiologist]]
** [[Geographer]]
** [[Geologist]]
** [[Geomicrobiology|Geomicrobiologist]]
** [[Geomorphology|Geomorphologist]]
** [[Geophysicist]]
** [[Glaciology|Glaciologist]]
** [[Hydrogeology|Hydrogeologist]]
** [[Hydrologist]]
** [[Hydrometeorology|Hydrometeorologist]]
** [[Limnology|Limnologist]]
** [[Meteorologist]]
** [[Mineralogy|Mineralogist]]
** [[Oceanography|Oceanographer]]
** [[Paleoclimatology|Paleoclimatologist]]
** [[Paleoecology|Paleoecologist]]
** [[Paleogeology|Paleogeologist]]
** [[Paleoseismology|Paleoseismologist]]
** [[Palynology|Palynologist]]
** [[Petrology|Petrologist]]
** [[Sedimentology|Sedimentologist]]
** [[Seismology|Seismologist]]
** [[Speleology|Speleologist]]
** [[Volcanologist]]
|
* [[Physicist]]
** [[Acoustics|Acoustician]]
** [[Agrophysics|Agrophysicist]]
** [[Astrophysicist]]
** [[Atmospheric physicist]]
** [[Atomic physicist]]
** [[Biological physics|Biological physicist]]
** [[Chemical physics|Chemical physicist]]
** [[Computational physics|Computational physicist]]
** [[Cosmologist]]
** [[Condensed-matter physics|Condensed-matter physicist]]
** [[Engineering physics|Engineering physicist]]
** [[Material physics|Material physicist]]
** [[Molecular physics|Molecular physicist]]
** [[Nuclear physics|Nuclear physicist]]
** [[Particle physics|Particle physicist]]
** [[Plasma physics|Plasma physicist]]
** [[Polymer physics|Polymer physicist]]
** [[Psychophysics|Psychophysicist]]
** [[Quantum physics|Quantum physicist]]
** [[Theoretical physics|Theoretical physicist]]
|
* [[Astronomer]]
** [[Planetary science]]
** [[Space science]]
** [[Cosmology]]
|}

=====Life science=====
{{Main|List of life sciences}}

{| class=wikitable
|
* [[Biologist]]
**[[Acarology|Acarologist]]
** [[Aerobiology|Aerobiologist]]
** [[Anatomist]]
** [[Arachnology|Arachnologist]]
** [[Bacteriologist]]
**[[Bioclimatology|Bioclimatologist]]
**[[Biogeography|Biogeographer]]
**[[Bioinformatics|Bioinformatician]]
** [[Biotechnology|Biotechnologist]]
** [[Bioarcheology|Bioarcheologist]]
**[[Biochemist]]
**[[Biolinguistics|Biolinguist]]
** [[Biological anthropology|Biological anthropologist]]
**[[Biophysics|Biophysicist]]
**[[Biostatistics|Biostatistician]]
**[[Botany|Botanist]]
**[[Cell biology|Cell biologist]]
**[[Chronobiology|Chronobiologist]]
**[[Cognitive biology|Cognitive biologist]]
**[[Computational biology|Computational biologist]]
|
* [[Conservation biology|Conservation biologist]]
* [[Dendrochronology|Dendrochronologist]]
* [[Developmental biology|Developmental biologist]]
* [[Ecology|Ecologist]]
* [[Electrophysiology|Electrophysiologist]]
* [[Embryology|Embryologist]]
* [[Endocrinologist]]
* [[Entomology|Entomologist]]
* [[Epidemiology|Epidemiologist]]
* [[Ethology|Ethologist]]
* [[Evolutionary biologist]]
* [[Geneticist]]
* [[Hematologist]]
* [[Herbchronology|Herbchronologist]]
* [[Herpetology|Herpetologist]]
* [[Histology|Histologist]]
* [[Human behavioral ecology|Human behavioral ecologist]]
* [[Human biology|Human biologist]]
|
* [[Ichnology|Ichnologist]]
* [[Ichthyology|Ichthyologist]]
* [[Immunology|Immunologist]]
* [[Integrative biology|Integrative biologist]]
* [[Lepidopterist]]
* [[Mammalogy|Mammalogist]]
* [[Marine biologist]]
*[[Medical biology|Medical biologist]]
* [[Microbiologist]]
* [[Molecular biologist]]
* [[Mycology|Mycologist]]
* [[Neuroendocrinology|Neuroendocrinologist]]
* [[Neuroscientist]]
** [[Neuropsychologist]]
* [[Ornithology|Ornithologist]]
* [[Osteology|Osteologist]]
* [[Paleoanthropology|Paleoanthropologist]]
* [[Paleobotany|Paleobotanist]]
* [[Paleobiology|Paleobiologist]]
* [[Paleontologist]]
* [[Paleopathology|Paleopathologist]]
|
* [[Parasitology|Parasitologist]]
* [[Pathology|Pathologist]]
* [[Physiology|Physiologist]]
* [[Phytopathology|Phytopathologist]]
* [[Population biology|Population biologist]]
* [[Primatology|Primatologist]]
* [[Quantum biology|Quantum biologist]]
* [[Radiobiology|Radiobiologist]]
* [[Sclerochronology|Sclerochronologist]]
* [[Sociobiology|Sociobiologist]]
* [[Structural biology|Structural biologist]]
* [[Theoretical biology|Theoretical biologist]]
* [[Toxicology|Toxicologist]]
* [[Virologist]]
* [[Wildlife biology|Wildlife biologist]]
* [[Zoology|Zoologist]]
|}

====Social science====
{| class=wikitable
|
*[[Anthropologist]]
** [[Archaeologist]]
** [[Cultural Anthropology|Cultural anthropologist]]
** [[Linguistics|Linguistic anthropologist]]
* [[Communication studies|Communication scientist]]
* [[Criminology|Criminologist]]
* [[Demography|Demographer]]
* [[Economist]]
* [[Management science|Management scientist]]
* [[Political economy|Political economist]]
* [[Political science|Political scientist]]
|
* [[Psychologist]]
** [[Behavioral genetics|Behavioral geneticist]]
** [[Clinical psychologist]]
** [[Cognitive psychologist]]
** [[Developmental psychologist]]
** [[Educational psychologist]]
** [[Evolutionary psychologist]]
** [[Experimental psychologist]]
** [[Forensic psychology|Forensic psychologist]]
** [[Health psychology|Health psychologist]]
** [[Industrial and organizational psychology|Industrial and organizational psychologist]]
** [[Medical psychology|Medical psychologist]]
** [[Social psychologist]]
** [[Sport psychology|Sport psychologist]]
* [[Sociology|Sociologist]]
|}

====Formal science====
{| class=wikitable
|
* [[Computer scientist]]
** [[Computational scientist]]
** [[Data scientist]]
* [[Mathematician]]<ref name="Whewell" />
** [[Abstract algebra|Algebraist]]
** [[Mathematical analysis|Analyst]]
** [[Geometer]]
** [[Mathematical logic|Logician]]
** [[List of mathematical probabilists|Probabilist]]
** [[Statistician]]
** [[Topologist]]
* [[Systems science|Systems scientist]]
|}

====Applied====
{| class = wikitable
|
* [[Agricultural|Agriculturist]]
*[[Applied physics]]
**[[Health physics|Health physicist]]
**[[Medical physics|Medical physicist]]
*[[Biomedical research|Biomedical scientist]]
*[[Engineering physics|Engineering scientist]]
*[[Environmental science|Environmental scientist]]
* [[Food science|Food scientist]]
* [[kinesiology|Kinesiologist]]
* [[Nutritionist]]
* [[Operations research|Operations research and management analysts]]
* [[Physician scientist]]
|}

====Interdisciplinary====
{| class=wikitable
|
*[[Materials science|Materials scientist]]
* [[Mathematical biology|Mathematical biologist]]
* [[Mathematical chemistry|Mathematical chemist]]
* [[Mathematical economics|Mathematical economist]]
* [[Mathematical physics|Mathematical physicist]]
* [[Mathematical sociology|Mathematical sociologist]]
|}

===By employer===
* [[Academic staff|Academic]]
* [[Independent scientist]]
* [[Applied science|Industrial/applied scientist]]
* [[Citizen scientist]]
* [[Government scientist]]

==Demography==

=== By country ===
The number of scientists is vastly different from country to country. For instance, there are only four full-time scientists per 10,000 workers in India, while this number is 79 for the United Kingdom, and 85 for the United States.<ref name = "Noorden2015">{{cite journal | last1 = van Noorden | first1 = Richard | year = 2015 | title = India by the numbers | journal = Nature | volume = 521 | issue = 7551| pages = 142–143 | doi = 10.1038/521142a | pmid = 25971491 | bibcode = 2015Natur.521..142V | doi-access = free }}</ref>
{| class=wikitable
|+ Scientists per 10,000 workers for selected countries<ref name = "Noorden2015"/>
|- valign=top
|
* [[Nigeria]]: 1
* [[Indonesia]]: 1
* [[Malaysia]]: 2
* [[Thailand]]: 2
* [[Bangladesh]]: 2
* [[Pakistan]]: 3
|
* [[India]]: 4
* [[Kenya]]: 6
* [[Chile]]: 7
* [[Brazil]]: 14
* [[Egypt]]: 14
|
* [[United Arab Emirates]]: 15
* [[Saudi Arabia]]: 15
* [[China]]: 18
* [[South Africa]]: 20
* [[New Zealand]]: 35
|
* [[Spain]]: 54
* [[Russia]]: 58
* [[France]]: 68
* [[Australia]]: 69
* [[Germany]]: 70
* [[Italy]]: 70
|
* [[Canada]]: 73
* [[United Kingdom]]: 79
* [[Japan]]: 83
* [[United States]]: 85
* [[Israel]]: 140
|}

==== United States ====
According to the [[National Science Foundation]], 4.7&nbsp;million people with science degrees worked in the [[United States]] in 2015, across all disciplines and employment sectors. The figure included twice as many men as women. Of that total, 17% worked in academia, that is, at universities and undergraduate institutions, and men held 53% of those positions. 5% of scientists worked for the federal government, and about 3.5% were self-employed. Of the latter two groups, two-thirds were men. 59% of scientists in the United States were employed in industry or business, and another 6% worked in non-profit positions.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2017-02-22|title=Employment: Male majority|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=542|issue=7642|pages=509|doi=10.1038/nj7642-509b|s2cid=256770781 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Engineers]]
* [[Inventor]]
* [[Researcher]]
* [[Fields Medal]]
* [[Hippocratic Oath for Scientists]]
* [[History of science]]
* [[Intellectual]]
* [[Independent scientist]]
* [[Licensure]]
* [[Mad scientist]]
* [[Natural science]]
* [[Nobel Prize]]
* [[Protoscience]]
* [[Normative science]]
* [[Pseudoscience]]
* [[Scholar]]
* [[Science]]
* [[Social science]]
* [[Women in science]]

; Related lists
* [[List of engineers]]
* [[List of mathematicians]]
* [[List of Nobel laureates in Physics]]
* [[List of Nobel laureates in Chemistry]]
* [[List of Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
* [[List of Russian scientists]]
* [[List of Roman Catholic cleric-scientists]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External articles==
; Further reading
* [[Alison Gopnik]], [http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf "Finding Our Inner Scientist"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160412053853/http://www.amacad.org/publications/winter2004/gopnik.pdf |date=2016-04-12 }}, [[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus]], Winter 2004.
* Charles George Herbermann, The Catholic Encyclopedia. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=in8qAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA600 Science and the Church]''. The Encyclopedia press, 1913. v.13. Page 598.
* [[Thomas Samuel Kuhn|Thomas Kuhn]], ''[[The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]]'', 1962.
* Arthur Jack Meadows. ''The Victorian Scientist: The Growth of a Profession'', 2004. {{ISBN|0-7123-0894-6}}.
* Science, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=QwcuAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA511 The Relation of Pure Science to Industrial Research]''. American Association for the Advancement of Science. Page 511 onwards.

; Websites
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20061019045704/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/connected/main.jhtml?xml=/connected/2006/08/29/ecteach29.xml For best results, add a little inspiration] – The Telegraph about ''What Inspired You?'', a survey of key thinkers in science, technology and medicine
* [http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/284/5411/55 Peer Review Journal Science on amateur scientists]
* [https://archive.org/details/philosinductsci01wewrich The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847) – Complete Text]

; Audio-Visual
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00548jq "The Scientist"], BBC Radio 4 discussion with John Gribbin, Patricia Fara and Hugh Pennington (''In Our Time'', Oct. 24, 2002)

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Scientists| ]]
[[Category:Science occupations| ]]