{{short description|Country in West Asia}}
{{hatnote|"KSA" and "Saudi Arab" redirect here. For other uses, see [[KSA (disambiguation)]] and [[Saudi (disambiguation)|Saudi]].}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
<!-- Intro -->
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=April 2024}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2020}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| common_name            = Saudi Arabia
| native_name            = <!-- Don't add diacritcs -->{{native name|ar|المملكة العربية السعودية}}<br />{{nowrap|{{transliteration|ar|al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya}}}}
| image_flag             = Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg
| image_coat             = Emblem of Saudi Arabia.svg
| symbol_type            = [[Emblem of Saudi Arabia|Emblem]]
| national_motto         = <!-- Don't add diacritcs -->{{lang|ar|لَا إِلهَ إِلَّا اللَّهُ، مُحَمَّدٌ رَسُولُ اللَّهِ}} <br />{{transliteration|ar|Lā ʾilāha ʾillā llāh, Muhammadun rasūlu llāh}} (''[[Shahada]]'')<br />"There is no god but [[God in Islam|God]]; [[Muhammad]] is the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|messenger of God]]"<!--This phrasing is taken from the following saudiembassy.net reference. Also, community consensus on Wikipedia is that 'Allah' is best translated into English by 'God', with a capital 'G'. Do not change it without first raising it on the talk page.--><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/facts_and_figures/ |title=About Saudi Arabia: Facts and figures |publisher=The Royal Embassy of Saudi Arabia, Washington, DC|url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120417231457/http://www.saudiembassy.net/about/country-information/facts_and_figures/ |archive-date=17 April 2012 }}</ref>{{efn|The ''[[Shahada|Shahādah]]'' (Statement of faith) is sometimes translated into English as 'There is no god but Allah', using the [[romanization]] of the [[Arabic]] word ''[[Allah|Allāh]]'' instead of its translation. The word ''Allāh'' ({{langx|ar|اللَّٰه}}) literally translates as ''God''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |title=God |work=Islam: Empire of Faith |publisher=PBS |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=27 March 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140327034958/http://www.pbs.org/empires/islam/faithgod.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>'Islam and Christianity', ''Encyclopedia of Christianity'' (2001): Arabic-speaking Christians and Jews also refer to God as ''Allah''.</ref><ref>{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Allah |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam Online |author=L. Gardet}}</ref>}}
| national_anthem        = <!-- Don't add diacritcs -->{{lang|ar|النشيد الوطني السعودي}}<br />[[National Anthem of Saudi Arabia|{{transliteration|ar|''an-Našīd al-Waṭaniyy as-Suʿūdiyy''}}]] <br /> "Chant of the Saudi Nation"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">[[File:Saudi Arabian national anthem, performed by the United States Navy Band.oga|center]]</div>
| image_map              = {{Switcher|[[File:Saudi Arabia (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Show globe|[[File:Saudi Arabia - Location Map (2013) - SAU - UNOCHA.svg|frameless]]|Show map of Saudi Arabia|default=1}}
| capital                = [[Riyadh]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|24|39|N|46|46|E|type:city_region:SA}}
| largest_city           = Riyadh
| official_languages     = [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]<ref name="BLG"/><!-- Do not edit without talkpage consensus. -->
| regional_languages     = 
| religion               = [[Islam in Saudi Arabia|Sunni Islam]] ([[State religion|official]])<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/171744.pdf |website=U.S. Department of State |quote=According to the basic law, Sunni Islam is the official religion and the country's constitution is the Qur'an and the Sunna (traditions and sayings of the Prophet Muhammad). |access-date=27 March 2025 |archive-date=28 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231228212903/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/171744.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
| demonym                = {{hlist|[[Saudis|Saudi]]|Saudi Arabian}}
| government_type        = [[Absolute monarchy]]
| leader_title1          = [[King of Saudi Arabia|King]]
| leader_name1           = [[Salman of Saudi Arabia|Salman]]
| leader_title2          = [[Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince]] and [[Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia|Prime Minister]] 
| leader_name2           = [[Mohammed bin Salman]]
| legislature            = [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Consultative Assembly]]{{efn|The [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Consultative Assembly]] does not possess the legislative powers of a typical parliament. It serves a consultative role, with the authority to summon ministers and government officials to question them regarding the performance of their ministries. It may also propose laws and amendments, although such proposals require approval through the government’s legislative process, with final decisions involving the [[Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia|Prime Minister]] and the [[Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia|Council of Ministers]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Shura Council Law |url=https://www.shura.gov.sa/wps/wcm/connect/shuraen/internet/Laws%20and%20Regulations/The%20Shura%20Council%20and%20the%20Rules%20and%20Regulations%20Job/Shura%20Council%20Law/ |publisher=Shura Council}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Basic Law of Governance of Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.shura.gov.sa/wps/wcm/connect/ShuraEn/internet/Laws%20and%20Regulations/The%20Basic%20Law%20Of%20Government/ |publisher=Shura Council}}</ref>
}}
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Saudi Arabia|Establishment]]
| established_event1     = [[First Saudi state|Emirate of Diriyah]]
| established_date1      = 22 February 1727
| established_event2     = [[Second Saudi state|Emirate of Nejd]]
| established_date2      = 1824
| established_event3     = [[Third Saudi state#Emirate of Riyadh|Emirate of Riyadh]]
| established_date3      = 15 January 1902
| established_event4     = [[Third Saudi state#Emirate of Nejd and Hasa|Emirate of Nejd and Hasa]]
| established_date4      = 6 May 1913
| established_event5     = [[Third Saudi state#Sultanate of Nejd|Sultanate of Nejd]]
| established_date5      = 2 November 1921
| established_event6     = [[Third Saudi state#Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd|Kingdom of Hejaz and Nejd and Its Dependencies]]
| established_date6      = 29 January 1927
| established_event7     = [[Proclamation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]]
| established_date7      = 23 September 1932
| established_event8     = [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Current constitution]]
| established_date8      = 31 January 1992
| area_km2               = 2,149,690<ref name="CIA World Factbook" />
| area_rank              = 12th
| area_sq_mi             = 830,000 <!-- Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]] -->
| percent_water          = 0.7
| population_census      = {{increaseNeutral}} 33,702,731<ref name="2024 Saudi census">{{cite web | title=Population Estimates Statistics 2024 EN| website=stats.gov.sa| date=2026-01-14 | url=https://www.stats.gov.sa/documents/20117/2435273/Population+Estimates+Statistics+2024+EN.xlsx/6703cee3-3703-18e0-fc1b-956a76d75847?t=1738828776975| language=en| access-date=2026-01-14}}</ref>
| population_census_year = 2024
| population_census_rank = 42nd
| population_density_km2 = 15
| population_density_sq_mi = 38.8 <!-- Do not remove per [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers]] -->
| population_density_rank = 218th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $2.895 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.SA">{{cite web |url=https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |title=World Economic Outlook Database (April 2026 Edition) |publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=www.imf.org |date=14 April 2026 |access-date=18 April 2026 |archive-date=22 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251022132817/https://data.imf.org/en/Data-Explorer?datasetUrn=IMF.RES:WEO(9.0.0) |url-status=live }}</ref>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2026
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 17th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $78,815<ref name="IMFWEO.SA" />
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 19th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $1.389 trillion<ref name="IMFWEO.SA" />
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2026
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 19th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $37,811<ref name="IMFWEO.SA" />
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 37th
| Gini                   = 45.9 <!--number only-->
| Gini_year              = 2013
| Gini_change            = steady<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |title=The World Factbook |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |website=CIA.gov |access-date=28 May 2019 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319180722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| Gini_rank              = 
| HDI                    = 0.900 <!--number only-->
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year-->
| HDI_change             = increase<!--increase/decrease/steady-->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 37th
| currency               = [[Saudi riyal]] (SR){{efn|[[Pegged currency|Pegged]] to the [[United States dollar]] (USD) at 3.75 riyals per USD since 1986<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/saudi-currency-peg-idUSL5N17U54R |title= Saudi riyal peg pressure eases, but not gone |last= Strohecker |first= Karin |date= 27 April 2016 |website= reuters.com |publisher= [[Reuters]] |access-date= 30 September 2023 |quote= |archive-date= 3 October 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231003014257/https://www.reuters.com/article/saudi-currency-peg-idUSL5N17U54R |url-status= live }}</ref>}}
| currency_code          = SAR
| time_zone              = [[Saudi Arabia Standard Time|SAST]]
| utc_offset             = +3
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Saudi Arabia|+966]]
| cctld                  = {{unbulleted list |[[.sa]] |[[AlSaudiah|السعودية.]]}}
| today                  = 
}}

'''Saudi Arabia''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Saudi Arabia-3.ogg|ˌ|s|aʊ|d|i|_|ə|ˈ|r|eɪ|b|i|ə}} {{respell|SOW|dee|_|ə|RAY|bee|ə}}, {{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Saudi Arabia-2.ogg|also|ˌ|s|ɔː|d|i|_|-|}} {{respell|SAW|dee|_-}}; {{langx|ar|ٱلسُّعُودِيَّة|translit=as-Suʿūdiyya}}, {{IPA|ar|s.su.ʕuː.dij.ja}}.}} officially the '''Kingdom of Saudi Arabia''' ('''KSA'''),{{efn|{{langx|ar|ٱلْمَمْلَكَة ٱلْعَرَبِيَّة ٱلسُّعُودِيَّة|translit=al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya|links=no}}, {{IPA|ar|lmam.la.ka‿l.ʕa.ra.bij.ja‿s.su.ʕuː.dij.ja}}, {{audio|Ar-Kingdom Saudi Arabia.oga|pronunciation}}.}}  is a country in [[West Asia]] that occupies the bulk of the [[Arabian Peninsula]]. Covering a land area of approximately {{cvt|2149690|km2|sqmi|comma=}}, it is the [[List of Asian countries by area|fifth-largest country]] in [[Asia]] and the [[List of countries and dependencies by area|twelfth-largest]] in the world. It is bordered by the [[Red Sea]] to the west, [[Jordan]], [[Iraq]], and [[Kuwait]] to the north, the [[Persian Gulf|Arabian Gulf]], [[Bahrain]], [[Qatar]], and the [[United Arab Emirates]] to the east, [[Oman]] to the southeast, and [[Yemen]] to the south. The [[Gulf of Aqaba]] in the northwest separates it from [[Egypt]] and [[Israel]].<ref>{{Citation |title=World Statistics Pocketbook 2023 |chapter=Total, all countries or areas |date=2023-09-09 |series=World Statistics Pocketbook (Ser. V) |pages=3 |chapter-url=https://doi.org |access-date=2025-08-11 |publisher=United Nations |doi=10.18356/9789210025249c004 |isbn=978-92-1-002524-9}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Binder |first=Clemens |chapter=Border Disputes Through Ill-Defined Borders: Maritime Territorial Conflicts and Their Impact on Security |date=2016-12-10 |title=Border Politics |pages=33–50 |chapter-url=https://doi.org |access-date=2025-08-11 |place=Cham |publisher=Springer International Publishing |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-46855-6_3 |isbn=978-3-319-46854-9|chapter-url-access=subscription }}</ref> [[Riyadh]] is the capital and largest city, while other major centers include [[Jeddah]] and the two holiest cities in [[Islam]], [[Mecca]] and [[Medina]].

<!-- History -->[[Pre-Islamic Arabia]], the territory that constitutes Saudi Arabia, was the site of several ancient cultures and civilizations; the [[Archaeology of the Arabian Peninsula|archaeological study]] of the [[Prehistoric Arabia|prehistory of Saudi Arabia]] has identified some of the earliest traces of human activity outside [[Africa]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/04/saudi-arabia-finger-human-migration-homo/ |title=88,000-Year-Old Finger Bone Pushes Back Human Migration Dates |work=National Geographic |access-date=23 August 2018 |archive-date=2 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502233751/https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2018/04/saudi-arabia-finger-human-migration-homo/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Islam]] emerged in what is now Saudi Arabia in the early [[7th century|seventh century]]. Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] united the population of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] and created a single Islamic religious polity. Following his death in 632, his followers expanded Muslim rule beyond Arabia, [[Early Muslim conquests|conquering]] territories in [[North Africa]], [[Central Asia|Central]], [[South Asia]] and [[Iberian Peninsula|Iberia]] within decades.<ref name="Abbas"/><ref name="Reichl"/><ref name="Barber"/> Arab dynasties originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia founded the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] (632–661), [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750), [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] (750–1517), and [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] (909–1171) caliphates, as well as [[List of Muslim states and dynasties|numerous other Muslim states]] in Asia, [[Islam in Africa#History|Africa]], and [[Islam in Europe#Western Europe and the Mediterranean Region|Europe]].

<!-- Politics -->Saudi Arabia was founded in 1932 by [[Ibn Saud|King Abdulaziz]], who united [[Hejaz]], [[Najd]], parts of [[Eastern Arabia]] and [[South Arabia]] into a single state through [[Formation of Saudi Arabia|a series of military and political campaigns]] beginning in 1902. The Kingdom is the [[Third Saudi state|Third Saudi State]] and the successor to the [[First Saudi state|First Saudi State]] (1727–1818) and the [[Second Saudi state|Second Saudi State]] (1824–1891). The country has since been governed as an [[absolute monarchy]] under the [[House of Saud]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Alhussein |first=Eman |chapter=Saudi Arabias centralized political structure: prospects and challenges |date=2023 |title=Handbook of Middle East Politics |pages=144–157 |chapter-url=https://www.elgaronline.com/edcollchap/book/9781802205633/book-part-9781802205633-14.xml |publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing |isbn=978-1-80220-563-3}}</ref> In its [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Basic Law]], Saudi Arabia defines itself as a sovereign Arab [[Islamic state]] with [[Islam in Saudi Arabia|Islam as its official religion]] and [[Arabic]] as its official language. The ultraconservative [[Wahhabism|Wahhabi]] religious movement within [[Sunni Islam]] was the prevailing political and cultural force until the 2000s.<ref name="HT2003: 14">[[#HT2003|Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2003]]: p. 14</ref><ref name="ReferenceA">[[#Malbouisson|Malbouisson]], p. 23</ref> The Saudi government has attracted criticism for various policies such as its [[Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war|intervention in the Yemeni Civil War]], restrictions on political and civil liberties, and poor [[Human rights in Saudi Arabia|human rights record]].<ref>{{cite web |date=15 April 2020 |title=Saudi Arabia has carried out 800 executions since 2015, says rights group |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-executions-death-toll-human-rights-king-salman-a9466741.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200421171202/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-executions-death-toll-human-rights-king-salman-a9466741.html |archive-date=21 April 2020 |access-date=6 March 2023 |website=[[Independent.co.uk]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Death Penalty Worldwide |url=http://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/country-search-post.cfm?141-9chk=on&hideinfo=on |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616025908/http://www.deathpenaltyworldwide.org/country-search-post.cfm?141-9chk=on&hideinfo=on |archive-date=16 June 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2025-07-26/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/normalization-with-israel-the-saudi-crown-prince-has-much-bigger-plans/00000198-4531-df14-a99c-c77929620000 |title=Normalization with Israel: The Saudi Crown Prince has much bigger plans |access-date=4 August 2025 |archive-date=3 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250803164027/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2025-07-26/ty-article-magazine/.highlight/normalization-with-israel-the-saudi-crown-prince-has-much-bigger-plans/00000198-4531-df14-a99c-c77929620000 |url-status=live }}</ref><!-- International --> Since the mid-2010s, Saudi Arabia has instituted limited and gradual reforms to liberalize social, cultural, and religious life.<ref>{{Cite web |last=French |first=Nathan |date=2023-09-05 |title=Saudi reforms are softening Islam's role, but critics warn the kingdom will still take a hard line against dissent |url=http://theconversation.com/saudi-reforms-are-softening-islams-role-but-critics-warn-the-kingdom-will-still-take-a-hard-line-against-dissent-210537 |access-date=2025-10-02 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US |archive-date=4 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251104014029/https://theconversation.com/saudi-reforms-are-softening-islams-role-but-critics-warn-the-kingdom-will-still-take-a-hard-line-against-dissent-210537 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia is considered both a [[Regional power|regional]] and [[Middle power|middle]] power,<ref name="The United States and the Great Powers">{{cite book |last=Buzan |first=Barry |title=The United States and the Great Powers |publisher=Polity Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7456-3375-6 |place=Cambridge |page=71}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=7 November 2013 |title=The erosion of Saudi Arabia's image among its neighbours |url=http://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/8207-the-erosion-of-saudi-arabias-image-among-its-neighbours |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109115032/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/articles/middle-east/8207-the-erosion-of-saudi-arabias-image-among-its-neighbours |archive-date=9 November 2013 |website=[[Middle East Monitor]]}}</ref> in addition to being a [[major non-NATO ally]] of the [[United States]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bragg |first=Julianna |date=November 18, 2025 |title=Trump designates Saudi Arabia as major non-NATO ally |url=https://www.axios.com/2025/11/19/trump-crown-prince-saudi-arabia-mbs-military-nato |website=[[Axios.com]]}}</ref> Since [[petroleum]] was [[Dammam No. 7|discovered in the country in 1938]],<ref>{{cite web|last1=Caryl|first1=Sue|title=1938: Oil Discovered in Saudi Arabia|url=http://nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar3/oil-discovered-saudi-arabia/|website=National Geographic|publisher=National Geographic Society|access-date=27 November 2016|date=20 February 2014|archive-date=12 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212182621/http://nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar3/oil-discovered-saudi-arabia/|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Learsy|first1=Raymond|title=Oil and Finance: The Epic Corruption|date=2011|page=89}}</ref> the kingdom has become the world's [[List of countries by oil extraction|second-largest oil producer]] and leading [[List of countries by oil exports|oil exporter]], controlling the world's [[List of countries by proven oil reserves#Countries|second-largest oil reserves]] and [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|sixth-largest gas reserves]].<ref name=":0">{{cite web |title=International – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) |url=http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507100155/http://www.eia.gov/countries/index.cfm?view=production |archive-date=7 May 2015 |access-date=27 March 2015 |work=eia.gov}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is categorized as a [[High-income economy|World Bank high-income economy]] and is the only Arab country among the [[G20]] major economies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wynbrandt |first=James |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=99M0zoSqsF0C&pg=PA242 |title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4381-0830-8 |page=242 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035240/https://books.google.com/books?id=99M0zoSqsF0C&pg=PA242 |archive-date=11 February 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |author1=Soldatkin, Vladimir |author2=Astrasheuskaya, Nastassia |date=9 November 2011 |title=Saudi Arabia to overtake Russia as top oil producer-IEA |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/russia-energy-iea-idUSL6E7M93XT20111109 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018144332/https://www.reuters.com/article/russia-energy-iea-idUSL6E7M93XT20111109 |archive-date=18 October 2022 |access-date=5 July 2021 |work=Reuters}}</ref> The [[Economy of Saudi Arabia|Saudi economy]] is the [[Economy of the Middle East|largest in the Middle East]] and the world's [[List of countries by GDP (nominal)|nineteenth-largest by nominal GDP]] and [[List of countries by GDP (PPP)|seventeenth-largest by PPP]]. Ranking very high in the [[Human Development Index]],<ref name="UNDR2014">{{cite book |url=http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf |title=Human Development Report 2014 |date=2013 |publisher=United Nations |page=159 |access-date=13 October 2014 |archive-date=23 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223104449/http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/hdr14-report-en-1.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia offers [[Higher education in Saudi Arabia|free university tuition]], no personal income tax,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tax in Saudi Arabia {{!}} Saudi Arabia Tax Guide – HSBC Expat |url=https://www.expat.hsbc.com/expat-explorer/expat-guides/saudi-arabia/tax-in-saudi-arabia/ |access-date=2022-06-26 |website=www.expat.hsbc.com |language=en-gb |archive-date=17 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517174634/https://www.expat.hsbc.com/expat-explorer/expat-guides/saudi-arabia/tax-in-saudi-arabia/ |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Health care in Saudi Arabia|free universal health care]]. With its [[Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia|dependence on foreign labour]], Saudi Arabia has the world's [[List of sovereign states by immigrant and emigrant population|third-largest immigrant population]], with foreign-born residents comprising roughly 40% of the population.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-05-31 |title=Saudi population at 32.2 million, 63% of Saudis under 30 years old, census shows |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-population-322-mln-median-age-29-years-old-general-authority-statistics-2023-05-31/ |access-date=2025-10-02 |work=Reuters |language=en |archive-date=26 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250226103440/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/saudi-population-322-mln-median-age-29-years-old-general-authority-statistics-2023-05-31/ |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Saudis|Saudi Arabians]] are among [[Youth in Saudi Arabia|the world's youngest people]], with approximately half being under 25 years old.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://portal.saudicensus.sa/portal/public/1/15/45?type=DASHBOARD|title=بوابة الهيئة - الصفحة الرئيسية|website=portal.saudicensus.sa|language=ar|access-date=7 June 2023|archive-date=3 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010040/https://portal.saudicensus.sa/portal/public/1/15/45?type=DASHBOARD|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://investsaudi.sa/en/node-1140/|title=Why Saudi Arabia|website=Invest Saudi|access-date=17 February 2019|archive-date=13 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213113722/http://investsaudi.sa/en/node-1140/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is a member of the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]], [[United Nations]], [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]], [[Arab League]], and [[OPEC]], as well as a dialogue partner of the [[Shanghai Cooperation Organisation]].

== Etymology ==
<!-- linked -->
{{See also|House of Saud|Arab (etymology)}}

Following the amalgamation of the [[Kingdom of Hejaz]] and [[Sultanate of Nejd|Nejd]], [[Ibn Saud|Abdulaziz]] issued a royal decree on 23 September 1932 naming the new state ''al-Mamlaka al-ʿArabiyya as-Suʿūdiyya'' ([[Arabic]] {{lang|ar|المملكة العربية السعودية}}), which is normally translated as "the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia" in English,<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia">{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm |title=Background Note: Saudi Arabia |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=21 May 2019 |archive-date=9 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190609125313/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> but literally means "the '''Saudi Arab Kingdom'''",<ref>{{cite book|title=The Crisis of Islam |first=Bernard |last=Lewis |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-679-64281-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/crisisofislamhol00lewi/page/23 xx] |publisher=Modern Library |url=https://archive.org/details/crisisofislamhol00lewi }}</ref> or "the '''Saudi Kingdom of Arabia'''" (compare [[the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan]]).

The word "Saudi" is derived from the element ''as-Suʿūdīyya'' in the Arabic name of the country, which is a type of adjective known as a ''[[Nisba (onomastics)|nisba]],'' formed from the dynastic name of the Saudi royal family, the [[House of Saud|Al Saud]] ({{langx|ar|آل سعود}}). Its inclusion expresses the view that the country is the personal possession of the royal family.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: the coming storm |author=Wilson, Peter W. |author2=Graham, Douglas |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56324-394-3 |page=46 |publisher=M.E. Sharpe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K_c9FOeeuewC&pg=PA46 |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143855/https://books.google.com/books?id=K_c9FOeeuewC&pg=PA46#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name= Kamrava>{{cite book |title=The Modern Middle East: A Political History Since the First World War |first=Mehran |last=Kamrava |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-520-26774-9 |page=67 |publisher=University of California Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&pg=PA67 |access-date=27 August 2015 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143723/https://books.google.com/books?id=CkLHZCzMEJkC&pg=PA67#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> ''Al Saud'' is an [[Arabic name]] formed by adding the word ''Al'', meaning "family of" or "House of",<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |first1=James |last1=Wynbrandt |first2=Fawaz A. |last2=Gerges |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-7876-9 |page=xvii |publisher=Infobase |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb }}</ref> to the personal name of an ancestor. In the case of Al Saud, this is [[Saud ibn Muhammad ibn Muqrin]], the father of the dynasty's 18th-century founder, [[Muhammad bin Saud]].<ref>{{cite book |title=The heritage of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |first1=Wahbi |last1=Hariri-Rifai |first2=Mokhless|last2=Hariri-Rifai|year=1990 |isbn=978-0-9624483-0-0 |page=26|publisher=GDG Exhibits Trust }}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Saudi Arabia}}

=== Prehistory ===
[[File:Pergamon-Museum - Anthropomorphe Stele 2.jpg|thumb|upright|Anthropomorphic stela (4th millennium BCE) from El-Maakir-Qaryat al-Kaafa]]

There is evidence that human habitation in the [[Arabian Peninsula]] dates back to about 125,000 years ago.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110127/full/news.2011.55.html |title=Early human migration written in stone tools : Nature News |journal=Nature |date=27 January 2011 |doi=10.1038/news.2011.55 |last1=Callaway |first1=Ewen |access-date=25 November 2016 |archive-date=5 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170405065926/http://www.nature.com/news/2011/110127/full/news.2011.55.html |url-status=live | issn = 0028-0836 |url-access=subscription }}</ref> A 2011 study found that the first modern humans to spread east across Asia left [[Africa]] about 75,000 years ago across the [[Bab-el-Mandeb]] connecting the [[Horn of Africa]] and Arabia.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Hints Of Earlier Human Exit From Africa |journal=Science |volume=331 |issue=6016 |pages=453–456 |doi=10.1126/science.1199113 |pmid=21273486 |publisher=Science News |year=2011 |last1=Armitage |first1=S. J. |last2=Jasim |first2=S. A. |last3=Marks |first3=A. E. |last4=Parker |first4=A. G. |last5=Usik |first5=V. I. |last6=Uerpmann |first6=H.-P. |bibcode=2011Sci...331..453A |s2cid=20296624 }}</ref> The Arabian Peninsula is regarded as central to the understanding of evolution and dispersals of humanity. Arabia underwent an extreme environmental fluctuation in the [[Quaternary]] that led to profound evolutionary and demographic changes. Arabia's rich [[Lower Paleolithic]] record, marked by numerous [[Oldowan]]-like sites, indicates a significant role in the early hominin colonization of [[Eurasia]].<ref>{{citation|last=Mirazon Lahr, M.|year=2010|title=Out of Africa I: The First Hominim Colonization of Eurasia|editor1=Fleagle, J.G.|display-editors=etal|chapter=Saharan Corridors and their role in the Evolutionary Geography of ‘Out of Africa I’|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC&dq=%22Given+that%C2%A0there+is%C2%A0undisputed+evidence+of+hominins+in+Eurasia%22&pg=PA37|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-90-481-9035-5|pages=27–46|access-date=28 March 2024|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143727/https://books.google.com/books?id=CO5zfl460CEC&dq=%22Given+that%C2%A0there+is%C2%A0undisputed+evidence+of+hominins+in+Eurasia%22&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q=%22Given%20that%C2%A0there%20is%C2%A0undisputed%20evidence%20of%20hominins%20in%20Eurasia%22&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[Neolithic]] period, prominent cultures such as [[Al-Magar]], whose centre lay in modern-day southwestern Najd, flourished. Al-Magar could be considered a "Neolithic Revolution" in human knowledge and handicraft skills.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/al-magar//|title=Al Magar – Paleolithic & Neolithic History|website=paleolithic-neolithic.com|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=17 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190817112321/http://paleolithic-neolithic.com/overview/al-magar/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The culture is characterized as being one of the world's first to involve the widespread domestication of animals, particularly the horse.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Sylvia|first1=Smith|title=Desert finds challenge horse taming ideas|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21538969|access-date=13 November 2016|publisher=BCC|date=26 February 2013|archive-date=14 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210814053949/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-21538969|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=John|first1=Henzell|title=Carved in stone: were the Arabs the first to tame the horse?|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art/carved-in-stone-were-the-arabs-the-first-to-tame-the-horse-1.655413/|access-date=12 November 2016|agency=thenational|publisher=thenational|date=11 March 2013|archive-date=13 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713185744/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/art/carved-in-stone-were-the-arabs-the-first-to-tame-the-horse-1.655413/|url-status=live}}</ref> Al-Magar statues were made from local stone, and it seems that the statues were fixed in a central building that might have had a significant role in the social and religious life of the inhabitants.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-08-27 |title=Discovery points to roots of arabian breed – Features |url=https://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2011/08/28/discovery-points-to-roots-of-arabian-breed/ |access-date=2022-05-07 |website=Horsetalk.co.nz |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519055638/https://www.horsetalk.co.nz/2011/08/28/discovery-points-to-roots-of-arabian-breed/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2017, hunting scenes showing images of most likely domesticated dogs (resembling the [[Canaan Dog]]) were discovered in northwestern Saudi Arabia. These rock engravings date back more than 8,000 years, making them the earliest depictions of dogs in the world.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/these-may-be-world-s-first-images-dogs-and-they-re-wearing-leashes|title=These may be the world's first images of dogsand they're wearing leashes|magazine=Science Magazine|first=David|last=Grimm|date=16 November 2017|access-date=18 June 2018|archive-date=4 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220104080835/https://www.science.org/content/article/these-may-be-world-s-first-images-dogs-and-they-re-wearing-leashes|url-status=live}}</ref>

At the end of the 4th millennium BCE, Arabia entered the [[Bronze Age]]; metals were widely used, and the period was characterized by its 2&nbsp;m high burials which were simultaneously followed by the existence of numerous temples that included many free-standing sculptures originally painted with red colours.<ref>طرق التجارة القديمة، روائع آثار المملكة العربية السعودية pp. 156–157</ref>

In May 2021, archaeologists announced that a 350,000-year-old [[Acheulean]] site named An Nasim in the [[Ḥaʼil Province|Hail region]] could be the oldest human habitation site in northern Saudi Arabia. [[Paleolithic]] artefacts are similar to material remains uncovered at the Acheulean sites in the [[An Nafud|Nefud Desert]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Scerri|first1=Eleanor M. L.|last2=Frouin|first2=Marine|last3=Breeze|first3=Paul S.|last4=Armitage|first4=Simon J.|last5=Candy|first5=Ian|last6=Groucutt|first6=Huw S.|last7=Drake|first7=Nick|last8=Parton|first8=Ash|last9=White|first9=Tom S.|last10=Alsharekh|first10=Abdullah M.|last11=Petraglia|first11=Michael D.|date=2021-05-12|title=The expansion of Acheulean hominins into the Nefud Desert of Arabia|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=10111|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-89489-6|pmid=33980918|pmc=8115331|bibcode=2021NatSR..1110111S|issn=2045-2322|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-12|title=Saudi Arabia discovers new archaeological site dating back to 350,000 years|url=http://saudigazette.com.sa/article/606576|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Saudigazette|language=English|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517125158/https://saudigazette.com.sa/article/606576|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-05-13|title=Saudi Arabia discovers a 350,000-year-old archaeological site in Hail|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-discovers-a-350-000-year-old-archaeological-site-in-hail-1.1221864|access-date=2021-05-17|website=The National|language=en|archive-date=17 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517125138/https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-discovers-a-350-000-year-old-archaeological-site-in-hail-1.1221864|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Ancient site in Nefud Desert offers glimpse of early human activity in Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1858031/saudi-arabia|access-date=2021-05-17|website=Arab News|date=13 May 2021 |language=en|archive-date=13 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210513063910/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1858031/amp|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Pre-Islamic ===
{{main|Pre-Islamic Arabia}}

[[File:Statue at National Museum of Korea.jpg|thumb|upright|The "Worshipping Servant" statue (2500 BCE), above {{convert|1|m|spell=in}} in height, is much taller than any possible Mesopotamian or Harappan models. Photo courtesy of the [[National Museum of Korea]].<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180">Roads of Arabia p. 180</ref>]]

The earliest sedentary culture in Saudi Arabia dates to the [[Ubaid period]] at [[Dosariyah]]. Climatic change and the onset of aridity may have brought about the end of this phase of settlement, as little archaeological evidence exists from the succeeding millennium.<ref>Roads of Arabia p. 176.</ref> The settlement of the region picks up again in the period of [[Dilmun]] in the early 3rd millennium. Known records from [[Uruk]] refer to a place called Dilmun, associated on several occasions with copper, and in later periods it was a source of imported woods in southern Mesopotamia. Scholars have suggested that Dilmun originally designated the [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], notably linked with the major Dilmunite settlements of Umm an-Nussi and Umm ar-Ramadh in the interior and Tarout on the coast. It is likely that [[Tarout Island]] was the main port and the capital of Dilmun.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180" /> Mesopotamian inscribed clay tablets suggest that, in the early period of Dilmun, a hierarchical organized political structure existed. In 1966, an earthwork in Tarout exposed an ancient burial field that yielded a large statue dating to the Dilmunite period (mid 3rd millennium BCE). The statue was locally made under the strong Mesopotamian influence on the artistic principle of Dilmun.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180" />

By 2200 BCE, the centre of Dilmun shifted for unknown reasons from Tarout and the Saudi Arabian mainland to the island of Bahrain, and a highly developed settlement emerged there, where a laborious temple complex and thousands of burial mounds dating to this period were discovered.<ref name="Roads of Arabia p. 180"/>

[[File:Qasr al Farid.JPG|thumb|left|''Qaṣr Al-Farīd'', the largest of the 131 [[Rock cut architecture|rock-cut]] monumental tombs built from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE, with their elaborately ornamented façades, at the extensive ancient [[Nabatean]] archaeological site of [[Hegra (Mada'in Salih)|Hegra]] located in the area of [[Al-'Ula]] within [[Al Madinah Region]] in the [[Hejaz]]. A UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]] since 2008.]]

By the late [[Bronze Age]], a historically recorded people and land ([[Midian]] and the Midianites) in the north-western portion of Saudi Arabia are well-documented in the Bible. Centred in [[Tabuk, Saudi Arabia|Tabouk]], it stretched from [[Wadi Arabah]] in the north to the area of [[al-Wajh]] in the south.<ref>Koenig 1971; Payne 1983: Briggs 2009</ref> The capital of Midian was Qurayyah,<ref name="ArnoldStrawn2016">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=e9xrDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT462 The World around the Old Testament: The People and Places of the Ancient Near East] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143857/https://books.google.com/books?id=e9xrDQAAQBAJ&pg=PT462#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Baker Publishing Group; 2016. {{ISBN|978-1-4934-0574-9}} p. 462.</ref> it consists of a large, fortified citadel encompassing 35 hectares and below it lies a walled settlement of 15 hectares. The city hosted as many as 12,000 inhabitants.<ref name="Coogan2001">Michael D. Coogan. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&pg=PA110 The Oxford History of the Biblical World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143909/https://books.google.com/books?id=gM-tZeEO4wgC&pg=PA110#v=onepage&q&f=false |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Oxford University Press; 2001. {{ISBN|978-0-19-988148-2}}. p. 110.</ref> The Bible recounts [[Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy)|Israel]]'s [[Midian war|two wars]] with Midian, in the early 11th century BCE. Politically, the Midianites were described as having a decentralized structure headed by five kings (Evi, Rekem, Tsur, Hur, and Reba); the names appear to be toponyms of important Midianite settlements.<ref>Knauf, 1988</ref> It is common to view that Midian designated a confederation of tribes, the sedentary element settled in the Hijaz while its nomadic affiliates pastured and sometimes pillaged as far away as [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]].<ref name="Midian p. 163">Midian, Moab and Edom: The History and Archaeology of Late Bronze and Iron Age Jordan and North-West Arabia p. 163.</ref> The nomadic [[Midianites]] were one of the earliest exploiters of the domestication of camels that enabled them to navigate through the harsh terrains of the region.<ref name="Midian p. 163" />

[[File:Statue of a man at National Museum of Korea 01.jpg|thumb|upright|Colossal statue from [[Al-'Ula]] in the [[Hejaz]] (6th–4th century BCE); it followed the standardized artistic sculpting of the [[Lihyan]]ite kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Farag |first=Mona |date=2022-09-07 |title=Louvre Museum in Paris to display Saudi Arabia's ancient AlUla statue |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/2022/09/07/louvre-museum-in-paris-to-display-saudi-arabias-ancient-alula-statue/ |access-date=2022-09-24 |website=The National |language=en |archive-date=24 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220924152322/https://www.thenationalnews.com/gulf-news/2022/09/07/louvre-museum-in-paris-to-display-saudi-arabias-ancient-alula-statue/ |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

At the end of the 7th century BCE, an emerging kingdom appeared in north-western Arabia. It started as a sheikdom of Dedan, which developed into the kingdom of [[Lihyan]].<ref name="Lihyan p. 192">The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective – p. 192</ref><ref>J. Schiettecatte: [https://www.academia.edu/29477825/2016_-_The_political_map_of_Arabia_and_the_Middle_East_in_the_third_century_AD_revealed_by_a_Sabaean_inscription._Arabian_Archaeology_and_Epigraphy_27.2_176-196/ The political map of Arabia and the Middle East in the third century CE revealed by a Sabaean inscription] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230709184656/https://www.academia.edu/29477825/2016_-_The_political_map_of_Arabia_and_the_Middle_East_in_the_third_century_AD_revealed_by_a_Sabaean_inscription._Arabian_Archaeology_and_Epigraphy_27.2_176-196 |date=9 July 2023 }} – p. 183</ref> During this period, Dedan transformed into a kingdom that encompassed a much wider domain.<ref name="Lihyan p. 192" /> In the early 3rd century BCE, with bustling economic activity between the south and north, Lihyan acquired large influence suitable to its strategic position on the caravan road.<ref>The State of Lihyan: A New Perspective</ref> The Lihyanites ruled over a large domain from [[Medina|Yathrib]] in the south and parts of the Levant in the north.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan/|title=Lion Tombs of Dedan|date=19 September 2017|website=Saudi Arabia Tourism Guide|access-date=19 November 2018|archive-date=20 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120022655/http://www.saudiarabiatourismguide.com/lion-tombs-dedan/|url-status=live}}</ref> In antiquity, Gulf of Aqaba used to be called Gulf of Lihyan, a testimony to the extensive influence that Lihyan acquired.<ref name="HiltonHilton1996">''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XL-uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153 Discovering Lehi] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143724/https://books.google.com/books?id=XL-uCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT153 |date=28 March 2024 }}''. Cedar Fort; 1996. {{ISBN|978-1-4621-2638-5}}. p. 153.</ref>

The Lihyanites fell into the hands of the [[Nabataeans]] around 65 BCE upon their seizure of Hegra then marching to [[Tayma]], and to their capital Dedan in 9 BCE. The Nabataeans ruled large portions of north Arabia until their domain was annexed by the [[Roman Empire]], which renamed it [[Arabia Petraea]], and remained under the rule of the Romans until 630.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Taylor|first=Jane|title=Petra|publisher=Aurum Press Ltd|year=2005|isbn=978-9957-451-04-2|location=London|pages=25–31}}</ref>

=== Middle Ages and rise of Islam ===
{{Main|Caliphate}}

[[File:Umayyad750ADloc.png|thumb|left|At its greatest extent, the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] (661–750) covered {{cvt|11100000|km2|sqmi|-5|comma=gaps}}<ref>{{cite journal |first=Rein |last=Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=475–504 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |access-date=26 September 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}</ref> and 62 million people (29 per cent of the world's population),<ref name=Blankinship>{{citation |last=Blankinship |first=Khalid Yahya |year=1994 |title=The End of the Jihad State, the Reign of Hisham Ibn 'Abd-al Malik and the collapse of the Umayyads |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-7914-1827-7 |page=37 }}</ref> making it one of the [[List of largest empires|largest empires in history]] in both area and proportion of the world's population. It was also larger than any previous empire in history.]]

Shortly before the advent of Islam, apart from urban trading settlements (such as Mecca and Medina), much of what was to become Saudi Arabia was populated by nomadic pastoral tribal societies.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Rise of Islam |url=https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord |url-access=registration |first=Matthew |last=Gordon |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32522-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/riseofislam0000gord/page/4 4]|publisher=Greenwood Publishing }}</ref> Muhammad was born in Mecca in about 570 [[Common Era|CE]]. In the early 7th century, [[Muhammad]] united the [[Tribes of Arabia|various tribes of the peninsula]] and created a single Islamic religious polity.<ref name="James E. Lindsay 2005 33">{{cite book |last=Lindsay |first=James E. |url=https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/33 |title=Daily Life in the Medieval Islamic World |publisher=Greenwood Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-313-32270-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/dailylifeinmedie00lind/page/33 33]}}</ref> Following his death in 632, his followers expanded the territory under Muslim rule beyond Arabia, conquering territory in the Iberian Peninsula in the west, to parts of Central and South Asia in the east, in a matter of decades.<ref name="Abbas">{{cite book |last=Abbas |first=Tahir |author-link= |date=March 2011 |title=Islamic Radicalism and Multicultural Politics: The British Experience |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FxrGBQAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]] |page= |chapter=Preface and Introduction |isbn=9781136959592 |quote=The unprecedented initial expansion of Islam led to half of the known world being conquered with huge swathes of territory… |access-date=21 January 2024 |archive-date=28 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230328014315/https://books.google.com/books?id=FxrGBQAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Reichl">{{cite book |editor-last=Reichl |editor-first=Karl |author-link= |date=2012 |title=Medieval Oral Literature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PhoMdAIfp-EC |location= |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |page=633 |isbn=9783110241129 |quote=With the unprecedented victorious spread of Islam within only a few years over a huge territory… |access-date=21 January 2024 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328143858/https://books.google.com/books?id=PhoMdAIfp-EC |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Barber">{{cite book |last= Barber|first=Malcolm |author-link=Malcolm Barber |date=August 2, 2012 |title=The Crusader States |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Bz_O7-Lb_CsC |location= |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |page= |chapter=Chapter 2: Syria and Palestine |isbn= 9780300189315 |quote=After his [Muhammad's] death in 632, his successors, driven by what had become a dynamic new religion, committed themselves to an unprecedented territorial expansion.}}</ref> Arabia became a more politically peripheral region of the Muslim world as the focus shifted to the newly conquered lands.<ref name="James E. Lindsay 2005 33" />

[[Arab]]s originating from modern-day Saudi Arabia, the [[Hejaz]] in particular, founded the [[Rashidun Caliphate|Rashidun]] (632–661), [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad]] (661–750), [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid]] (750–1517), and the [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] (909–1171) caliphates. From the 10th century to the early 20th century, Mecca and Medina were under the control of a local Arab ruler known as the [[Sharif of Mecca]], but at most times the Sharif owed allegiance to the ruler of one of the major Islamic empires based in [[Baghdad]], [[Cairo]] or [[Istanbul]]. Most of the remainder of what became Saudi Arabia reverted to traditional tribal rule.<ref name="Britannica history">{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |title=History of Arabia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=18 January 2011 |archive-date=3 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503091224/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/31568/history-of-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=The changing map of Asia |author=William Gordon East |year=1971 |isbn=978-0-416-16850-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/changingmapofasi0000east/page/75 75–76] |publisher=Methuen |url=https://archive.org/details/changingmapofasi0000east/page/75 }}</ref>

[[File:Siyer-i Nebi - Imam Ali und Hamza bei dem vorgezogenen Einzelkampf in Badr gegen die Götzendiener.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Battle of Badr]], 13 March 624 CE]]
For much of the 10th century, the [[Isma'ilism|Isma'ili]]-Shi'ite [[Qarmatians]] were the most powerful force in the Persian Gulf. In 930, the Qarmatians pillaged Mecca, outraging the Muslim world, particularly with their theft of the [[Black Stone]].<ref>Glassé, Cyril (2008). ''The New Encyclopedia of Islam''. Walnut Creek CA: AltaMira Press p. 369</ref> In 1077–1078, an Arab sheikh named [[Abdullah bin Ali Al Uyuni]] defeated the Qarmatians in [[Eastern Arabia|Bahrain]] and [[Al-Ahsa Oasis|al-Hasa]] with the help of the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuq Empire]] and founded the [[Uyunid dynasty]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Commins|first=David|title=The Gulf States: A Modern History|year=2012|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84885-278-5|page=28}}</ref><ref>C.E. Bosworth, ''The New Islamic Dynasties'', (Columbia University Press, 1996), 94–95.</ref> The [[Uyunid Emirate]] later underwent expansion, with its territory stretching from Najd to the [[Syrian Desert]].<ref name="Safa Khulusi">{{Cite journal |last=Khulusi |first=Safa |author-link=Safa Khulusi |volume=6 |pages=91–102 |jstor=41223173 |year=1975 |title=A Thirteenth Century Poet from Bahrain |journal=Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies }} {{Registration required}}</ref> They were overthrown by the [[Usfurids]] in 1253.<ref>Joseph Meri, ''Medieval Islamic Civilization'', Taylor and Francis, 2006, p. 95</ref> Usfurid rule was weakened after Persian rulers of [[Ormus|Hormuz]] captured Bahrain and [[Qatif]] in 1320.<ref>Curtis E. Larsen. ''Life and Land Use on the Bahrain Islands: The Geoarchaeology of an Ancient Society'' University Of Chicago Press, 1984 pp66-8</ref> The vassals of Ormuz, the Shia [[Jarwanid dynasty]] came to rule eastern Arabia in the 14th century.<ref name=JuanCole>{{Cite book |author=Juan Ricardo Cole |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=PA35 |title=Sacred space and holy war: the politics, culture and history of Shi'ite Islam |page=35 |year=2002 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |access-date=27 September 2017 |isbn=978-1-86064-736-9 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144403/https://books.google.com/books?id=ntarP5hrza0C&pg=PA35 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5000_24_15.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120222053120/http://www.uv.es/EBRIT/macro/macro_5000_24_15.html|title=Arabia|archive-date=22 February 2012}}</ref> The [[Jabrids]] took control of the region after overthrowing the Jarwanids in the 15th century and clashed with Hormuz for more than two decades over the region for its economic revenues, until finally agreeing to pay [[tribute]] in 1507.<ref name=JuanCole /> [[Al-Muntafiq]] tribe later took over the region and came under [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[suzerainty]]. The [[Bani Khalid (tribe)|Bani Khalid tribe]] later revolted against them in the 17th century and took control.<ref>Zāmil Muḥammad al-Rashīd. ''Suʻūdī relations with eastern Arabia and ʻUmān, 1800–1870'' Luzac and Company, 1981 pp. 21–31</ref> Their rule extended from Iraq to Oman at its height, and they too came under Ottoman suzerainty.<ref>Yitzhak Nakash (2011)[https://books.google.com/books?id=a43C-4RKGcgC&pg=PA21 Reaching for Power: The Shi'a in the Modern Arab World] p. 22</ref><ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45995 "Arabia, history of."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060829110204/http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-45995 |date=29 August 2006 }} Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 30 November 2007.</ref>

=== Ottoman Hejaz and Portuguese era ===
{{Main|Ottoman era in the history of Saudi Arabia|Mamluk–Portuguese conflicts|Ottoman–Portuguese confrontations}}

In the 16th century, the Ottomans added the Red Sea and Persian Gulf coast (the Hejaz, [[Aseer]] and [[Eastern Arabia|Al-Ahsa]]) to the empire and claimed suzerainty over the interior. One reason was to [[Ottoman–Portuguese conflicts (1538–1560)|thwart Portuguese attempts]] to attack the Red Sea (hence the Hejaz) and the Indian Ocean.<ref name="Bernstein">Bernstein, William J. (2008) ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World''. Grove Press. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ePiReZWp0NwC&pg=PA191 pp. 191 ff] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230807000647/https://books.google.com/books?id=ePiReZWp0NwC&pg=PA191 |date=7 August 2023 }}</ref> The Ottoman degree of control over these lands varied over the next four centuries with the fluctuating strength or weakness of the empire's central authority.<ref>{{cite book |title=Muddle of the Middle East, Volume 2 |author=Chatterji, Nikshoy C. |year=1973 |isbn=978-0-391-00304-0 |page=168|publisher=Abhinav Publications }}</ref>{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=68}} These changes contributed to later uncertainties, such as the dispute with Transjordan over the [[Occupation of Ma'an|inclusion of the sanjak of Ma'an]], including the cities of [[Ma'an]] and [[Aqaba]].

=== Saud dynasty and unification ===
{{See also|Unification of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:The First Saudi State Greatest Extent.png|thumb|Expansion of the [[Emirate of Diriyah|first Saudi State]] in 1810|left]]
The emergence of what was to become the Saudi royal family, known as the Al Saud, began at the town of [[Diriyah]] in central Arabia with the accession as [[emir]] of [[Muhammad bin Saud]] on 22 February 1727.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2022-01-27|title=Saudi Arabia to commemorate 'Founding Day' on Feb. 22 annually: Royal order|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/01/27/Saudi-Arabia-to-commemorate-Founding-Day-on-Feb-22-annually-Royal-order|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Al Arabiya English|language=en|archive-date=1 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001180301/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/01/27/Saudi-Arabia-to-commemorate-Founding-Day-on-Feb-22-annually-Royal-order|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=History of the Kingdom {{!}} kingdom of Saudi Arabia – Ministry of Foreign Affairs|url=https://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/Pages/CountryDevelopment36143.aspx|access-date=2022-02-15|website=www.mofa.gov.sa|archive-date=2 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220302002523/https://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/Pages/CountryDevelopment36143.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1744 he joined forces with the religious leader [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]],{{sfn|Bowen|2007|pp=69–70}} founder of the Wahhabi movement, a strict puritanical form of Sunni Islam.<ref>{{cite book |title=Contemporary Religions: A World Guide |first1=Ian |last1=Harris |first2=Stuart|last2=Mews|first3=Paul|last3=Morris|first4= John |last4= Shepherd |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-582-08695-1 |page=369|publisher=Longman }}</ref> This alliance provided the ideological impetus to Saudi expansion and remains the basis of Saudi Arabian dynastic rule today.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Future of Islam in the Middle East |first=Mahmud A. |last=Faksh |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-275-95128-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks/page/89 89–90] |publisher=Greenwood Publishing |url=https://archive.org/details/futureofislaminm0000faks/page/89 }}</ref>

The [[Emirate of Diriyah]] established in the area around Riyadh rapidly expanded and briefly controlled most of the present-day territory of Saudi Arabia, [[Wahhabi sack of Karbala|sacking Karbala]] in 1802, and [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|capturing Mecca]] in 1803. In 1818, it was destroyed by the Ottoman viceroy of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Mohammed Ali Pasha]].<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm The Saud Family and Wahhabi Islam] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170316131703/http://countrystudies.us/saudi-arabia/7.htm |date=16 March 2017 }}". Library of Congress Country Studies.</ref> The much smaller [[Emirate of Nejd]] was established in 1824. Throughout the rest of the 19th century, the Al Saud contested control of the interior of what was to become Saudi Arabia with another Arabian ruling family, the [[Rashidi dynasty|Al Rashid]], who ruled the [[Emirate of Jabal Shammar]]. By 1891, the Al Rashid were victorious and the Al Saud were driven into exile in Kuwait.<ref name="Britannica history"/>

[[File:Churchill and King Abd al-Aziz of Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|British Prime Minister [[Winston Churchill]] and [[Ibn Saud]], the founding father and first king of Saudi Arabia, in [[Kingdom of Egypt|Egypt]] in 1945]]
At the beginning of the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire continued to control or have a suzerainty over most of the peninsula. Subject to this suzerainty, Arabia was ruled by a patchwork of tribal rulers,<ref name= Murphy>{{cite book |title=The Arab Revolt 1916–18: Lawrence Sets Arabia Ablaze |first=David |last=Murphy |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-84603-339-1 |pages=5–8|publisher=Bloomsbury USA }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Politics in an Arabian Oasis: The Rashidis of Saudi Arabia |author=Madawi Al Rasheed |year=1997 |isbn=978-1-86064-193-0 |page=81|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic }}</ref> with the [[Sharif of Mecca]] having pre-eminence and ruling the Hejaz.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Middle East: Geography and Geopolitics |first=Ewan W. |last=Anderson |author2=William Bayne Fisher |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-415-07667-8 |page=106|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> In 1902, [[Abdul Rahman bin Faisal|Abdul Rahman]]'s son, Abdulaziz—later known as [[Ibn Saud]]—recaptured control of Riyadh bringing the Al Saud back to Nejd, creating the [[Emirate of Nejd and Hasa|third "Saudi state"]].<ref name="Britannica history" /> Ibn Saud gained the support of the [[Ikhwan]], a tribal army inspired by Wahhabism and led by [[Faisal Al-Dawish]], and which had grown quickly after its foundation in 1912.<ref>{{cite book|title=Islam in Revolution: Fundamentalism in the Arab World |author=R. Hrair Dekmejian |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-8156-2635-0 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islaminrevolutio00dekm/page/131 131] |publisher=Syracuse University Press |url=https://archive.org/details/islaminrevolutio00dekm/page/131 }}</ref> With the aid of the Ikhwan, Ibn Saud captured Al-Ahsa from the Ottomans in 1913.

In 1916, with the encouragement and support of [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Britain]] (which was fighting the Ottomans in [[World War I]]), the Sharif of Mecca, [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca|Hussein bin Ali]], led a pan-[[Arab Revolt]] against the Ottoman Empire to create a united Arab state.<ref>{{cite book |title=The Encyclopedia of World War I |first=Spencer |last=Tucker |author2=Priscilla Mary Roberts |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-85109-420-2 |page=565|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> Although the revolt failed in its objective, [[Allies of World War I|the Allied]] victory in World War I resulted in the end of Ottoman suzerainty and control in Arabia, and Hussein bin Ali became [[Kingdom of Hejaz|King of Hejaz]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of the Arab Peoples |first=Albert |last=Hourani |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-571-22664-1 |pages=315–319|publisher=Faber & Faber }}</ref>

Ibn Saud avoided involvement in the Arab Revolt and instead continued his struggle with the Al Rashid. Following the latter's final defeat, he took the title [[Sultanate of Nejd|Sultan of Nejd]] in 1921. With the help of the Ikhwan, the Kingdom of Hejaz was conquered in 1924–25, and on 10 January 1926, Ibn Saud declared himself king of Hejaz.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Brief History of Saudi Arabia |first1=James |last1=Wynbrandt |first2=Fawaz A. |last2=Gerges |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-7876-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb/page/182 182] |publisher=Infobase |url=https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofsa0000wynb/page/182 }}</ref> For the next five years, he administered the two parts of his dual kingdom as separate units.<ref name="Britannica history" />

After the conquest of the Hejaz, the Ikhwan leadership's objective switched to expansion of the Wahhabist realm into the British protectorates of Transjordan, Iraq and Kuwait, and began raiding those territories. This met with Ibn Saud's opposition, as he recognized the danger of a direct conflict with the British. At the same time, the Ikhwan became disenchanted with Ibn Saud's domestic policies which appeared to favour modernization and the increase in the number of non-Muslim foreigners in the country. As a result, they turned against Ibn Saud and, after a two-year struggle, were defeated in 1929 at the [[Battle of Sabilla]], where their leaders were massacred.<ref>{{cite book |title=Inside the Kingdom |first=Robert |last=Lacey |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-09-953905-6 |pages=15–16|publisher=Arrow }}</ref> On Ibn Saud's behalf, [[Faisal bin Abdulaziz al Saud|Prince Faisal]] declared the unification on 23 September 1932, and the two kingdoms of Hejaz and Nejd were unified as the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.<ref name="Britannica history" /> That date is now a national holiday called [[Saudi National Day]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |title=History of Saudi Arabia. ( The Saudi National Day 23, Sep ) |website=Prince Mohammad Bin Fahd University |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=6 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206142313/https://www.pmu.edu.sa/News/News.aspx?ID=866 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== 20th century ===
{{Main|Modern history of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Dammam No. 7 on March 4, 1938.jpg|thumb|The oil well ''[[Dammam No. 7]]'' on March 4, 1938, the day it struck oil in commercial quantities, becoming the first in Saudi Arabia to do so]]
The new kingdom was reliant on limited agriculture and pilgrimage revenues.<ref>{{cite book |title=Afluence and Poverty in the Middle East |author=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy |author-link=Mohamad Riad El-Ghonemy|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-10033-5 |page=56|publisher=Routledge }}</ref> [[Dammam No. 7|In 1938, vast reserves of oil were discovered]] in the Al-Ahsa region along the coast of the Persian Gulf, and full-scale development of the oil fields began in 1941 under the US-controlled [[Saudi Aramco|Aramco (Arabian American Oil Company)]]. Oil provided Saudi Arabia with economic prosperity and substantial political leverage internationally.<ref name="Britannica history" /> Cultural life rapidly developed, primarily in the Hejaz, which was the centre for newspapers and radio. However, the large influx of [[foreign workers in Saudi Arabia]] in the oil industry increased the pre-existing propensity for [[xenophobia]]. At the same time, the government became increasingly wasteful and extravagant. By the 1950s this had led to large governmental deficits and excessive foreign borrowing.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1953, [[Saud of Saudi Arabia]] succeeded as the king of Saudi Arabia. In 1964 he was deposed in favour of his half brother [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia]], after an intense rivalry, fuelled by doubts in the royal family over Saud's competence. In 1972, Saudi Arabia gained a 20% control in Aramco, thereby decreasing US control over Saudi oil.<ref name="BBC timeline">{{cite web |url= https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |title= Saudi Arabia profile - Timeline |author= <!--Not stated--> |date= 4 October 2019 |website= bbc.com |publisher= [[BBC News]] |access-date= 21 September 2023 |quote= |archive-date= 29 September 2023 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230929075327/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14703523.amp |url-status= live }}</ref> In 1973, Saudi Arabia led an [[1973 oil crisis|oil boycott]] against the Western countries that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]] against Egypt and Syria, leading to the quadrupling of oil prices.<ref name="Britannica history" /> In 1975, Faisal was assassinated by his nephew, Prince [[Faisal bin Musaid]] and was succeeded by his half-brother [[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]].<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137">[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], pp. 136–137</ref>[[File:Nasser_and_Faisal.jpg|alt=Nasser and Faisal|thumb|Faisal (left) with Egypt's President [[Gamal Abdel Nasser]] in [[Cairo]], 1969]]
By 1976, Saudi Arabia had become the largest oil producer in the world.<ref>{{cite book |title=Human Resources Development in Saudi Arabia: Multinationals and Saudization |author=Joy Winkie Viola |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88746-070-8 |page=37|publisher=International Human Resources Development Corporation }}</ref> Khalid's reign saw economic and social development progress at an extremely rapid rate, transforming the infrastructure and educational system of the country;<ref name="Britannica history" /> in foreign policy, close ties with the US were developed.<ref name="Al-Rasheed 136-137" /> In 1979, two events occurred which greatly concerned the government<ref>{{cite book |title=The Muslim world after 9/11 |author=Rabasa, Angel |author2=Benard, Cheryl |author3=Chalk, Peter |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-8330-3712-1 |page=42|publisher=Rand Corporation }}</ref> and had a long-term influence on Saudi foreign and domestic policy. The first was the [[Iranian Revolution|Iranian Islamic Revolution]]. It was feared that the country's [[Shi'a Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shi'ite minority]] in the Eastern Province (which is also the location of the oil fields) might rebel under the influence of their Iranian co-religionists. There were several anti-government uprisings in the region such as the [[1979 Qatif Uprising]].<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219">{{cite book |title=Desert Kingdom: How Oil and Water Forged Modern Saudi Arabia |author=Toby Craig Jones |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-674-04985-7 |pages=218–219|publisher=Harvard University Press }}</ref> The second event was the [[Grand Mosque Seizure]] in Mecca by Islamist extremists. The militants involved were in part angered by what they considered to be the corruption and un-Islamic nature of the Saudi government.<ref name="Toby Craig Jones 2010 218–219" /> The government regained control of the mosque after 10 days, and those captured were executed. Part of the response of the royal family was to enforce the much stricter observance of traditional religious and social norms in the country (for example, the closure of cinemas) and to give the [[ulema]] a greater role in government.<ref name="Hegghammer24">[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 24</ref> Neither entirely succeeded as Islamism continued to grow in strength.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-98091-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 174] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/174 }}</ref>

[[File:Saudi Arabia 2003 CIA map.jpg|thumb|left|Map of Saudi Arabian administrative regions and roadways]]
In 1980, Saudi Arabia bought out the American interests in Aramco.<ref>{{cite book|title=Oil, Dollars, Debt, and Crises: The Global Curse of Black Gold|first1=Mahmoud A. |last1=El-Gamal |author2=Amy Myers Jaffe |name-list-style=amp |publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2010|isbn=978-0-521-72070-0|page=41}}</ref> King Khalid died in 1982 and was succeeded by his brother, [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|King Fahd]]. Fahd continued to develop close relations with the United States and increased the purchase of American and British military equipment.<ref name="Britannica history"/> The vast wealth generated by oil revenues was beginning to have an even greater impact on Saudi society. It led to rapid technological (but not cultural) modernization, urbanization, mass public education, and the creation of new media. This and the presence of increasingly large numbers of foreign workers greatly affected traditional Saudi norms and values. Although there was a dramatic change in the social and economic life of the country, political power continued to be monopolized by the royal family<ref name="Britannica history" /> leading to discontent among many Saudis who began to look for wider participation in government.{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=114}}

In the 1980s, Saudi Arabia and [[Kuwait]] spent $25 billion in support of [[Saddam Hussein]] in the [[Iran–Iraq War]] (1980–1988);<ref>Robert Fisk (2005) ''[[The Great War For Civilisation]]''. Fourth Estate. p. 23. {{ISBN|978-1-4000-7517-1}}</ref> however, Saudi Arabia condemned the [[invasion of Kuwait]] in 1990 and asked the United States to intervene.<ref name="Britannica history" /> King Fahd allowed American and coalition troops to be stationed in Saudi Arabia. He invited the Kuwaiti government and many of its citizens to stay in Saudi Arabia, but expelled citizens of [[Yemen]] and [[Jordan]] because of their governments' support of [[Ba'athist Iraq|Iraq]]. In 1991, Saudi Arabian forces were involved both in bombing raids on Iraq and in the land invasion that helped to liberate Kuwait, which became known as the [[Gulf War]] (1990–1991).<ref name="BBC timeline" />

Saudi Arabia's relations with the West was one of the issues that led to [[List of militant incidents in Saudi Arabia|an increase in Islamist terrorism]] in Saudi Arabia, as well as Islamist terrorist attacks in Western countries by Saudi nationals. [[Osama bin Laden]] was a Saudi citizen (until stripped of his citizenship in 1994) and was responsible for the [[1998 United States embassy bombings|1998 U.S. embassy bombings]] in East Africa and the 2000 [[USS Cole bombing|USS ''Cole'' bombing]] near the port of [[Aden]], Yemen. 15 of [[Hijackers in the September 11 attacks|the hijackers]] involved in the [[September 11 attacks]] were Saudi nationals.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: Background and U.S. Relations |first=Christopher |last=Blanchard |publisher=United States Congressional Research Service|year=2009 |pages=5–6}}</ref> Many Saudis who did not support the Islamist terrorists were nevertheless deeply unhappy with the government's policies.<ref>[[#Hegghammer|Hegghammer]], p. 31</ref>

Islamism was not the only source of hostility to the government. Although extremely wealthy by the 21st century, Saudi Arabia's economy was near stagnant. High taxes and a growth in unemployment have contributed to discontent and have been reflected in a rise in civil unrest, and discontent with the royal family. In response, a number of limited reforms were initiated by King Fahd. In March 1992, he introduced the "[[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia|Basic Law]]", which emphasized the duties and responsibilities of a ruler. In December 1993, the Consultative Council was inaugurated. It is composed of a chairman and 60 members—all chosen by the King. Fahd made it clear that he did not have democracy in mind, saying: "A system based on elections is not consistent with our Islamic creed, which [approves of] government by consultation [shūrā]."<ref name="Britannica history"/>

In 1995, Fahd suffered a stroke, and the Crown Prince, [[Abdullah of Saudi Arabia|Abdullah]], became ''de facto'' regent; however, his authority was hindered by conflict with Fahd's full brothers (known, with Fahd, as the "[[Sudairi Seven]]").<ref>[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], p. 212</ref>

=== 21st century ===
Signs of discontent included, in 2003 and 2004, a series of bombings and armed violence in Riyadh, Jeddah, Yanbu and Khobar.<ref name="Cordesman 2009">{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: National Security in a Troubled Region |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-313-38076-1 |pages=50–52|publisher=Abc-Clio }}</ref> In February–April 2005, [[2005 Saudi Arabian municipal elections|the first-ever nationwide municipal elections]] were held in Saudi Arabia. Women were not allowed to take part.<ref name="Britannica history" />

In 2005, King Fahd died and was succeeded by Abdullah, who continued the policy of minimum reform and clamping down on protests. The king introduced economic reforms aimed at reducing the country's reliance on oil revenue: limited [[deregulation]], encouragement of foreign investment, and [[privatization]]. In February 2009, Abdullah announced a series of governmental changes to the judiciary, armed forces, and various ministries to modernize these institutions including the replacement of senior appointees in the judiciary and the [[Islamic religious police|Mutaween]] (religious police) with more moderate individuals and the appointment of the country's first female deputy minister.<ref name="Britannica history" /> On 29 January 2011, hundreds of protesters gathered in [[Jeddah]] in a rare display of criticism against the city's poor infrastructure after flooding killed 11 people.<ref name="Montreal">{{cite news|url=https://montrealgazette.com/news/Flood+sparks+rare+action/4189873/story.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201053307/http://www.montrealgazette.com/news/Flood%2Bsparks%2Brare%2Baction/4189873/story.html |archive-date= 1 February 2011 |title=Flood sparks rare action |date=29 January 2011 |work=Reuters via [[The Gazette (Montreal)|Montreal Gazette]] |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:President Trump's Trip Abroad globe cropped.jpg|thumb|[[President of Egypt|Egyptian President]] [[Abdel Fattah el-Sisi]] with King Salman, U.S. President [[Donald Trump]] and First Lady [[Melania Trump|Melania]] participating in the inaugural opening of the [[Global Center to Combat Extremism]], Sunday, May 21, 2017]]

Since 2011, Saudi Arabia has been affected by its own [[2011–13 Saudi Arabian protests|Arab Spring protests]].<ref name="Fisk_troops">{{cite news|first=Robert |last=Fisk |title=Saudis mobilise thousands of troops to quell growing revolt |date=5 May 2011 |work=The Independent |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110306080218/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudis-mobilise-thousands-of-troops-to-quell-growing-revolt-2232928.html |archive-date= 6 March 2011 |url-status=live |place=London }}</ref> In response, King Abdullah announced on 22 February 2011 a series of benefits for citizens amounting to $36 billion, of which $10.7 billion was earmarked for housing.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/oilprices/8344421/Saudi-ruler-offers-36bn-to-stave-off-uprising-amid-warning-oil-price-could-double.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/oilprices/8344421/Saudi-ruler-offers-36bn-to-stave-off-uprising-amid-warning-oil-price-could-double.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |title=Saudi ruler offers $36bn to stave off uprising amid warning oil price could double |work=The Daily Telegraph |date=24 February 2011 |place=London }}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-king-gives-billion-dollar-cash-boost-housing-jobs--382623.html |title=Saudi king gives billion-dollar cash boost to housing, jobs – Politics & Economics |newspaper=Arabian Business |publisher=Bloomberg via ArabianBusiness.com |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=24 September 2013 |archive-date=2 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702061357/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-king-gives-billion-dollar-cash-boost-housing-jobs--382623.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.us-sabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=957 |title=King Abdullah Returns to Kingdom, Enacts Measures to Boost the Economy |publisher=U.S.-Saudi Arabian Business Council |date=23 February 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130928024630/http://www.us-sabc.org/custom/news/details.cfm?id=957 |archive-date=28 September 2013 }}</ref> No political reforms were included, though some prisoners indicted for financial crimes were pardoned.<ref name="AlJazeeraEnglishBenefits">{{cite news |title=Saudi king announces new benefits |url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=23 February 2011 |access-date=15 March 2011 |archive-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806003657/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/02/2011223105328424268.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah also announced a package of $93 billion, which included 500,000 new homes to a cost of $67 billion, in addition to creating {{gaps|60|000}} new security jobs.<ref name="theguardian1">{{cite news |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/18/saudi-arabia-job-housing-package |title=Saudi Arabia's king announces huge jobs and housing package |work=The Guardian |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=18 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018122601/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/mar/18/saudi-arabia-job-housing-package |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Donna |last=Abu |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-18/saudi-arabian-king-abdullah-boosts-spending-as-protests-sweep-arab-world.html |title=Saudi King to Spend $67 Billion on Housing, Jobs in Bid to Pacify Citizens |publisher=Bloomberg |date=18 March 2011 |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150126050910/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-18/saudi-arabian-king-abdullah-boosts-spending-as-protests-sweep-arab-world.html |url-status=live }}</ref> Although male-only [[Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2011|municipal elections were held in 2011]],<ref name="alawsat_details">{{cite news |first=Abeed |last=al-Suhaimy |title=Saudi Arabia announces municipal elections |date=23 March 2011 |publisher=[[Asharq al-Awsat]] |url=http://www.aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1&id=24616 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110501185625/http://aawsat.com/english/news.asp?section=1 |archive-date=1 May 2011 |url-status=dead |access-date=14 December 2012 }}</ref><ref name="bloom_women">{{cite news|first=Donna |last=Abu-Nasr |title=Saudi Women Inspired by Fall of Mubarak Step Up Equality Demand |date=28 March 2011 |publisher=Bloomberg |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/saudi-women-inspired-by-revolt-against-mubarak-go-online-to-seek-equality.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110402043759/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2011-03-28/saudi-women-inspired-by-revolt-against-mubarak-go-online-to-seek-equality.html |archive-date= 2 April 2011 |url-status=live }}</ref> Abdullah allowed women to vote and be elected in the [[Saudi Arabian municipal elections, 2015|2015 municipal elections]], and also to be nominated to the [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia|Shura Council]].<ref name="oman_observer_electionday">{{cite news|title=Saudis vote in municipal elections, results on Sunday |date=30 September 2011 |work=[[Oman Observer]] |agency=Agence France-Presse |url=http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120119050656/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/66706 |archive-date=19 January 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Saudi Arabia Topography.png|upright=1.3|thumb|left|Saudi Arabia topography]]
[[File:Harrat Khaybar Space.jpg|thumb|left|[[Harrat Khaybar]] seen from the [[International Space Station]]. Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2000 dormant volcanoes.<ref name="auto1">{{Cite web|url=https://insidesaudi.com/the-tourists-guide-to-the-10-amazing-volcanoes-in-saudi-arabia/|title=The Tourists Guide To The 10 Amazing Volcanoes in Saudi Arabia|website=insidesaudi.com|access-date=2021-01-09|archive-date=14 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414012152/https://insidesaudi.com/the-tourists-guide-to-the-10-amazing-volcanoes-in-saudi-arabia/|url-status=live}}</ref> Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest [[alkali basalt]] regions, covering some {{convert|180000|km2}}.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200602/volcanic.arabia.htm|title=VOLCANIC ARABIA: It started with tremors|website=archive.aramcoworld.com|access-date=2021-01-09|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211015935/https://archive.aramcoworld.com/issue/200602/volcanic.arabia.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Saudi Arabia occupies about 80% of the [[Arabian Peninsula]] (the world's largest peninsula),<ref name= Stokes605>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East, Volume 1 |first=Jamie |last=Stokes |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8160-7158-6 |page=605|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> lying between latitudes [[16th parallel north|16°]] and [[33rd parallel north|33° N]], and longitudes [[34th meridian east|34°]] and [[56th meridian east|56° E]]. Because the country's southeastern and southern borders with the [[United Arab Emirates]] and [[Oman]] are not precisely marked, the exact size of the country is undefined.<ref name=Stokes605 /> The [[United Nations Statistics Division]] estimates {{cvt|2149690|km2|sqmi|0|comma=gaps}} and lists Saudi Arabia as the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|12th]] largest state. It is geographically the largest country in the Middle East and on the [[Arabian Plate]].<ref>{{cite book|author=University Microfilms|title=Dissertation Abstracts International: The sciences and engineering|date=2004|page=23}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia's geography is dominated by the [[Arabian Desert]], associated semi-desert, shrubland, steppes, several mountain ranges, volcanic lava fields and highlands. The {{cvt|647500|km2|sqmi|0|comma=gaps}} [[Rub' al Khali]] ("Empty Quarter") in the southeastern part of the country is the world's largest contiguous sand desert.<ref name=Britannica /><ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia: an environmental overview|year=2008|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-41387-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vacv2wy3yd8C&pg=PA141|author=Vincent, Peter|page=141|access-date=27 December 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144244/https://books.google.com/books?id=Vacv2wy3yd8C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is the largest country in the world without permanent rivers. The nation features several endorheic lakes, but its hydrology relies primarily on ephemeral watercourses known as [[wadis]], which [[List of wadis of Saudi Arabia|are numerous throughout the kingdom]]. The fertile areas are to be found in the alluvial deposits in wadis, basins, and oases.<ref name=Britannica /> There are [[List of islands of Saudi Arabia|approximately 1,300 islands]] in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 August 2017 |title=VIDEO: Do you know there are 1,300 islands in Saudi Arabia? |url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/life-style/art-and-culture/2017/05/02/Saudi-Arabia-s-1000-islands-.html |access-date=2019-10-26 |website=Al Arabiya |first1=Lamiaa |last1=ElKholy |archive-date=22 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200922203932/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/life-style/art-and-culture/2017/05/02/Saudi-Arabia-s-1000-islands-.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The main topographical feature is the central plateau which rises abruptly from the Red Sea and gradually descends into the [[Nejd]] and toward the Persian Gulf. On the Red Sea coast, there is a narrow coastal plain, known as the [[Tihamah]], parallel to which runs along an imposing escarpment. The southwest province of [[Aseer]] is mountainous and contains the {{cvt|3015|m|ft|0|comma=gaps}} [[Jabal Soudah]], which is the highest point in the country.<ref name="Britannica" /> Saudi Arabia is home to more than 2,000 dormant volcanoes.<ref name="auto1" /> Lava fields in Hejaz, known locally by their Arabic name of harrat (the singular is harrah), form one of Earth's largest [[alkali basalt]] regions, covering some {{convert|180000|km2}}.<ref name="auto" />

Except for the southwestern regions such as Aseer, Saudi Arabia has a [[desert climate]] with very high day-time temperatures during the summer and a sharp temperature drop at night. Average summer temperatures are around {{cvt|113|°F|0|order=flip}} but can be as high as {{cvt|129|°F|0|order=flip}}. In the winter the temperature rarely drops below {{cvt|32|°F|0|order=flip}} with the exception of mostly the northern regions of the country where annual snowfall, in particular in the mountainous regions of [[Tabuk Province]], is not uncommon.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stepfeed.com/snow-city-saudi-arabia-s-tabuk-region-dresses-in-white-to-mesmerize-people-0481|title=Snow City: Saudi Arabia's Tabuk region dresses in white to mesmerize people|website=Step Feed |first1=Reem |last1=Mehio |date=13 January 2020|access-date=2021-01-09|archive-date=18 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210218064544/https://stepfeed.com/snow-city-saudi-arabia-s-tabuk-region-dresses-in-white-to-mesmerize-people-0481|url-status=live}}</ref> The lowest recorded temperature, −12.0&nbsp;°C (10.4&nbsp;°F), was measured in [[Turaif]].<ref name="SaudiCC">{{cite web |url=http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/saunc2.pdf |title=Second National Communication: Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |publisher=UNFCCC |page=2 |access-date=24 October 2016 |archive-date=24 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161024231824/http://unfccc.int/resource/docs/natc/saunc2.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Of the Gulf states, Saudi Arabia is likely to experience snowfalls most frequently.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-10 |title=Saudi Arabia experiences more frequent snowfalls than its Gulf neighbours: Arabia Weather |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-experiences-more-frequent-snowfalls-than-its-gulf-neighbours-arabia-weather-1.1731231006756 |access-date=2024-11-10 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en |archive-date=10 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241110111740/https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-experiences-more-frequent-snowfalls-than-its-gulf-neighbours-arabia-weather-1.1731231006756 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the spring and autumn the heat is temperate, temperatures average around {{cvt|84|°F|0|order=flip}}. Annual rainfall is very low. The southern regions differ in that they are influenced by the Indian Ocean [[monsoons]], usually occurring between October and March. An average of {{cvt|300|mm|0}} of rainfall occurs during this period, which is about 60% of the annual precipitation.<ref name="weather">{{cite web |url=http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/climate/Saudi-Arabia.htm |title=Saudi Arabia |publisher=Weather Online |access-date=24 January 2011 |archive-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116235230/http://www.weatheronline.co.uk/reports/climate/Saudi-Arabia.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Biodiversity ===
{{main|Wildlife of Saudi Arabia}}

{{Multiple image
| align             = right
| direction         = vertical
| image1            = Arabian Leopard Nimr (8454247265).jpg
| caption1          = The critically endangered [[Arabian leopard]]
| image2            = Halterstandingshotarabianone.jpg
| caption2          = The [[Arabian horse]] is native to Arabia, and an important element of traditional Arabian folklore.
}}
Saudi Arabia is home to five terrestrial ecoregions: [[Arabian Peninsula coastal fog desert]], [[Southwestern Arabian foothills savanna]], [[Southwestern Arabian montane woodlands]], [[Arabian Desert]], and [[Red Sea Nubo-Sindian tropical desert and semi-desert]].<ref name="DinersteinOlson2017">{{cite journal|last1=Dinerstein|first1=Eric|last2=Olson|first2=David|last3=Joshi|first3=Anup|last4=Vynne|first4=Carly|last5=Burgess|first5=Neil D.|last6=Wikramanayake|first6=Eric|last7=Hahn|first7=Nathan|last8=Palminteri|first8=Suzanne|last9=Hedao|first9=Prashant|last10=Noss|first10=Reed|last11=Hansen|first11=Matt|last12=Locke|first12=Harvey|last13=Ellis|first13=Erle C|last14=Jones|first14=Benjamin|last15=Barber|first15=Charles Victor|last16=Hayes|first16=Randy|last17=Kormos|first17=Cyril|last18=Martin|first18=Vance|last19=Crist|first19=Eileen|last20=Sechrest|first20=Wes|last21=Price|first21=Lori|last22=Baillie|first22=Jonathan E. M.|last23=Weeden|first23=Don|last24=Suckling|first24=Kierán|last25=Davis|first25=Crystal|last26=Sizer|first26=Nigel|last27=Moore|first27=Rebecca|last28=Thau|first28=David|last29=Birch|first29=Tanya|last30=Potapov|first30=Peter|last31=Turubanova|first31=Svetlana|last32=Tyukavina|first32=Alexandra|last33=de Souza|first33=Nadia|last34=Pintea|first34=Lilian|last35=Brito|first35=José C.|last36=Llewellyn|first36=Othman A.|last37=Miller|first37=Anthony G.|last38=Patzelt|first38=Annette|last39=Ghazanfar|first39=Shahina A.|last40=Timberlake|first40=Jonathan|last41=Klöser|first41=Heinz|last42=Shennan-Farpón|first42=Yara|last43=Kindt|first43=Roeland|last44=Lillesø|first44=Jens-Peter Barnekow|last45=van Breugel|first45=Paulo|last46=Graudal|first46=Lars|last47=Voge|first47=Maianna|last48=Al-Shammari|first48=Khalaf F.|last49=Saleem|first49=Muhammad|display-authors=1|title=An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm|journal=BioScience|volume=67|issue=6|year=2017|pages=534–545|issn=0006-3568|doi=10.1093/biosci/bix014|pmid=28608869|pmc=5451287|doi-access=free}}</ref> Wildlife includes the [[Arabian leopard]],<ref name="Judas et al., 2006">{{cite journal |author1=Judas, J. |author2=Paillat, P. |author3=Khoja, A. |author4=Boug, A. |year=2006 |title=Status of the Arabian leopard in Saudi Arabia |url=http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/leopard/Judas_et_al_2006_Status_of_the_Arabian_Leopard_in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |journal=Cat News |volume=Special Issue 1 |pages=11–19 |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=3 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201003095616/http://www.catsg.org/fileadmin/filesharing/3.Conservation_Center/3.2._Status_Reports/leopard/Judas_et_al_2006_Status_of_the_Arabian_Leopard_in_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Spalton et al., 2006">{{cite journal |author1=Spalton, J.A. |author2=Al-Hikmani, H.M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=The Leopard in the Arabian Peninsula – Distribution and Subspecies Status |journal=Cat News |issue=Special Issue 1 |pages=4–8 |url=http://www.yemenileopard.org/files/cms/reports/Cat_News_Special_Issue_1_-_Arabian_leopard.pdf |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=16 December 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216011835/http://www.yemenileopard.org/files/cms/reports/Cat_News_Special_Issue_1_-_Arabian_leopard.pdf |url-status=usurped }}</ref> [[Arabian wolf]], [[striped hyena]], [[mongoose]], [[baboon]], [[Cape hare]], [[sand cat]], and [[jerboa]]. Animals such as gazelles, [[oryx]], leopards and [[Asiatic cheetah|cheetahs]]<ref name=Nowell1996>{{cite book |author1=Nowell, K. |author2=Jackson, P. |chapter=Asiatic cheetah |title=Wild Cats: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan |chapter-url=http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |year=1996 |publisher=IUCN/SSC Cat Specialist Group |place=Gland, Switzerland |isbn=978-2-8317-0045-8 |pages=41–44 |access-date=5 August 2018 |archive-date=29 May 2005 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050529182212/http://carnivoractionplans1.free.fr/wildcats.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> were relatively numerous until the 19th century, when extensive hunting reduced these animals almost to extinction. The culturally important [[Asiatic lion]] occurred in Saudi Arabia until the late 19th century before it was hunted to extinction in the wild.<ref name="Nader_al1989">{{cite book |last=Nader |first=I. A. |year=1989 |chapter=Rare and endangered mammals of Saudi Arabia |pages=220–228 |editor1-last=Abu-Zinada |editor1-first=A. H. |editor2-last=Goriup |editor2-first=P. D. |editor3-last=Nader |editor3-first=L. A |title=Wildlife conservation and development in Saudi Arabia |publisher=National Commission for Wildlife Conservation and Development Publishing |number=3 |location=[[Riyadh]] |chapter-url=http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/Nader_1989_Rare_and_endangered_mammals_of_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190126113847/http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/05_library/5_3_publications/N_and_O/Nader_1989_Rare_and_endangered_mammals_of_Saudi_Arabia.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Birds include falcons (which are caught and trained for hunting), eagles, hawks, vultures, [[sandgrouse]], and [[bulbul]]s. There are several species of snakes, many of which are venomous. Domesticated animals include the legendary [[Arabian horse]], [[Arabian camel]], sheep, goats, cattle, donkeys, chickens, etc.

The Red Sea is a rich and diverse [[ecosystem]] with more than [[List of fishes in the Red Sea|1,200 species of fish]]<ref name="fishbase">{{cite web|url=http://www.fishbase.org/TrophicEco/FishEcoList.php?ve_code=5|title=FishBase|last=Froese|first=Ranier|author2=Pauly, Daniel|access-date=12 March 2009|year=2009|archive-date=17 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217070339/http://www.fishbase.org/TrophicEco/FishEcoList.php?ve_code=5|url-status=live}}</ref> around 10% of which are [[endemic]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Siliotti|first=A.|title=Fishes of the red sea|editor=Verona, Geodia|year=2002|publisher=Geodia Edizioni Internazionali |isbn=978-88-87177-42-8}}</ref> This also includes 42 species of [[List of deep water fish of the Red Sea|deep water fish]].<ref name="fishbase" /> The rich diversity is partly owed to the {{cvt|2000|km|mi|-1|comma=gaps}} of coral reef extending along the coastline; these [[fringing reef]]s are largely formed of stony [[acropora]] and [[porites]] corals. The reefs form platforms and sometimes lagoons along the coast and occasional other features such as cylinders (such as the [[Blue Hole (Red Sea)|Blue Hole]] at [[Dahab]]). These coastal reefs are also visited by [[Pelagic zone|pelagic]] species, including some of the [[List of sharks in the Red Sea|44 species of shark]]. There are many offshore reefs including several [[atoll]]s. Many of the unusual offshore reef formations defy classic (i.e., Darwinian) coral reef classification schemes and are generally attributed to the high levels of tectonic activity that characterize the area.

Reflecting the country's dominant desert conditions, plant life mostly consists of herbs, plants, and shrubs that require little water. The date palm (''[[Phoenix dactylifera]]'') is widespread, and is a national symbol.<ref name="Britannica" />

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Saudi Arabia}}

{{multiple image
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| image1            = Salman of Saudi Arabia - 2020 (49563590728) (cropped).jpg
| caption1          = [[Salman of Saudi Arabia|Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud]]<br />[[King of Saudi Arabia|King]]
| image2            = 2025 Crown Prince and Prime Minister Mohammed bin Salman Al Saud of Saudi Arabia on November 18 (cropped).jpg
| caption2          = [[Mohammed bin Salman]]<br />[[Crown Prince of Saudi Arabia|Crown Prince]] and [[Prime Minister of Saudi Arabia|Prime Minister]]
| caption_align     = center
}}

Saudi Arabia is an [[absolute monarchy]];<ref name=Cavendish78>{{cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78 78] |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/78 }}</ref> however, according to the [[Basic Law of Saudi Arabia]] adopted by royal decree in 1992, the king must comply with [[Sharia]] (Islamic law) and the [[Quran]], while the Quran and the [[Sunnah]] (the traditions of Muhammad) are declared to be the country's constitution.<ref name= Gerhard>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of world constitutions, Volume 1 |first=Gerhard |last=Robbers |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8160-6078-8 |page=791|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> No political parties or national elections are permitted.<ref name=Cavendish78/> While some critics consider it to be a [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]] state,<ref>{{cite web |last1=Bandow |first1=Doug |title=Time to Cut Off Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cato.org/commentary/time-cut-saudi-arabia |website=[[Cato Institute]] |access-date=19 March 2022 |date=19 May 2020 |archive-date=29 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210329043129/https://www.cato.org/commentary/time-cut-saudi-arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Alkhaled |first1=Sophia |title=Women's entrepreneurship in Saudi Arabia: Feminist solidarity and political activism in disguise? |journal=Gender, Work & Organization |date=27 January 2021 |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=950–972 |doi=10.1111/gwao.12626 |doi-access=free}}</ref> others regard it as lacking aspects of totalitarianism but nevertheless classify it as an authoritarian regime.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Schlager, Weisblatt |first1=Neil, Jayne |title=World Encyclopedia of Political Systems and Parties |last2=A. Faksh, Hendrickson |first2=Mahmud, Mary |publisher=Facts on File |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8160-5953-9 |edition=4th |location=New York City |page=1171 |chapter=Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |quote=Saudi Arabia is not totalitarian. Travel outside the country is common, political crimes and violence are rare, people are not in constant fear of the police, and the state does not try to take over all existing organizations, such as philanthropic, religious, commercial, and industrial groups. Saudi rulers still see themselves in a parental role, much like a sheikh of a tribe who is in close touch with the concerns of his tribesmen and keeps those concerns in balance. For so long a time, a relatively benign monarchy has ruled over this populace that it has become used to being looked after in this manner. Therefore, until recently, calls for a more open, representative political system did not win wide support.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Oliver Collin, L. Martin |first=Richard, Pamela |title=An Introduction to World Politics |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4422-1803-1 |location=United Kingdom |pages=269}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=A. Dobratz |first1=Betty |title=Power, Politics, and Society: An Introduction to Political Sociology |last2=K. Waldner |first2=Lisa |last3=Buzzel |first3=Timothy |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-0-205-48629-8 |location=NY 10017, New York, USA |page=50 |chapter=2: Role of the state}}</ref> ''[[The Economist]]'' ranked the Saudi government 150th out of 167 in its 2022 [[Democracy Index]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Democracy Index 2022: Frontline democracy and the battle for Ukraine |url=https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/DI-final-version-report.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203184337/https://pages.eiu.com/rs/753-RIQ-438/images/DI-final-version-report.pdf |archive-date=3 February 2023 |website=[[Economist Intelligence Unit]] |page=11 |language=en-GB}}</ref> and [[Freedom House]] gave it its lowest "Not Free" rating, giving it a score of 8 out of 100 for 2023.<ref name="FH2019">{{cite web |date=2023 |title=Freedom House. Saudi Arabia |url=https://freedomhouse.org/country/saudi-arabia/freedom-world/2023 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230530191015/https://freedomhouse.org/country/saudi-arabia/freedom-world/2023 |archive-date=30 May 2023 |access-date=30 May 2023 |website=Freedom House }}</ref> In the [[V-Dem Democracy Indices]], Saudi Arabia ranks amongst the lowest as a "closed autocracy," ranking at 179th and 167th out of 179 countries in electoral democracy and liberal democracy indices respectively.<ref name="j496">{{cite web|title=Democracy Report 2026, Unraveling The Democratic Era?|url=https://v-dem.net/documents/75/V-Dem_Institute_Democracy_Report_2026_lowres.pdf|access-date=2026-03-17|website=[[V-Dem Institute]]|archive-date=17 March 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260317204701/https://v-dem.net/documents/75/V-Dem_Institute_Democracy_Report_2026_lowres.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Additionally, according to [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|International IDEA]]'s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Saudi Arabia performs in the low range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political representation, including credible elections, inclusive suffrage and effective parliament.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/saudi-arabia |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int |language=en |archive-date=8 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251108000318/https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/saudi-arabia |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int |archive-date=25 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250825020600/https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int |archive-date=8 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250908102653/https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In the absence of national elections and political parties,<ref name=Cavendish78/> politics in Saudi Arabia takes place in two distinct arenas: within the royal family, the Al Saud, and between the royal family and the rest of Saudi society.<ref name= Noreng97>{{cite book |title=Crude power: politics and the oil market |first=Oystein |last=Noreng |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84511-023-9 |page=97}}</ref> Participation in the political process is limited to a relatively small segment of the population and takes the form of the royal family consulting with the ulema, tribal sheikhs, and business elite on major decisions.<ref name=Britannica/> This process is not reported by the Saudi media.<ref>[[#Long|Long]], p. 85</ref>
[[File:Sadat_and_Khalid.jpg|alt=Sadat and Khalid|thumb|[[Khalid of Saudi Arabia|King Khalid]] (right) meeting Egypt's president [[Anwar Sadat]] with crown prince [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd]] in the background at [[Cairo International Airport|Cairo Airport]] in 1975]]
By custom, all males of full age have a right to petition the king directly through the traditional tribal meeting known as the ''[[majlis]]''.<ref name="Cavendish92">{{cite book |title=World and Its Peoples: the Arabian Peninsula |publisher=Marshall Cavendish |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-7614-7571-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/92 92–93] |url=https://archive.org/details/worlditspeoplesm0000unse/page/92 }}</ref> In many ways the approach to government differs little from the traditional system of tribal rule. Tribal identity remains strong, and outside of the royal family, political influence is frequently determined by tribal affiliation. Tribal sheikhs continue to exert a considerable degree of influence over local and national events.<ref name="Britannica" /> In recent years there have been limited steps to widen political participation such as the establishment of the Consultative Council in the early 1990s and the National Dialogue Forum in 2003.<ref name="Al-Rasheed242">[[#Al-Rasheed|Al-Rasheed]], pp. 180, 242–243, 248, 257–258</ref> In 2005, the first municipal elections were held. In 2007, the [[Allegiance Council]] was created to regulate the succession.<ref name="Al-Rasheed242" /> In 2009, the king made significant personnel changes to the government by appointing reformers to key positions and the first woman to a ministerial post;<ref>{{cite news |date=15 February 2009 |title=Saudi king speeds reforms |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658 |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/31b61bc4-fb3a-11dd-bcad-000077b07658.html |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |date=27 March 2009 |title=Prince Naif appointed deputy Saudi PM |newspaper=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac |url-access=subscription |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221210/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/2c0d7fcc-1b1b-11de-8aa3-0000779fd2ac.html |archive-date=10 December 2022}}</ref> however, these changes have been criticized as being too slow or merely cosmetic.<ref>{{cite news |date=30 September 2010 |title=Reform in Saudi Arabia: At a snail's pace |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2010/09/30/at-a-snails-pace |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=14 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171014041446/http://www.economist.com/node/17149062?story_id=17149062&fsrc=rss |url-status=live }}</ref>

The rule of the Al Saud faces political opposition from four sources: Sunni Islamist activism; liberal critics; the [[Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shi'ite minority]]—particularly in the Eastern Province; and long-standing tribal/[[Regionalism (politics)|regionalist]] opponents (for example in the Hejaz).<ref>{{cite journal |first=Ondrej |last=Barenek |year=2009 |title=Divided We Survive: A Landscape of Fragmentation in Saudi Arabia |journal=Middle East Brief |issue=33 |url=http://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |access-date=3 December 2010 |archive-date=19 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090219111054/http://www.brandeis.edu/crown/publications/meb/MEB33.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Of these, the minority activists have been the most prominent threat to the government and have in recent years been involved in [[List of terrorist incidents in Saudi Arabia|violent incidents in the country]].<ref name="Cordesman 2009" /> However, open protest against the government, even if peaceful, is not tolerated.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2015-10-26 |title=Open sectarianism in Saudi Arabia frightens Shi'ites |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/cnews-us-saudi-shiites-idCAKCN0SK2C520151026 |access-date=2022-05-07 |archive-date=3 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010120/https://www.reuters.com/article/cnews-us-saudi-shiites-idCAKCN0SK2C520151026 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Monarchy and royal family ===
{{Main|House of Saud}}

[[File:State Visit of King Fahd of Saudi Arabia State Dinner Receiving Line with Ivana Trump and Donald Trump in East Room - DPLA - 1a44d05819eab8ba3dcf7a6883ad92ba.jpg|thumb|King [[Fahd of Saudi Arabia|Fahd]] with US President [[Ronald Reagan]] and future US President [[Donald Trump]] in 1985. The US and Saudi Arabia [[Operation Cyclone|supplied money and arms]] to the anti-Soviet ''[[mujahideen]]'' fighters in Afghanistan.]]
The king combines legislative, executive, and judicial functions,<ref name=Britannica>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/525348/Saudi-Arabia |title=Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Saudi Arabia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |date=28 May 2023 |access-date=25 January 2011 |archive-date=25 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181225161108/https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia |url-status=live }}</ref> with royal decrees forming the basis of the country's legislation.<ref name= Campbell>{{cite book|title=Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East|first=Christian|last=Campbell|year=2007|isbn=978-1-4303-1914-6|page=265|publisher=Lulu Enterprises Incorporated|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=17 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132432/https://books.google.com/books?id=20jmw1C3H5UC&pg=PA265|url-status=live}}</ref> The prime minister presides over the [[Council of Ministers of Saudi Arabia]] and [[Consultative Assembly of Saudi Arabia]]. The king has usually been also the prime minister, with two exceptions: Crown Prince [[Faisal of Saudi Arabia|Faisal]], who was prime minister during the reign of [[Saud of Saudi Arabia|King Saud]],<ref>{{cite news|title=Saud Names His Brother Prime Minister of Nation|work=[[The New York Times]]|agency=[[Associated Press]]|date=17 August 1954|location=Jeddah|id={{ProQuest|112933832}}}}</ref> and Crown Prince [[Mohammed Bin Salman]], the current prime minister since 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia's Crown Prince to become Kingdom's Prime Minister: Royal decree |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/09/27/Saudi-Arabia-s-Crown-Prince-to-become-Kingdom-s-Prime-Minister-Royal-decree |access-date=27 September 2022 |website=Al Arabiya English |date=27 September 2022 |archive-date=27 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927172139/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/gulf/2022/09/27/Saudi-Arabia-s-Crown-Prince-to-become-Kingdom-s-Prime-Minister-Royal-decree |url-status=live}}</ref> The royal family dominates the political system. The family's vast numbers allows it to control most of the kingdom's important posts and to have an involvement at all levels of government.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf|title=Country Profile: Saudi Arabia|author=Library of Congress, Federal Research Division|year=2006|access-date=10 December 2010|archive-date=28 June 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628183858/http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Saudi_Arabia.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> The number of princes is estimated to be at least {{gaps|7|000}}, with most power and influence being wielded by the 200 or so male descendants of Ibn Saud.<ref name="FT Saud">{{cite news |title=The House of Saud: rulers of modern Saudi Arabia |url=http://peakoil.com/publicpolicy/the-house-of-saud-rulers-of-modern-saudi-arabia |newspaper=Financial Times |date=30 September 2010 |access-date=12 March 2015 |archive-date=2 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402124656/http://peakoil.com/publicpolicy/the-house-of-saud-rulers-of-modern-saudi-arabia |url-status=live }}</ref> The key ministries are generally reserved for the royal family,<ref name=Cavendish78 /> as are the 13 regional governorships.{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=15}}

[[File:Secretary of Defense Chuck Hagel walks with Saudi Deputy Minister of Defense Prince Fahd bin Abdullah before departing Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, on April 24, 2013 130424-D-BW835-179.jpg|thumb|left|As many as 500 princes, government ministers, and business people, including Prince [[Fahd bin Abdullah bin Mohammed Al Saud|Fahd bin Abdullah]], were arrested by Saudi Arabian authorities as part of the [[2017 Saudi Arabian purge]].]]
The Saudi government<ref>{{cite book |title=The Middle East reader |first=Michael |last=Curtis |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-88738-101-0 |page=235|publisher=Transaction Books }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Security issues in the post-cold war world |author= M. Jane Davis |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85898-334-9 |page=81|publisher= Edward Elgar }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Middle Eastern leaders and Islam: a precarious equilibrium |first=Sonia |last=Alianak |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8204-6924-9 |page= 67|publisher=Peter Lang }}</ref> and the royal family<ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia and its royal family |first=William |last=Holden |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8184-0326-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaitsro00powe/page/154 154–156] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaitsro00powe/page/154 |publisher=Secaucus, N.J. : L. Stuart }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Saudi Royal Family |author=Jennifer Bond Reed |first2=Brenda |last2=Lange |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7910-9218-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudiroyalfamily00reed_0/page/14 14] |publisher=Chelsea House |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiroyalfamily00reed_0/page/14 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=The corrupt, feudal world of the House of Saud |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html |newspaper=The Independent |date=14 May 2003 |place=London |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111010181738/http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/fisk/robert-fisk-the-corrupt-feudal-world-of-the-house-of-saud-538468.html |archive-date=10 October 2011}}</ref> have often been accused of corruption over many years,{{sfnm|1a1=Abir|1y=1993|1p=73|2a1=Bowen|2y=2007|2p=108}} and this continues into the 21st century.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia Enters the 21st Century |first=Anthony H. |last=Cordesman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-275-98091-7 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/47 47, 142] |url=https://archive.org/details/saudiarabiaenter0000cord/page/47 }}</ref> In a country that is said to "belong" to the royal family and is named for them,<ref name= Kamrava /> the lines between state assets and the personal wealth of senior princes are blurred.<ref name="FT Saud"/> The extent of corruption has been described as systemic<ref>{{cite book |title=September 11 and the U.S. war: beyond the curtain of smoke |first1=Roger |last1=Burbach |first2=Ben|last2=Clarke|year=2002 |isbn=978-0-87286-404-7 |page=32|publisher=City Lights Publishers }}</ref> and endemic,<ref>{{cite book |title= Freedom in the Middle East and North Africa: A Freedom in the World Special Edition |author= Freedom House |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-3775-0 |page=63|publisher= Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref> and its existence was acknowledged<ref>{{cite news |title=A Nation Challenged: The Plots; Saudi Arabia Also a Target Of Attacks, U.S. Officials Say |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=9 October 2001 |first=Lowell |last=Bergman |access-date=23 February 2017 |archive-date=14 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180614195125/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/09/world/nation-challenged-plots-saudi-arabia-also-target-attacks-us-officials-say.html |url-status=live }}</ref> and defended<ref>{{cite book|title=The King's Messenger. Prince Bandar Bin Sultan and America's Tangled Relationship with Saudi Arabia |first=David |last=Ottaway |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-8027-1690-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/kingsmessengerpr00otta_0/page/162 162] |url=https://archive.org/details/kingsmessengerpr00otta_0/page/162 |publisher=Walker & Company }}</ref> by [[Bandar bin Sultan|Prince Bandar bin Sultan]] (a senior member of the royal family)<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi bribe claims delay £20bn fighter deal |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/middle_east/article1899614.ece |newspaper=The Times |date=7 June 2007 |place=London |first=David |last=Robertson |access-date=29 June 2011 |archive-date=17 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117132440/https://www.thetimes.co.uk/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> in an interview in 2001.<ref name= PBS>{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html |title=Interview: Bandar Bin Sultan |year=2001 |publisher=PBS |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331223114/https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/terrorism/interviews/bandar.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In its [[Corruption Perceptions Index]] for 2010, [[Transparency International]] gave Saudi Arabia a score of 4.7 (on a scale from 0 to 10 where 0 is "highly corrupt" and 10 is "highly clean").<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.transparency.org/policy_research/surveys_indices/cpi/2010/results|title=Corruption Perceptions Index 2010|publisher=Transparency International|date=15 December 2010|access-date=2 December 2010|archive-date=26 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226144223/https://www.transparency.org/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has undergone a process of political and social reform, such as to increase public transparency and good governance, but nepotism and patronage are widespread when doing business in the country; the enforcement of the anti-corruption laws is selective and public officials engage in corruption with impunity. As many as 500 people, including prominent Saudi Arabian princes, government ministers, and businesspeople, were [[2017–2019 Saudi Arabian purge|arrested in an anti-corruption campaign]] in November 2017.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-waleed-bin-talal.html |title= Saudi Arabia Arrests 11 Princes, Including Billionaire Alwaleed bin Talal |first= David |last= Kirkpatrick |date= 4 November 2017 |work= The New York Times |author-link= David D. Kirkpatrick |access-date= 28 March 2024 |archive-date= 8 November 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20171108003504/https://www.nytimes.com/2017/11/04/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-waleed-bin-talal.html |url-status= live }}</ref>

=== Al ash-Sheikh and role of the ulema ===
[[File:Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh Senate of Poland 02.JPG|thumb|[[Abdullah ibn Muhammad Al ash-Sheikh]] with [[Bogdan Borusewicz]] in the [[Polish Senate]], 26 May 2014]]

Saudi Arabia is unique in giving the [[Ulama|ulema]] (the body of Islamic religious leaders and jurists) a direct role in government.<ref name= Goldstein118>{{cite book |title=Religion and the State |url=https://archive.org/details/religionstate0000gold |url-access=registration |first=Natalie |last=Goldstein |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8160-8090-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/religionstate0000gold/page/118 118]|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> The preferred ulema are of the [[Salafi movement]]. The ulema have been a key influence in major government decisions, for example the imposition of the [[1973 oil crisis|oil embargo in 1973]] and the [[Gulf War|invitation to foreign troops to Saudi Arabia in 1990]].<ref name="meforum.org">{{cite journal |first=Nawaf E. |last=Obaid |date=September 1999 |title=The Power of Saudi Arabia's Islamic Leaders |journal=Middle East Quarterly |volume=VI |issue=3 |pages=51–58 |url=http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |access-date=8 December 2010 |archive-date=6 August 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110806023223/http://www.meforum.org/482/the-power-of-saudi-arabias-islamic-leaders |url-status=live }}</ref> In addition, they have had a major role in the judicial and education systems<ref>{{cite book |title=Modernity and tradition: the Saudi equation |first=Fouad |last=Farsy |year=1992 |isbn=978-1-874132-03-5 |page=29|publisher=Knight Communications }}</ref> as well as a monopoly of authority over socio-religious affairs.<ref name= Hassner>{{cite book|title=War on sacred grounds |author=Ron Eduard Hassner |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8014-4806-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/waronsacredgroun00hass/page/143 143] |url=https://archive.org/details/waronsacredgroun00hass/page/143 |publisher= Cornell University Press }}</ref>

By the 1970s, as a result of oil wealth and the modernization initiated by King Faisal, important changes to Saudi society were underway, and the power of the ulema was in decline.<ref>[[#Abir1987|Abir (1987)]], p. 30</ref> However, this changed following the [[Grand Mosque seizure|seizure of the Grand Mosque]] in Mecca in 1979 by Islamist radicals.{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=21}} The government's response to the crisis included strengthening the ulema's powers and increasing their financial support:<ref name= Hegghammer24 /> in particular, they were given greater control over the education system{{sfn|Abir|1993|p=21}} and were allowed to enforce the stricter observance of Wahhabi rules of moral and social behaviour.<ref name= Hegghammer24 /> After his accession to the throne in 2005, King Abdullah took steps to reduce the powers of the ulema, for instance transferring control over girls' education to the Ministry of Education.<ref name="NYT Abdullah">{{cite news |title=Abdullah, King of Saudi Arabia |url=http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html |newspaper=The New York Times |date=29 November 2010 |first=Nada |last=Bakri |author-link=Nada Bakri |access-date=29 June 2011 |archive-date=27 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130727045836/http://topics.nytimes.com/topics/reference/timestopics/people/a/abdullah_bin_abdul_aziz_alsaud/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The ulema have historically been led by the [[Al ash-Sheikh]],<ref>[[#Abir1987|Abir (1987)]], p. 4</ref> the country's leading religious family.<ref name= Hassner /> The Al ash-Sheikh are the descendants of [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]], the 18th-century founder of [[Wahhabism]] which dominates Saudi society.<ref>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia: the coming storm |author=Wilson, Peter W. |author2=Graham, Douglas |year=1994 |isbn=978-1-56324-394-3 |page=16|publisher=M.E. Sharpe }}</ref> The family is second in prestige only to the Al Saud (the royal family)<ref name= Long11>[[#Long|Long]], p. 11</ref> with whom they formed a "mutual support pact"<ref name="IBP">{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia King Fahd Bin Abdul Aziz Al-Saud Handbook |publisher=International Business Publications |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-7397-2740-9}}</ref> and power-sharing arrangement nearly 300 years ago.<ref name="meforum.org" /> The pact, which persists to this day,<ref name=IBP /> is based on the Al Saud maintaining the Al ash-Sheikh's authority in religious matters while upholding and propagating Wahhabi doctrine. In return, the Al ash-Sheikh support the Al Saud's political authority<ref>{{cite book |title=Area Handbook for the Persian Gulf States |first=Richard F.|last=Nyrop|year=2008 |isbn=978-1-4344-6210-7 |page=50|publisher=Wildside Press LLC }}</ref> thereby using its religious-[[moral authority]] to legitimize the royal family's rule.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Bligh, Alexander |year=1985 |title=The Saudi religious elite (Ulama) as participant in the political system of the kingdom |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=17 |pages=37–50 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800028750|s2cid=154565116 }}</ref> Although the Al ash-Sheikh's domination of the ulema has diminished in recent decades,<ref name= Mattar>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East & North Africa: Vol. 1 A–C |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00phil_0 |url-access=registration |first=Philip|last=Mattar|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-02-865770-7 |page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofmo00phil_0/page/101 101]|publisher=Macmillan Reference USA }}</ref> they still hold the most important religious posts and are closely linked to the Al Saud by a high degree of intermarriage.<ref name= Hassner/>

=== Legal system ===
{{main|Legal system of Saudi Arabia}}

{{see also|Crime in Saudi Arabia}}
[[File:Iqra.jpg|thumb|Verses from the Quran. The Quran is the official constitution of the country and a primary source of law. Saudi Arabia is unique in enshrining a religious text as a political document.{{sfn|Bowen|2007|p=13}}]]
The primary source of law is the Islamic [[Sharia]] derived from the teachings of the [[Quran]] and the [[Sunnah]] (the traditions of Muhammad).<ref name= Campbell /> Saudi Arabia is unique among modern Muslim states in that Sharia is not codified and there is no system of judicial precedent, allowing judges to use independent legal reasoning to make a decision. Thus, divergent judgments arise even in apparently identical cases,<ref name="Sharia Inc Courts">[[#Otto|Otto]], pp. 161–162</ref> making predictability of legal interpretation difficult.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMPjxHzG1xQC&pg=PA202 |title=The Report: Saudi Arabia |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-902339-00-9 |page=202 |quote=it is not always possible to reach a conclusion on how a Saudi court or judicial committee would view a particular case [because] decisions of a court or a judicial committee have no binding authority with respect to another case, [and] in general there is also no system of court reporting in the Kingdom.}}</ref> Saudi judges tend to follow the principles of the [[Hanbali]] [[Madhhab|school of jurisprudence]] (''[[fiqh]]'') found in pre-modern texts and noted for its literalist interpretation of the Qur'an and [[hadith]].<ref name= Haffner58>{{cite book |title=Shari'a Politics: Islamic Law and Society in the Modern World |first=Robert W.|last=Hefner|year=2011 |isbn=978-0-253-22310-4 |page=58|publisher=Indiana University Press }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Islam |author=Juan Eduardo Campo |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8160-5454-1 |page=288|publisher=Facts On File }}</ref> In 2021, Saudi Arabia announced judicial reforms to entirely [[Codification (law)|codify its laws]] and eliminate discrepancies.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Turak |first=Natasha |title=Saudi Arabia announces major legal reforms, paving the way for codified law |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/09/saudi-arabia-announces-legal-reforms-paving-the-way-for-codified-law.html |access-date=2022-09-20 |website=CNBC |date=9 February 2021 |language=en |archive-date=4 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304041106/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/02/09/saudi-arabia-announces-legal-reforms-paving-the-way-for-codified-law.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Royal decrees are the other main source of law but are referred to as ''regulations'' rather than ''laws'' because they are subordinate to Sharia.<ref name= Campbell /> Royal decrees supplement Sharia in areas such as labour, commercial and corporate law. Additionally, traditional tribal law and custom remain significant.<ref>[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 157</ref> Extra-Sharia government tribunals usually handle disputes relating to specific royal decrees.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islam and politics |first=John L.|last=Esposito|year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8156-2774-6 |pages=110–112|publisher=Syracuse University Press }}</ref> Final appeal from both Sharia courts and government tribunals is to the king, and all courts and tribunals follow Sharia rules of evidence and procedure.<ref name= Campbell268>{{cite book |title=Legal Aspects of Doing Business in the Middle East |first=Christian|last=Campbell|year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4303-1914-6 |pages=268–269|publisher=Lulu Enterprises Incorporated }}</ref>

Retaliatory punishments, or [[Qisas]], are practised: for instance, an eye can be surgically removed at the insistence of a victim who lost his own eye.<ref name="Economist Cruel">{{Cite news |date=14 June 2001 |title=Saudi Arabian justice: Cruel, or just unusual? |newspaper=The Economist |url=https://www.economist.com/international/2001/06/14/cruel-or-just-unusual |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=8 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180408031800/https://www.economist.com/node/656147 |url-status=live }}</ref> Families of someone unlawfully killed can choose between demanding the death penalty or granting clemency in return for a payment of [[diyya]] (blood money) by the perpetrator.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudis Face Soaring Blood-Money Sums |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/26/AR2008072601785.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=27 July 2008 |access-date=3 September 2017 |archive-date=12 November 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121112180004/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/26/AR2008072601785.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Regions of Saudi Arabia|Governorates of Saudi Arabia}}

Saudi Arabia is divided into 13 [[regions]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arab.net/saudi/sa_admindivisions.htm |title=Saudi Arabia: Administrative divisions |publisher=arab.net |access-date=13 May 2008 |archive-date=9 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109155349/http://www.arab.net/saudi/sa_admindivisions.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> ({{langx|ar|مناطق إدارية}}; ''manatiq idāriyya'', sing. منطقة إدارية; ''[[mintaqah]] idariyya''). The regions are further divided into 118 [[Governorates of Saudi Arabia|governorates]] ({{langx|ar|محافظات}}; ''muhafazat'', sing. محافظة; ''[[muhafazah]]''). This number includes the 13 regional capitals, which have a different status as municipalities ({{langx|ar|أمانة}}; ''amanah'') headed by mayors ({{langx|ar|أمين}}; ''amin''). The governorates are further subdivided into sub-governorates ({{langx|ar|مراكز}}; ''[[Markaz (country subdivision)|marakiz]]'', sing. مركز; ''markaz'').

{{center|{{Saudi Arabia Prv}}}}

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Saudi Arabia}}

The foreign policy of Saudi Arabia is officially focused on cooperation with the oil-exporting [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf|Gulf States]], the unity of the [[Arab World|Arab world]], [[Ummah|Islamic solidarity]], and support for the [[United Nations]] and multilateralism. It joined the UN in 1945<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia" /><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |title=United Nations Member States |publisher=United Nations |access-date=29 June 2017 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230101646/http://www.un.org/en/members/index.shtml |url-status=live }}</ref> and is a founding member of the [[Arab League]], [[Cooperation Council for the Arab States of the Gulf|Gulf Cooperation Council]], [[Muslim World League]], and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]].{{efn|Formerly the Organisation of the Islamic Conference.}}<ref name="Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs">{{cite web |url=http://www.mofa.gov.sa/SITES/MOFAEN/ABOUTKINGDOM/KINGDOMFOREIGNPOLICY/Pages/KingdomPolicy34645.aspx |title=The foreign policy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |date=5 July 2005 |publisher=Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Saudi Arabia |access-date=31 July 2011 |archive-date=19 December 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121219093153/http://www.mofa.gov.sa/sites/mofaen/aboutKingDom/KingdomForeignPolicy/Pages/KingdomPolicy34645.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia joined the [[World Trade Organization]] in 2005 and plays a prominent role in the [[International Monetary Fund]], the [[the World Bank|World Bank]], and the [[G20]].<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia" /> Although part of the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], Saudi Arabia is generally considered pro-Western.<ref>{{cite book |last=Ménoret |first=Pascal |url=https://archive.org/details/saudienigmahisto0000meno/page/22 |title=The Saudi enigma: a history |publisher=Zed Books |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-84277-605-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/saudienigmahisto0000meno/page/22 22]}}</ref>

Since co-founding [[OPEC]] in 1960, Saudi Arabia's oil pricing policy has officially aimed to stabilize the world oil market and moderate sharp price movements so as not to jeopardize Western economies.<ref name="US State Dept Saudi Arabia" /><ref>{{cite web|title=OPEC : Brief History|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm|website=OPEC.org|publisher=Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|access-date=20 May 2015|archive-date=28 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130228051108/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/24.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1973, Saudi Arabia and other Arab nations imposed an [[oil embargo]] against the United States, United Kingdom, Japan, and other Western nations that supported Israel in the [[Yom Kippur War]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The Arab Oil Threat |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/23/archives/the-arab-oil-threat.html |work=The New York Times |date=23 November 1973 |access-date=22 July 2019 |archive-date=22 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722073135/https://www.nytimes.com/1973/11/23/archives/the-arab-oil-threat.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The embargo caused an [[1973 oil crisis|oil crisis]] with many short- and long-term effects on global politics and the global economy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/oil/|title=The price of oil – in context|date=18 April 2006 | work=CBC News| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070609145246/http://www.cbc.ca/news/background/oil/| archive-date= 9 June 2007 | url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Saudi Arabia–United States relations|Saudi Arabia and the United States]] are strategic allies;<ref name="BBC News">{{cite news |title=How strained are US-Saudi relations? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |work=BBC News |date=20 April 2016 |access-date=22 June 2018 |archive-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417112848/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi-US Relations {{!}} The Embassy of The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.saudiembassy.net/saudi-us-relations |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=www.saudiembassy.net |archive-date=3 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231203045622/https://saudiembassy.net/saudi-us-relations |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=United States-Saudi Arabia Relationship: Eight Decades of Partnership |url=https://www.state.gov/united-states-saudi-arabia-relationship-eight-decades-of-partnership/ |access-date=2023-09-29 |website=United States Department of State |language=en |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223065251/https://www.state.gov/united-states-saudi-arabia-relationship-eight-decades-of-partnership/ |url-status=live}}</ref> the U.S. has been the most influential foreign power in the kingdom since the end of World War II.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-13 |title=Saudi Arabia - Foreign Affairs, GCC, Oil {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Foreign-affairs |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=22 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250522123411/https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Foreign-affairs |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia's role in the 1991 [[Gulf War]], particularly the stationing of American troops on Saudi soil from 1991, prompted the development of a hostile Islamist response internally.<ref>{{cite book |title=Islamic activism: a social movement theory approach |first=Quintan|last=Wiktorowicz|year=2004 |isbn=978-0-253-34281-2 |page=255|publisher=Indiana University Press }}</ref> As a result, Saudi Arabia has, to some extent, distanced itself from the U.S.; for example, it refused to support or participate in the U.S.-led [[Iraq War|invasion of Iraq]] in 2003.<ref name="Britannica" /> Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia remains a key strategic ally of the U.S. and a leading importer of American arms.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-04-19 |title=How strained are US-Saudi relations? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |access-date=2025-05-14 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB |archive-date=17 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190417112848/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 |url-status=live }}</ref> In 2017, American President [[Donald Trump]] and King Salman signed a series of letters of intent for Saudi Arabia to [[2017 United States–Saudi Arabia arms deal|purchase arms from the United States]] totalling $350 billion over 10 years.<ref name="cnbc-20170520">{{cite news|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/20/us-saudi-arabia-seal-weapons-deal-worth-nearly-110-billion-as-trump-begins-visit.html|title=US-Saudi Arabia ink historic 10-year weapons deal worth $350 billion as Trump begins visit|last=David|first=Javier E.|date=20 May 2017|website=CNBC|access-date=28 October 2018|archive-date=21 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190521165657/https://www.cnbc.com/2017/05/20/us-saudi-arabia-seal-weapons-deal-worth-nearly-110-billion-as-trump-begins-visit.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=The truth about President Trump's $110 billion Saudi arms deal |language=en |work=ABC News |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/truth-president-trumps-110-billion-saudi-arms-deal/story?id=47874726 |access-date=2021-07-28 |archive-date=7 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170607005940/http://abcnews.go.com/International/truth-president-trumps-110-billion-saudi-arms-deal/story?id=47874726 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman took power in 2017, Saudi Arabia has pursued closer ties with both [[China–Saudi Arabia relations|China]] and [[Russia–Saudi Arabia relations|Russia]] as a [[Balancing (international relations)|balancing]] move away from its traditional reliance on the United States. This has involved an increase in both economic and political cooperation, such as elevating Sino-Saudi relations to that of a [[List of diplomatic partnerships of China|comprehensive strategic partnership]] as well as forming an agreement with Russia to reduce oil production among [[OPEC]] nations during the [[Russo-Ukrainian war (2022–present)|Ukraine War]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hadian Rasanani |first=A.M. |date=2024-08-04 |title=Saudi Arabia's Relations with China and Russia, Hedging and Increasing Relative Power amidst American Disengagement from West Asia: Implications, Change and Continuity |url=https://wsps.ut.ac.ir/article_100539.html |journal=Journal of World Sociopolitical Studies |language=en |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=877–916 |doi=10.22059/wsps.2025.382804.1465 |issn=2588-3119 |archive-date=23 July 2026 |access-date=15 July 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260723050422/https://wsps.ut.ac.ir/article_100539.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has traditionally sought to preserve the regional status quo by using its financial, diplomatic, and military resources to limit the effects of revolutionary uprisings in neighbouring countries.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-05-13 |title=Saudi Arabia - Gulf War, Foreign Policy, Middle East {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Foreign-policy-since-the-end-of-the-Persian-Gulf-War |access-date=2025-05-14 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=16 May 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250516161914/https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Foreign-policy-since-the-end-of-the-Persian-Gulf-War |url-status=live }}</ref> It has engaged in a [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict|proxy conflict with Iran]] since the 1979 [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic Revolution]], which had called for the overthrow of monarchies and Sunni dominance. The rivalry between Iran and Saudi Arabia can be seen as the geopolitical extension of the wider Sunni-Shia conflict, with both sides being the flagship state for their respective sides. The consequences of the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the [[Arab Spring]] (2010–2012) led to increasing alarm within the Saudi monarchy over the rise of [[Iran]]'s influence in the region.<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/world/middleeast/wikileaks-saudi-arabia-iran.html WikiLeaks Shows a Saudi Obsession With Iran] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170125201955/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/07/17/world/middleeast/wikileaks-saudi-arabia-iran.html |date=25 January 2017 }}". ''The New York Times''. 16 July 2015.</ref> These fears were reflected in comments of King Abdullah,<ref name="NYT Abdullah" /> who privately urged the United States to attack Iran and "cut off the head of the snake".<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia urges US attack on Iran to stop nuclear programme |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/28/us-embassy-cables-saudis-iran |newspaper=The Guardian |date=28 November 2010 |place=London |first1=Ian |last1=Black |first2=Simon |last2=Tisdall |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=16 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170216223407/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/28/us-embassy-cables-saudis-iran |url-status=live }}</ref> However, tensions between the rivals have cooled in recent years due to diplomatic dialogue. Despite being allies with The [[UAE]] on several organizations, they have been locked in a proxy war over the [[Yemeni civil war (2014–present)]] in which the Emiratis have supported secessionists against the pro-Saudi central government.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2026-01-20 |title=After Yemen rift, Saudi Arabia aims to oust UAE from wider region |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2026/01/20/saudi-arabia-uae-yemen-red-sea/ |access-date=2026-01-20 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286 |archive-date=20 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260120114228/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2026/01/20/saudi-arabia-uae-yemen-red-sea/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[File:Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict.png|thumb|Major [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict]] locations

Iran shown in green, KSA shown in orange]]
Saudi Arabia has been seen as a moderating influence in the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]], periodically putting forward a peace plan between Israel and the [[Palestinian people|Palestinians]] and condemning [[Hezbollah]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Prophets and princes: Saudi Arabia from Muhammad to the present |author=Watson, Mark |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-470-18257-4 |page=2|publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}</ref>

In 2017, as part of [[Nuclear power in Saudi Arabia|its nuclear power]] [[Nuclear program of Saudi Arabia|programme]], Saudi Arabia planned to extract uranium domestically, taking a step towards self-sufficiency in producing [[nuclear fuel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/19/mike-pompeo-alleged-saudi-arabia-uranium-facility-yellowcake-china-democrats|title=Pompeo pressed on claims China is helping build Saudi uranium facility|access-date=19 August 2020|website=The Guardian|date=19 August 2020|archive-date=19 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819114802/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/19/mike-pompeo-alleged-saudi-arabia-uranium-facility-yellowcake-china-democrats|url-status=live}}</ref> Subsequently, the kingdom has been exploring foreign partnerships for constructing its first civil nuclear reactors, including with the United States, China, Russia, South Korea, and France.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Explainer: Why does Saudi Arabia want a civil nuclear deal with the US? |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/why-does-saudi-arabia-want-civil-nuclear-deal-with-us-2025-05-08/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250508205125/https://www.reuters.com/world/why-does-saudi-arabia-want-civil-nuclear-deal-with-us-2025-05-08/ |archive-date=8 May 2025 |access-date=2025-05-14 |work=Reuters |language=en-US |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has sought to build greater relations with other Asian countries as well, particularly [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[South Korea]], [[Indonesia]] and [[Bangladesh]]. Saudi Arabia sees South Korea as a key business partner in multiple core sectors and has signed a mutual defence agreement with [[Pakistan]].<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |title=Saudi-Pakistan Mutual Defence Pact: Implications for India, IMEC, and US Influence in the Gulf |url=https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/saudi-pakistan-mutual-defence-pact-implications-for-india-imec-and-us-influence-in-the-gulf-217398 |access-date=2026-01-20 |website=ISPI |language=en-US |archive-date=28 November 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251128172737/https://www.ispionline.it/en/publication/saudi-pakistan-mutual-defence-pact-implications-for-india-imec-and-us-influence-in-the-gulf-217398 |url-status=live }}</ref> Despite having close relations with Pakistan for decades, India has emerged as another key economic partner with Saudi Arabia.<ref name=":8" />

====Allegations of sponsoring global terrorism====
{{Main|Saudi Arabia and state-sponsored terrorism}}

Saudi Arabia has been accused of sponsoring Islamic terrorism.<ref>{{cite web |author=Edward Clifford |date=2014-12-06 |title=Financing Terrorism: Saudi Arabia and Its Foreign Affairs |url=http://www.brownpoliticalreview.org/2014/12/financing-terrorism-saudi-arabia-and-its-foreign-affairs/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018060915/http://www.brownpoliticalreview.org/2014/12/financing-terrorism-saudi-arabia-and-its-foreign-affairs/ |archive-date=18 October 2015 |access-date=19 September 2015 |work=brownpoliticalreview.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Walsh |first1=Declan |date=2010-12-05 |title=WikiLeaks cables portray Saudi Arabia as a cash machine for terrorists |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215023137/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |archive-date=2016-12-15 |access-date=2016-12-11 |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref> According to former Iraqi Prime Minister [[Nouri al-Maliki]] in March 2014, Saudi Arabia along with Qatar provided political, financial, and media support to terrorists against the Iraqi government.<ref>{{cite web|title=Maliki: Saudi and Qatar at war against Iraq|url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/maliki-saudi-qatar-at-war-against-iraq-20143823436553921.html|publisher=Al Jazeera|access-date=14 September 2015|archive-date=1 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151001142113/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/middleeast/2014/03/maliki-saudi-qatar-at-war-against-iraq-20143823436553921.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Similarly, former President of Syria [[Bashar al-Assad]] noted in 2015 that the sources of the extreme ideology of the terrorist organization [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIS]] and other such [[Salafi jihadism|Salafist extremist]] groups are the [[Wahhabism|Wahabism]] that has been supported by the royal family of Saudi Arabia.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yiC4w7Erz8I "Syria conflict: BBC exclusive interview with President Bashar al-Assad" with Jeremy Bowen] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200216150810/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yiC4w7Erz8I |date=16 February 2020 }} (9 February 2015)</ref>

Relations with the U.S. became strained following [[September 11 attacks|9/11 terror attacks]].<ref>{{cite book |title=A History of Saudi Arabia |first=Madawi |last=Al-Rasheed |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-521-74754-7 |page=233|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> American politicians and media accused the Saudi government of supporting terrorism and tolerating a ''[[jihadist]]'' culture.<ref>{{cite book |title=Great powers and regional orders: the United States and the Persian Gulf |first=Markus |last=Kaim |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7546-7197-8 |page=68|publisher=Ashgate Publishing }}</ref> According to former U.S. Secretary of State [[Hillary Clinton]] in December 2010, "Saudi Arabia remains a critical financial support base for al-Qaida, the [[Taliban]], [[LeT]] and other terrorist groups... Donors in Saudi Arabia constitute the most significant source of funding to Sunni terrorist groups worldwide."<ref name="Guardian_05122010">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |first=Declan |last=Walsh |date=5 December 2010 |title=WikiLeaks cables portray Saudi Arabia as a cash machine for terrorists |newspaper=The Guardian |place=London |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=15 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215023137/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding |url-status=live }}</ref> The Saudi government denies these claims or that it exports religious or cultural extremism.<ref>[[#Malbouisson|Malbouisson]], p. 27</ref> In September 2016, the U.S. Congress passed the [[Justice Against Sponsors of Terrorism Act]] that would allow relatives of victims of the 11 September attacks to sue Saudi Arabia for [[Alleged Saudi role in the September 11 attacks|its government's alleged role in the attacks]].<ref>"[https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ Why Obama doesn't want 9/11 families suing Saudi Arabia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190113073608/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2016/09/23/obama-veto-terrorism-lawsuit-bill-setting-up-override-battle/90407496/ |date=13 January 2019 }}". ''USA Today''. 23 September 2016.</ref> In 2014, [[Abdulaziz Al Sheikh|Sheikh Abdulaziz bin Abdullah Al-Sheikh]], the [[Grand Mufti of Saudi Arabia]] and Chairman of the [[Council of Senior Scholars (Saudi Arabia)|Council of Senior Scholars]], issued a [[fatwa]] explicitly prohibiting joining or supporting terrorist organizations such as [[Islamic State|ISIS]] and [[al-Qaeda]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-09-17 |title="هيئة كبار العلماء" السعودية تحرم الالتحاق "بالقاعدة" وتنظيم "الدولة الإسلامية" |url=https://www.france24.com/ar/20140917-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%89-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%82-%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B4 |access-date=2024-08-07 |website=فرانس 24 / France 24 |language=ar |archive-date=7 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260107202501/https://www.france24.com/ar/20140917-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%81%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%89-%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%85-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%82-%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%84-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AF%D8%A9-%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%B4 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[United States Department of State|U.S. Department of State]], "Saudi Arabia plays an important role in working toward a peaceful and prosperous future for the region and is a strong partner in security and counterterrorism efforts and in military, diplomatic, and financial cooperation."<ref>{{Cite web |title=U.S. Relations With Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.state.gov/u-s-relations-with-saudi-arabia/ |access-date=2024-08-10 |website=United States Department of State |language=en |archive-date=13 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190513185146/https://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3584.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> A significant Saudi counterterrorism success was the foiling of a 2010 [[2010 transatlantic aircraft bomb plot|cargo plane bomb plot]].<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Borger |first1=Julian |last2=McGreal |first2=Chris |last3=Finn |first3=Tom |date=2010-11-01 |title=Cargo plane bomb plot: Saudi double agent 'gave crucial alert' |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/cargo-plane-plot-saudi-agent-gave-alert |access-date=2024-08-10 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |archive-date=17 September 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917221008/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/nov/01/cargo-plane-plot-saudi-agent-gave-alert |url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2015, Saudi Arabia announced the formation of the [[Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition]], an alliance of Muslim-majority countries aimed at combating terrorism and extremism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia forms Islamic anti-terror coalition – DW – 12/15/2015 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/saudi-arabia-says-it-will-head-muslim-counterterrorism-coalition/a-18917666 |access-date=2024-08-10 |website=Deutsche Welle |language=en |archive-date=10 August 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240810054550/https://www.dw.com/en/saudi-arabia-says-it-will-head-muslim-counterterrorism-coalition/a-18917666 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Since 2016 the kingdom has started to back off from exporting Islamic fundamentalism.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Khalilzad|first=Zalmay|title='We Misled You': How the Saudis Are Coming Clean on Funding Terrorism|url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/09/saudi-arabia-terrorism-funding-214241/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=Politico Magazine|date=14 September 2016|language=en|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019043523/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2016/09/saudi-arabia-terrorism-funding-214241/|url-status=live}}</ref> Several reforms took place including curbing the powers of [[Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)|religious police]],<ref name=":4">{{Cite news|date=2016-04-13|title=Saudi cabinet curbs powers of religious police|language=en|work=Reuters|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-police-idUSKCN0XA24Y|access-date=2021-10-11|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011053057/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-police-idUSKCN0XA24Y|url-status=live}}</ref> and no longer funding the construction of mosques abroad.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-25|title=Saudi Arabia to stop funding mosques in foreign countries|url=https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200125-saudi-arabia-to-stop-funding-mosques-in-foreign-countries/|access-date=2021-10-11|website=[[Middle East Monitor]]|language=en-GB|archive-date=11 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011053057/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20200125-saudi-arabia-to-stop-funding-mosques-in-foreign-countries/|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Saudi Arabian Military Forces}}

{{see also|List of wars involving Saudi Arabia}}
{{Multiple image
| direction         = vertical
| caption_align     = center
| image1            = Partner Nations Conduct Training during Eager Lion 2022 220914-A-XQ828-461.jpg
| caption1          = [[M1 Abrams]] of the [[Royal Saudi Land Forces]]
| image2            = Royal Saudi Navy frigate Al Dammam (816) in May 2014.JPG
| caption2          = [[Al Riyadh-class frigate|''Al-Riyadh''-class frigate]] of the [[Royal Saudi Navy]]
| image3            = RSAF Typhoon at Malta - Gordon Zammit.jpg
| caption3          = [[Eurofighter Typhoon]] of the [[Royal Saudi Air Force]]
}}

The [[Armed Forces of Saudi Arabia]] are under the [[Ministry of Defence (Saudi Arabia)|Ministry of Defence]] and consist of the [[Saudi Arabian Army|Royal Saudi Land Forces]] (including the [[Saudi Royal Guard Regiment|Royal Guard]]), the [[Royal Saudi Air Force|Air Force]], the [[Royal Saudi Navy|Navy]], the [[Royal Saudi Air Defense Forces|Air Defence]], and the [[Royal Saudi Strategic Missile Force|Strategic Missile Force]]; the [[Saudi Arabian National Guard]], which is under the [[Ministry of National Guard]], is made up of tribal forces loyal to the Saudi royal family and plays a role in both domestic security and foreign defence.<ref name="iiss2023">{{Cite book |author=IISS |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=2023 |title=The Military Balance 2023 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-032-50895-5 |pages=351–354 }}</ref><ref name="CIAfactbook">{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/#military-and-security |work=CIA World Factbook |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=19 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319180722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia#military-and-security |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-29 |title=Saudi Arabia - Politics, Processes, Reforms {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Political-process |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=3 September 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250903235440/https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Political-process |url-status=live }}</ref> Additionally, the kingdom has several paramilitary forces under the [[Ministry of Interior (Saudi Arabia)|Minister of Interior]], including the [[General Directorate of Border Guard|Saudi Arabian Border Guard]], Facilities Security Force, and Coast Guard.<ref name=":5" /> The primary [[special operations]] and [[Counter-terrorism|counterterrorism]] units are the Special Security Force and the [[Saudi Emergency Force|Emergency Force]] under the [[Presidency of State Security]], which combines all counterterrorism and intelligence services and reports directly to the king. As of 2023, there are 127,000 active personnel in the Armed Forces, 130,000 in the National Guard, and 24,500 in the paramilitary security forces.

Saudi Arabia has one of the [[List of countries with highest military expenditures|world's highest military expenditures]] in both proportional and absolute terms, at approximately US$80.3 billion (roughly 7% of GDP) according to a 2024 estimate by the [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute]] (SIPRI); this places the country seventh in the world, behind the United States, China, Russia, Germany, India, and the United Kingdom. Spending on defence and security has increased significantly since the mid-1990s and was about US$78.4 billion as of 2019.<ref name=":23">[https://www.iiss.org/blogs/military-balance/2020/02/global-defence-spending Global defence spending: the United States widens the gap] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725224454/https://www.iiss.org/blogs/military-balance/2020/02/global-defence-spending |date=25 July 2020 }} ([[International Institute for Strategic Studies|IISS]]) – 14 February 2020</ref> A 2023 estimate by SIPRI ranked Saudi Arabia fourth in the world in [[List of countries with highest military expenditure per capita|per capita military spending]]. The kingdom was the world's second largest arms importer from 2019 to 2023.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tian |first1=Nan |last2=Lopes Da Silva |first2=Diego |last3=Liang |first3=Xiao |last4=Scarazzato |first4=Lorenzo |title=Trends in World Military Expenditure, 2023 |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2024/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2023 |website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |date=April 2024 |access-date=4 February 2025 |archive-date=5 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250205143937/https://www.sipri.org/publications/2024/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-world-military-expenditure-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wezeman |first1=Pieter D. |last2=Djokic |first2=Katarina |last3=George |first3=Mathew |last4=Hussain |first4=Zain |last5=Wezeman |first5=Siemon T. |title=Trends in International Arms Transfers |url=https://www.sipri.org/publications/2024/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-international-arms-transfers-2023 |website=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |date=March 2024 |access-date=4 February 2025 |archive-date=14 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250214031818/https://www.sipri.org/publications/2024/sipri-fact-sheets/trends-international-arms-transfers-2023 |url-status=live }}</ref> According to the [[Bonn International Centre for Conflict Studies|BICC]], Saudi Arabia is the 28th most militarized country in the world and possesses the second-best military equipment qualitatively in the region, after Israel.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2019 |title=Global Militarisation Index 2019 |url=https://www.bicc.de/uploads/tx_bicctools/BICC_GMI_2019_EN.pdf |journal=BICC |pages=8 and 14 |access-date=28 July 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210806002150/https://www.bicc.de/uploads/tx_bicctools/BICC_GMI_2019_EN.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> Its modern high-technology arsenal makes Saudi Arabia among the world's most densely armed nations.<ref name="Library of Congress 2006">{{Cite web |title=About this Collection &#124; Country Studies &#124; Digital Collections &#124; Library of Congress |url=https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/ |website=Library of Congress |access-date=9 August 2020 |archive-date=13 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213014814/https://www.loc.gov/collections/country-studies/about-this-collection/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has security relationships with the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, which provide training and weapons;<ref name="defensenews20152">{{cite web |date=26 March 2015 |title=Saudi Arabia: The Gulf's Best-Equipped Military |url=https://www.defensenews.com/global/mideast-africa/2015/03/26/saudi-arabia-the-gulf-s-best-equipped-military/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328144301/https://www.defensenews.com/global/mideast-africa/2015/03/26/saudi-arabia-the-gulf-s-best-equipped-military/ |archive-date=28 March 2024 |access-date=28 March 2024 |work=[[Defense News]]}}</ref> the kingdom is the largest recipient of U.S. arms in the world, accounting for 12 percent of all U.S. arms exports in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-03-10 |title=Ukraine the world's biggest arms importer; United States' dominance of global arms exports grows as Russian exports continue to fall {{!}} SIPRI |url=https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2025/ukraine-worlds-biggest-arms-importer-united-states-dominance-global-arms-exports-grows-russian |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.sipri.org |language=en |archive-date=30 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250730221152/https://www.sipri.org/media/press-release/2025/ukraine-worlds-biggest-arms-importer-united-states-dominance-global-arms-exports-grows-russian |url-status=live }}</ref> Saudi Arabia has a [[Pakistan–Saudi Arabia relations#Security relations|long-standing military relationship with Pakistan]] and is speculated to have secretly funded the latter's [[Pakistan and weapons of mass destruction|atomic bomb programme]] with the intention of purchasing its atomic weapons;<ref name="QV">{{cite book|title=Allah's Bomb: The Islamic Quest for Nuclear Weapons|first=Al J.|last=Venter|pages=[https://archive.org/details/allahsbombislami0000vent/page/150 150–153]|year=2007|publisher=Globe Pequot|isbn=978-1-59921-205-0|url=https://archive.org/details/allahsbombislami0000vent/page/150}}</ref><ref name="SPO">{{cite web|url=http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/EK07Ak01.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031107031736/http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Middle_East/EK07Ak01.html |url-status=unfit |archive-date=7 November 2003 |title=Saudi Arabia's nuclear gambit |work=Asia Times |date=7 November 2003}}</ref> in September 2025, both countries entered into a [[Strategic Mutual Defence Agreement|mutual defence pact]]. Since 2018, Saudi Arabia has repeatedly expressed willingness to acquire or develop nuclear weapons in the event that its chief regional rival, Iran, develops one.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Playing With Proliferation: How South Korea and Saudi Arabia Leverage the Prospect of Going Nuclear |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/03/playing-with-proliferation-how-south-korea-and-saudi-arabia-leverage-the-prospect-of-going-nuclear?lang=en |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |language=en |archive-date=30 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250830110720/https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2024/03/playing-with-proliferation-how-south-korea-and-saudi-arabia-leverage-the-prospect-of-going-nuclear?lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=DiChristopher |first=Tom |date=2018-03-15 |title=Saudi crown prince threatens to develop a nuke as kingdom seeks foreign nuclear technology |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/15/saudi-crown-prince-threatens-to-build-nuke-as-kingdom-seeks-nuclear-tech.html |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=CNBC |language=en |archive-date=31 August 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250831084739/https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/15/saudi-crown-prince-threatens-to-build-nuke-as-kingdom-seeks-nuclear-tech.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In March 2015, Saudi Arabia mobilized 150,000 troops and 100 fighter jets to support its [[Saudi-led intervention in the Yemeni civil war|intervention in the civil war]] in neighbouring [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Yemen Crisis: Saudi Arabia Masses 150,000 Troops to Support Airstrikes |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-masses-150-000-troops-support-airstrikes-yemen-n330416 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=26 March 2015 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204185727/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/saudi-arabia-masses-150-000-troops-support-airstrikes-yemen-n330416 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="HRW_2015-11-26_WMT">{{cite news|date=26 November 2015 |title=What Military Target Was in My Brother's House – Unlawful Coalition Airstrikes in Yemen |url=https://www.hrw.org/node/283702 |url-status=live |publisher=Human Rights Watch |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6dM5mYROt?url=https://www.hrw.org/node/283702 |archive-date=27 November 2015}} ({{cite web |title=PDF download |url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/yemen1115_4up.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/6dM5EnSsE?url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/report_pdf/yemen1115_4up.pdf |archive-date=27 November 2015}})</ref> By early 2016, Saudi ground forces and their coalition allies captured [[Aden]] and parts of southwest Yemen, though the Houthis continued to control northern Yemen and the capital city [[Sanaa]]. From there the Houthis launched successful attacks across the border into Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Almeida, Alex; Knights, Michael |title=Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 1): The Ground War |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-1-ground-war |work=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=6 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206195626/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/gulf-coalition-operations-in-yemen-part-1-the-ground-war |url-status=live }}</ref> The Saudi military has also carried out an aerial bombing campaign and a naval blockade aimed at stopping weapons shipments to the Houthis.<ref>{{Cite web |author=Knights, Michael |title=Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 2): The Air War |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-2-air-war |work=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204200459/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-2-air-war |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |author=Pollak, Nadav; Knights, Michael |title=Gulf Coalition Operations in Yemen (Part 3): Maritime and Aerial Blockade |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-3-maritime-and-aerial-blockade |work=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |date=25 March 2016 |access-date=4 February 2024 |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204200459/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/gulf-coalition-operations-yemen-part-3-maritime-and-aerial-blockade |url-status=live }}</ref> As of 2024, Saudi Arabia had 2,500 troops actively participating in the conflict in Yemen.<ref>{{Cite book |author=IISS |author-link=International Institute for Strategic Studies |date=2024 |title=The Military Balance 2024 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-032-78004-7 |page=385 }}</ref>

=== Human rights ===
{{main|Human rights in Saudi Arabia}}

{{see also|Capital punishment in Saudi Arabia}}

The Saudi government, which mandates Muslim and non-Muslim observance of Sharia law under the absolute rule of the House of Saud, has been denounced by international organizations and governments for violating human rights.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41731.htm|title=Country Reports on Human Rights Practices – 2004|author=Unattributed|date=28 February 2005|access-date=2 June 2008|publisher=US Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labour|archive-date=7 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211107004858/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2004/41731.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> The authoritarian regime is consistently ranked among the "worst of the worst" in [[Freedom House]]'s [[Freedom in the World|annual survey of political and civil rights]].<ref>[https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/Worst%20of%20the%20Worst%202010.pdf Worst of the Worst 2010. The World's Most Repressive Societies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211024180123/https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/inline_images/Worst%20of%20the%20Worst%202010.pdf |date=24 October 2021 }}. freedomhouse.org</ref> According to [[Amnesty International]], security forces torture and ill-treat detainees to extract confessions to be used as evidence against them.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/saudi-arabia/report-saudi-arabia/|title=SAUDI ARABIA 2016/2017|access-date=4 November 2017|archive-date=15 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170815175129/https://www.amnesty.org/en/countries/middle-east-and-north-africa/saudi-arabia/report-saudi-arabia/|url-status=live}}</ref> Saudi Arabia abstained from the UN vote adopting the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], saying it contradicted Sharia.<ref>{{cite book |author=Nisrine Abiad |title=Sharia, Muslim states and international human rights treaty obligations: a comparative study |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC |year=2008 |publisher=BIICL |isbn=978-1-905221-41-7 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC&pg=PA60 60–65] |access-date=28 March 2024 |archive-date=18 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118134309/https://books.google.com/books?id=dex7TKuoUhgC |url-status=live }}</ref> Mass executions, such as those carried out [[2016 Saudi Arabia mass execution|in 2016]],<ref>{{cite web | title=Mass Execution is Part of Saudi Arabia's Long History of Horrors | date=6 January 2016 | url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/saudi-arabia-mass-execution-history_n_568c43e1e4b0cad15e625f74 | access-date=10 July 2025 | archive-date=11 July 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250711143903/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/saudi-arabia-mass-execution-history_n_568c43e1e4b0cad15e625f74 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[2019 Saudi Arabia mass execution|2019]],<ref name="wsj">{{cite web | url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/saudi-arabia-executes-37-citizens-drawing-fire-from-rights-groups-11556046085 | title=Saudi Arabia Executes 37 Citizens, Drawing Fire from Rights Groups | publisher=[[The Wall Street Journal]] | date=23 April 2019 | accessdate=24 April 2019 | author=Rory Jones | archive-date=16 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190616025153/https://www.wsj.com/articles/saudi-arabia-executes-37-citizens-drawing-fire-from-rights-groups-11556046085 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[2022 Saudi Arabia mass execution|2022]],<ref name="apnews1" /> and 2025<ref>{{Cite web |date=2025-12-21 |title=Saudi Arabia: Rights groups condemn new record number of executions in 2025 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg5m49j14pyo |access-date=2025-12-22 |website=www.bbc.com |language=en-GB |archive-date=22 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251222061156/https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/cg5m49j14pyo |url-status=live }}</ref> have been condemned by international rights groups.

Since 2001, Saudi Arabia has engaged in [[Censorship in Saudi Arabia#The Internet|internet censorship]]. Most censorship falls into two categories: "immoral" content (mostly pornographic and LGBT-supportive sites along with sites promoting any religion other than Sunni Islam) and blacklisted political content critical of the regime, as dictated by [[Ministry of Media (Saudi Arabia)|Saudi Arabia's Ministry of Media]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=1 November 2018 |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/saudi-arabia |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222220534/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/saudi-arabia |archive-date=22 February 2020 |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=freedomhouse.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Alisa |first1=Shishkina |last2=Issaev |first2=Leonid |date=14 November 2018 |title=Internet Censorship in Arab Countries: Religious and Moral Aspects |url=https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1444/9/11/358/pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331181346/https://res.mdpi.com/religions/religions-09-00358/article_deploy/religions-09-00358.pdf?filename=&attachment=1 |archive-date=31 March 2019 |access-date=31 March 2019 |journal=Religions|volume=9 |issue=11 |page=358 |doi=10.3390/rel9110358 |doi-access=free }} [[iarchive:religions-09-00358|Alt URL]]</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi internet rules, 2001 |url=https://al-bab.com/saudi-internet-rules-2001 |access-date=31 March 2019 |website=al-bab.com |archive-date=31 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190331182424/https://al-bab.com/saudi-internet-rules-2001 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Dira Square.JPG|thumb|right|[[Deera Square]], central Riyadh. It is a former site of public beheadings.<ref>{{Cite news|last1=al-Omar|first1=Asmaa|last2=Hubbard|first2=Ben|date=2021-08-13|title=For a Crime at 14, He Faces Death in a Case Casting Doubt on Saudi Reforms|language=en-US|work=The New York Times|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/13/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-execution.html|access-date=2022-01-19|issn=0362-4331|quote=A former site of public executions in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia's capital.|archive-date=3 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010148/https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/13/world/middleeast/saudi-arabia-execution.html|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Saudi Arabian law does not recognize [[LGBT rights in Saudi Arabia|sexual orientations]] or religious freedom, and the public practice of non-Muslim religions is actively prohibited.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136079.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100315154836/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2009/nea/136079.htm |archive-date=15 March 2010 |title=2009 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia |publisher=[[United States Department of State]]}}</ref> The justice system regularly engages in [[capital punishment]], which has included public executions by [[decapitation]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/004/1993/en/|title=Saudi Arabia: An upsurge in public executions|website=Amnesty International|date=30 June 1993 |access-date=2018-11-21|archive-date=2018-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181122054039/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/004/1993/en/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Rights group condemns Saudi beheadings|date=14 October 2008|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna27184784|publisher=[[Associated Press]]|access-date=14 October 2008|archive-date=4 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131104031323/http://www.nbcnews.com/id/27184784/|url-status=live}}</ref> In line with Sharia in the [[Legal system of Saudi Arabia|Saudi justice system]], the death penalty can theoretically be imposed for a range of offences,<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi system condemned |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2003/aug/09/saudiarabia.brianwhitaker |newspaper=The Guardian |date=9 August 2003 |access-date=27 July 2011 |location=London |first=Brian |last=Whitaker |archive-date=13 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130313062308/http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2003/aug/09/saudiarabia.brianwhitaker |url-status=live }}</ref> including murder, rape, armed robbery, repeated drug use, [[apostasy]],<ref name= BBCexecutioner>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2966790.stm |title=Saudi executioner tells all |date=5 June 2003 |work=BBC News |access-date=11 July 2011 |archive-date=1 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401233508/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/2966790.stm |url-status=live }}</ref> adultery,<ref name= FRD306>{{cite book |title=Saudi Arabia A Country Study |last=Federal Research Division |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-4191-4621-3 |page=304}}</ref> and [[witchcraft]].<ref name= Miethe>{{cite book |title=Punishment: a comparative historical perspective  |last=Miethe |first=Terance D. |author2=Lu, Hong |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-60516-8 |page=63|publisher=Cambridge University Press }}</ref> It can be carried out by beheading with a sword,<ref name= BBCexecutioner/> [[stoning]] or by firing squad,<ref name= FRD306/> followed by [[Crucifixion#Legal execution in Islamic states|crucifixion]] (exposure of the body after execution).<ref name= Miethe/> In 2022, the Saudi Crown Prince stated that capital punishments will be removed "except for one category mentioned in the Quran", namely [[Qisas#Traditional jurisprudence|homicide]], under which certain conditions must be applied.<ref name="apnews1">{{Cite web |date=2022-03-12 |title=Saudi Arabia puts 81 to death in its largest mass execution|author-first1=Jon|author-last1=Gambrell|url=https://apnews.com/article/islamic-state-group-saudi-arabia-al-qaida-dubai-united-arab-emirates-a1984eab0faadefa0152d5c138525d80 |access-date=2022-10-24 |website=AP NEWS |language=en |quote=Well about the death penalty, we got rid of all of it, except for one category, and this one is written in the Quran |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024081433/https://apnews.com/article/islamic-state-group-saudi-arabia-al-qaida-dubai-united-arab-emirates-a1984eab0faadefa0152d5c138525d80 |url-status=live }}</ref> In April 2020, Saudi Supreme Court issued a directive to eliminate the punishment of flogging from the court system, being replaced by imprisonment or fines.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-52420307|title=Saudi Arabia to abolish flogging – supreme court|date=24 April 2020|work=BBC News|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=24 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200424214438/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-52420307|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2020/04/24/Saudi-courts-ordered-to-stop-use-of-lashing-as-punishment-Okaz-report.html|title=In landmark decision, Saudi Arabia to eliminate flogging punishment|date=24 April 2020|website=Al Arabiya English|access-date=24 April 2020|archive-date=28 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428151858/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/gulf/2020/04/24/Saudi-courts-ordered-to-stop-use-of-lashing-as-punishment-Okaz-report.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Historically, Saudi women have faced [[discrimination]] in many aspects of their lives and were effectively treated as [[minor (law)|legal minors]] under the [[Wali (Islamic legal guardian)|male guardianship system]].<ref name="HRW2016">{{cite journal| title =Boxed In — Women and Saudi Arabia's Male Guardianship System| journal =[[Human Rights Watch]] | date =16 July 2016| url =https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/07/16/boxed/women-and-saudi-arabias-male-guardianship-system | access-date =22 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160826080422/https://www.hrw.org/report/2016/07/16/boxed/women-and-saudi-arabias-male-guardianship-system |archive-date=26 August 2016}}</ref> The treatment of women has been referred to as "[[sex segregation]]"<ref>{{cite web
 |url=http://www.hri.ca/pdfs/HRT%20Spring,%20Volume%208,%20No.%201,%202001.pdf
 |access-date=21 August 2007
 |title=Human Rights Tribune – ed. Spring 2001
 |work=Human Rights Tribune
 |date=Spring 2001
 |publisher=International Human Rights Documentation Network
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002083608/http://www.hri.ca/pdfs/HRT%20Spring%2C%20Volume%208%2C%20No.%201%2C%202001.pdf
 |archive-date=2 October 2008
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/dworkin/WarZoneChaptIIIA.html
|title=A Feminist Looks at Saudi Arabia
|year=1978
|author=Andrea Dworkin
|publisher=Andrea Dworkin on nostatusquo.com
|access-date=2 June 2008
|archive-date=29 August 2012
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120829142441/http://www.nostatusquo.com/ACLU/dworkin/WarZoneChaptIIIA.html
|url-status=live
}}</ref> and "gender [[apartheid]]".<ref name=Handrahan>{{cite journal |author=Handrahan LM |title=Gender Apartheid and Cultural Absolution: Saudi Arabia and the International Criminal Court |publisher=Human Rights Internet |journal=Human Rights Tribune' |volume=8 |issue=1 |date=Spring 2001}} {{dead link|date=July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/the-australian-who-has-become-a-prisoner-of-gender-apartheid-20091113-ier0.html|title=The Australian who has become a prisoner of gender apartheid|date=14 November 2009|work=The Sydney Morning Herald|access-date=6 March 2010|archive-date=17 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100217045604/http://www.smh.com.au/world/the-australian-who-has-become-a-prisoner-of-gender-apartheid-20091113-ier0.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Since the 2000s, the kingdom has made several attempts to improve the status of women in order to elevate their global standing. As of June 2023, the kingdom has reportedly reversed its ban on women "becoming lawyers, engineers, or geologists" and established "aggressive [[affirmative action]] programmes", doubling the female labour force participation rate. It has added "its first female newspaper editors, diplomats, TV anchors and public prosecutors", with a female head of the Saudi stock exchange and member on the board of [[Saudi Aramco]].<ref name="GFOELLER 5 June 2023">{{cite news |last1=GFOELLER |first1=MICHAEL |last2=RUNDELL |first2=DAVID H. |date=5 June 2023 |title=Saudi Arabia and the U.S. Are More Than Just Oil and Water |agency=Newsweek |url=https://www.newsweek.com/saudi-arabia-us-are-more-just-oil-water-opinion-1804607 |access-date=6 June 2023 |archive-date=6 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230606002230/https://www.newsweek.com/saudi-arabia-us-are-more-just-oil-water-opinion-1804607 |url-status=live }}</ref> In June 2018, the Saudi government issued a law allowing women to drive.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-44576795.amp | title=Saudi Arabia's ban on women driving officially ends | date=23 June 2018 | access-date=12 August 2024 | archive-date=4 June 2025 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250604122337/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-44576795.amp | url-status=live }}</ref> However, an investigation by ''[[The Guardian]]'' newspaper in 2025 found that the ''[[Dar al-Reaya]]'', officially "care homes", continued to be effectively "jails" for women whose families wished to institutionalize them for disobedience, extramarital sexual relations or being absent from home. Some women are sent to Dar al-Reaya to protect a family's reputation after a woman is sexually abused by a brother or father. Treatment was reported to be "hellish": with solitary confinement, flogging, and no family contact.<ref name=levitt>{{cite news |last1=Levitt |first1=Tom |last2=Parent |first2=Deepa |date=28 May 2025 |title=Revealed: Saudi Arabia's secretive rehabilitation 'prisons' for disobedient women |url=https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2025/may/28/saudi-arabia-women-girls-rehabilitation-prisons-dar-al-reaya |newspaper=The Guardian}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia is a notable destination country for men and women trafficked for the purposes of [[slavery|slave]] labour and sexual exploitation.<ref name="factbook">{{cite web |title=Trafficking In Persons |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2196.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208041651/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/print_2196.html |archive-date=8 December 2015 |access-date=4 December 2015 |website=cia.gov |publisher=[[The World Factbook]]}}</ref> Migrants from Asia and Africa are employed in the country's construction, hospitality, and domestic work sectors under the [[kafala system]], which human rights groups say is linked to [[Slavery in Saudi Arabia|slavery]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=December 16, 2022 |title=Saudi Arabia: "It's like we are not human": Forced returns, abhorrent detention conditions of Ethiopian migrants in Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/5826/2022/en/ |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=[[Amnesty International]] |page=6 |language=en |quote=Under Saudi Arabia's repressive sponsorship (kafala) system, migrant workers are only able to obtain a work permit or residency through an employer, and they are only able to terminate their contracts or change employers under certain conditions without the consent of their employer. Those who lose their residency status, either because they leave their jobs without the consent of the employer or overstay their work permits, and those who are unable to find employment in the formal sector are at risk of arbitrary detention, deportation to their home country by the authorities, as well as abuses such as forced labour and physical and sexual assault. |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314062320/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde23/5826/2022/en/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=6 July 2021 |title=French prosecutors probe slavery claims against Saudi prince |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-prince-accused-modern-day-slavery-french-prosecutors |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=[[Middle East Eye]] |language=en |quote=Human rights groups have often criticised Saudi Arabia's kafala system, a policy they say is exploitative and a form of modern slavery. |archive-date=14 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314062320/https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/saudi-arabia-prince-accused-modern-day-slavery-french-prosecutors |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Saudi Arabia}}

With [[Nominal GDP|gross domestic product (GDP)]] at over $1.1 trillion [[Nominal GDP|nominally]], and more than $2.3 trillion by [[Purchasing power parity|purchasing power parity (PPP)]], Saudi Arabia has the second largest [[Economy of the Middle East|economy in the Middle East]] (after [[Turkey]]), the largest in the [[Arab world]], and the 18th largest in the world.<ref name="imf2">{{cite web|url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2022/October|title=World Economic Outlook Database, October 2022|date=October 2022|website=IMF.org|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]]|access-date= October 11, 2022}}</ref> It has the world's [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|second-largest proven reserves of petroleum]], of which it is [[List of countries by oil production|third largest producer]] and the [[List of countries by oil exports|largest exporter]];<ref name="autogenerated1995">{{cite web|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/en/about_us/169.htm |title=Saudi Arabia |publisher=OPEC |date=1 January 1995 |access-date=28 September 2012}}</ref><ref>[https://www.npr.org/2011/06/08/137065443/opec-decides-not-to-increase-oil-production "OPEC Decides Not To Increase Oil Production"], Jeff Brady. NPR. 8 June 2011. Retrieved 19 August 2011</ref> the country also has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|sixth-largest proven natural gas reserves]].<ref name=":0" /> Saudi Arabia is considered an "[[energy superpower]],"<ref name=undp>{{cite web
 |url=http://arabstates.undp.org/subpage.php?spid=31&sscid=142
 |title=Saudi Arabia's first step towards clean energy technologies
 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme|UNDP]]
 |access-date=5 February 2012
|url-status=dead
 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120528085109/http://arabstates.undp.org/subpage.php?spid=31&sscid=142
 |archive-date=28 May 2012
}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|title=Global Energy Geopolitics and Iran |journal=Uluslararası İlişkiler |author=Balamir Coşkun, Bezen |volume=5 |issue=20 |pages=179–201 |date=Winter 2009 |url=http://www.uidergisi.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Global-Energy-Geopolitics-and-Iran.pdf |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401102351/http://www.uidergisi.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Global-Energy-Geopolitics-and-Iran.pdf |archive-date=1 April 2014 }}</ref> having the third highest total estimated value of natural resources, valued at US$34.4 trillion in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.investopedia.com/articles/markets-economy/090516/10-countries-most-natural-resources.asp|title=10 Countries With The Most Natural Resources|date=12 September 2016|last=Anthony|first=Craig|website=[[Investopedia]]}}</ref>

Saudi Arabia has a [[command economy]] based largely on petroleum; the oil industry accounts for roughly 63%<ref>{{cite news |author1=By Nayla Razzouk and Claudia Carpenter |title=Saudi Arabia Sees Higher Oil Revenue as OPEC Cuts Boost Prices |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2017-12-19/saudi-arabia-sees-higher-oil-revenue-as-opec-cuts-boost-prices |newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=19 December 2017 }}</ref> of budget revenue, 67%<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/country/sau/|title=OEC – Saudi Arabia (SAU) Exports, Imports, and Trade Partners|website=oec.world|access-date=15 August 2019}}</ref> of export earnings, and 45% of nominal GDP compared with 40% from the private sector. It is strongly dependent on foreign workers, with about 80% of private sector employees being non-Saudi.<ref name="coy-employ">{{cite journal|author=Coy, Peter |title=Online Education Targets Saudi Arabia's Labor Problem, Starting With Women|journal=Bloomberg Businessweek|date=16 July 2014|url=http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-07-16/can-online-classes-fix-saudi-arabias-broken-labor-market|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140717192344/http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2014-07-16/can-online-classes-fix-saudi-arabias-broken-labor-market|url-status=dead|archive-date=17 July 2014|quote=Saudi citizens account for two-thirds of employment in the high-paying, comfortable public sector, but only one-fifth of employment in the more dynamic private sector, according to the International Monetary Fund (PDF).}}</ref><ref name="McDowall">Economists "estimate only 30–40 percent of working-age Saudis hold jobs or actively seek work," the official employment rate of around 12 percent notwithstanding: {{cite news|first=Angus|last=McDowall|title=Saudi Arabia doubles private sector jobs in 30-month period|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/business/2014/01/20/Saudi-Arabiya-doubles-number-of-citizens-in-private-sector-jobs.html|agency=Reuters|date=19 January 2014}}</ref> Challenges to the economy include halting or reversing the decline in per-capita income, improving education to prepare youth for the workforce and providing them with employment, diversifying the economy, stimulating the private sector and housing construction, and diminishing corruption and inequality.<ref name="HT2009: 150" />

The [[OPEC|Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries]] (OPEC) limits its members' oil production based on their "proven reserves". Saudi Arabia's published reserves have shown little change since 1980, with the main exception being an increase of about {{convert|100|Goilbbl|m3}} between 1987 and 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/crudeoilreserves.xls |title=Crude Oil Reserves |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101122123445/http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/crudeoilreserves.xls |archive-date=22 November 2010}}</ref> [[Matthew Simmons]] has suggested that Saudi Arabia is greatly exaggerating its reserves and may soon show production declines (see [[peak oil]]).<ref>{{Cite book|title= Twilight in the Desert: The Coming Saudi Oil Shock and the World Economy|first= Matthew|last= Simmons|author-link= Matthew Simmons|publisher= Wiley|isbn= 978-0-471-73876-3|year= 2005|orig-year= 10 June 2005|url= https://archive.org/details/twilightindesert00simm_0}}</ref>

[[File:Oil and Gas Infrastructure Persian Gulf (large).gif|thumb|Map of [[Petroleum|oil]] and [[Natural gas|gas]] pipelines in the Middle-East|left]]
From 2003 to 2013, "several key services" were privatized—municipal water supply, electricity, telecommunications—and parts of education and health care, traffic control and car accident reporting were also privatized. According to Arab News columnist Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg, "in almost every one of these areas, consumers have raised serious concerns about the performance of these privatized entities."<ref name="Aluwaisheg">{{cite journal|author=Abdel Aziz Aluwaisheg|title=When privatization goes wrong|journal=Arab News|date=29 September 2014|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/464657}}</ref> In November 2005, Saudi Arabia was approved as a member of the [[World Trade Organization]]. Negotiations to join had focused on the degree to which Saudi Arabia is willing to increase market access to foreign goods and in 2000, the government established the [[Saudi Arabian General Investment Authority]] to encourage foreign direct investment in the kingdom. Saudi Arabia maintains a list of sectors in which foreign investment is prohibited, but the government plans to open some closed sectors such as telecommunications, insurance, and power transmission/distribution over time. The government has also made an attempt at "[[Saudization|Saudizing]]" the economy, replacing foreign workers with Saudi nationals with limited success.<ref name="house-161">[[#House|House]], p. 161: "Over the past decade, the government has announced one plan after another to 'Saudize' the economy, but to no avail. The foreign workforce grows, and so does unemployment among Saudis. .... The previous plan called for slashing unemployment to 2.8% only to see it rise to 10.5% in 2009, the end of that plan period. Government plans in Saudi are like those in the old Soviet Union, grandiose but unmet. (Also, as in the old Soviet Union, nearly all Saudi official statistics are unreliable, so economists believe the real Saudi unemployment rate is closer to 40%)"</ref>

[[File:As pilgrims prepare to return to their homes, Saudi authorities begin to prep for next year's Hajj - Flickr - Al Jazeera English.jpg|upright=1|thumb|The ''[[hajj]]'' is an annual [[Islam]]ic [[pilgrimage]] to [[Mecca]], the [[Holiest sites in Islam|holiest city]] for Muslims.<ref name="Modarresi">{{cite book |author=Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi |author-link=Mohammad Taqi al-Modarresi |title=The Laws of Islam |date=26 March 2016 |publisher=Enlight Press |isbn=978-0-9942409-8-9 |url=http://almodarresi.com/en/books/pdf/TheLawsofIslam.pdf |access-date=22 December 2017 |ref=Modarresi |language=en |page=471 |archive-date=2 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190802163247/http://almodarresi.com/en/books/pdf/TheLawsofIslam.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> ]]
In addition to petroleum and gas, Saudi has a significant gold mining sector in the [[Mahd adh Dhahab]] region and significant other mineral industries, an agricultural sector (especially in the southwest) based on vegetables, fruits, dates etc. and livestock, and large number of temporary jobs created by the roughly two million annual ''[[hajj]]'' pilgrims.<ref name="HT2009: 150">[[#HT2009|Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2009]]: p. 206</ref> Saudi Arabia has had five-year "Development Plans" since 1970. Among its plans were to launch "economic cities" (e.g. [[King Abdullah Economic City]]) to diversify the economy and provide jobs.

Saudi Arabia is increasingly activating its ports in order to participate in trade between Europe and China in addition to oil transport. To this end, ports such as Jeddah Islamic Port or King Abdullah Economic City are being rapidly expanded, and investments are being made in logistics. The country is historically and currently part of the [[Maritime Silk Road]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nationthailand.com/international/30341660|title=Ancient silk road port found in Saudi Arabia|date=24 March 2018|website=nationthailand}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/979341/saudi-arabia|title=How Saudi Arabia revived the ancient Silk Road|date=3 September 2016|website=Arab News}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/china-to-boost-belt-and-road-links-with-saudi-arabia|title=China to Boost Belt and Road Links with Saudi Arabia|website=The Maritime Executive}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.business.hsbc.ae/en-gb/insights|title=Insights|website=www.business.hsbc.ae|date=25 March 2022 }}</ref>

Statistics on poverty in the kingdom are not available through the UN resources because the Saudi government does not issue any.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2011/05/19/136439885/poverty-hides-amid-saudi-arabias-oil-wealth |title=Poverty Hides Amid Saudi Arabia's Oil Wealth |website=NPR |date=19 May 2011 |last1=Nelson |first1=Soraya Sarhaddi }}</ref> The Saudi state discourages calling attention to or complaining about poverty. In December 2011, the Saudi interior ministry arrested three reporters and held them for almost two weeks for questioning after they uploaded a video on the topic to YouTube.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlSBqgW5xx0 | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111020014206/http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SlSBqgW5xx0| archive-date=2011-10-20|title=Mal3ob 3alena : Poverty in Saudi Arabia English Version |publisher=YouTube}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/2011/12/04/132112/saudi-dissidents-turn-to-youtube.html |title=Saudi dissidents turn to YouTube to air their frustrations |first=Roy|last=Gutman|newspaper=McClatchy Newspapers|date=4 December 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/oct/23/feras-boqna-saudi-arabia-poverty | place=London |work=The Guardian |first=Amelia |last=Hill | title=Saudi film-makers enter second week of detention |date=23 October 2011}}</ref> Authors of the video claim that 22% of Saudis may be considered poor.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lebanonspring.com/2011/10/19/plot-to-show-foreign-poverty-in-foreign-saudi-arabia-arab-spring-youtube-video/ |title=A foreign Saudi plot to expose foreign poverty in foreign Saudi |work=Lebanon Spring |date=19 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120103204944/http://lebanonspring.com/2011/10/19/plot-to-show-foreign-poverty-in-foreign-saudi-arabia-arab-spring-youtube-video/ |archive-date=3 January 2012 }}</ref> Observers researching the issue prefer to stay anonymous<ref>{{cite web|url=http://observers.france24.com/content/20081028-poverty-exists-saudi-arabia |title=Poverty exists in Saudi Arabia too &#124; The Observers |publisher=France 24 |date=28 October 2008}}</ref> because of the risk of being arrested.

The unexpected impact of the [[COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia|COVID-19 pandemic]] on the economy, along with Saudi Arabia's poor human rights records, laid unforeseen challenges before the development plans of the kingdom, where some of the programmes under '[[Saudi Vision 2030|Vision 2030]]' were also expected to be affected.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-04-29/saudi-prince-mbs-s-vision-2030-confronts-coronavirus-oil-shock|title=Saudi Prince's Year of Prestige Is Unraveling in Front of Him|access-date=29 April 2020|newspaper=Bloomberg.com|date=29 April 2020 }}</ref> In May 2020, the [[Ministry of Finance (Saudi Arabia)|Finance Minister of Saudi Arabia]] admitted that the country's economy was facing a severe economical crisis for the first time in decades, because of the pandemic as well as declining global oil markets.

In July 2024 Saudi Arabia's Renewable Energy Localisation Company (RELC) has formed three joint ventures with Chinese companies to advance the kingdom's clean energy infrastructure. As part of Saudi Arabia's 2030 targets, the [[Public Investment Fund]] is actively promoting the localization of renewable energy components. RELC, a division of the sovereign fund, facilitates partnerships between global manufacturers and Saudi private sector firms to strengthen local supply chains. These initiatives aim to localize up to 75% of the components used in Saudi Arabia's renewable projects by 2030, positioning the country as a major global exporter of renewable technologies.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-17 |title=Saudi Arabia, China sign three renewable energy deals |url=https://gulfnews.com/business/energy/saudi-arabia-china-sign-three-renewable-energy-deals-1.1721217886262 |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Agriculture ===
{{Main|Agriculture in Saudi Arabia}}


Saudi Arabia's predominantly arid environment, poor soil, and traditional nomadic lifestyle have long favoured [[pastoralism]], particularly of camels, sheep, and goats; agricultural production has historically been localized and oriented towards [[Subsistence agriculture|basic subsistence]].<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |date=2025-07-29 |title=Saudi Arabia - Oil, Trade, Investment {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Saudi-Arabia/Economy |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Less than two percent of the total land area is used for crops, with agriculture constituting only a fraction of GDP (2.5 percent) and employing a similar proportion of the workforce.<ref>[https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?locations=SA Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP) - Saudi Arabia | Data] World Bank Group</ref><ref name=":6" />

Initial attempts to develop dairy farming on a commercial scale occurred in the [[Al Kharj]] District south of Riyadh during the 1950s.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wippel |first=Steffen |author-link= |date=October 4, 2023 |title=Branding the Middle East: Communication Strategies and Image Building from Qom to Casablanca |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lh3TEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[De Gruyter]] |page= |isbn=9783110741155}}</ref> Serious large-scale agricultural development began in the 1970s,<ref>{{cite book |author-link= |date= December 1992|title=Foreign Agriculture 1992 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mgmYhVo2VkEC |location= |publisher= [[Foreign Agricultural Service]]|page= 118}}</ref> particularly with wheat,<ref>{{cite book |last=Roberts |first=David B. |author-link= |date=April 18, 2023 |title= Security Politics in the Gulf Monarchies: Continuity Amid Change|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QdWTEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher= [[Columbia University Press]]|page= |isbn=9780231555913}}</ref> with the government launching an extensive programme to promote modern farming technology; establish rural roads, irrigation networks and storage and export facilities; and encourage agricultural research and training institutions. The kingdom has continued prioritizing domestic food production through subsidies and generous incentives.<ref name=":6" />

Owing to these efforts, there has been substantial growth in the production of all basic foods: Although it still imports the bulk of its food needs, Saudi Arabia is self-sufficient in several commodities, particularly wheat, meat, milk, and eggs. The country exports dates, dairy products, eggs, fish, poultry, fruits, vegetables, and flowers. Dates, which are indigenous to Saudi Arabia and a traditional staple of its diet, are now mainly grown for global humanitarian aid; the kingdom is the world's [[Date palm#Production|second largest producer]] after Egypt, producing 1.6 million tonnes as of 2022. Another indigenous crop, the olive, is also heavily cultivated: The [[Al-Jawf Province|Al Jouf region]] has millions of olive trees—including the world's largest olive farm at 7,713 hectares<ref>{{cite web |author=<!-- not stated --> |date=2024-07-08 |title=Largest modern olive farm |url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/512111-largest-olive-farm#:~:text=The%20largest%20modern%20olive%20farm,northern%20region%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia. |access-date=2025-03-10 |website=guinnessworldrecords.com |publisher=Guinness World Records |location=}}</ref>—and the number is expected to increase to 20 million trees.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 May 2018 |title=Inside the Saudi olive farm, the largest in the world |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/business/economy/2018/05/03/Saudi-olive-tree-farm-sets-Guinness-Records-for-largest-in-the-world.html |access-date=8 October 2018 |publisher=[[Al Arabiya English]] |location=[[Dubai]]}}</ref> Saudi farmers also grow substantial amounts of other grains such as barley, sorghum, and millet.

Saudi Arabia has some of the most modern and largest dairy farms in the Middle East; milk production boasts a productive annual rate of {{convert|1,800|USgal|L|order=flip|abbr=off}} per cow, one of the highest in the world. Saudi dairy company [[Almarai]] is the largest vertically integrated dairy company in the Middle East,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elopak.com/site/cms.jsp?node=11449|title=Innovation Drive Al-Marai|publisher=Elopak|access-date=3 October 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081113093305/http://www.elopak.com/site/cms.jsp?node=11449|archive-date=13 November 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> and the largest dairy firm in the world by volume;<ref>{{Cite web |last=Frank |date=2023-04-03 |title=Saudi Arabia achieves dairy self-sufficiency in less than 50 years {{!}} Dairy Business Middle East & Africa - No.1 Dairy Industry Website & Magazine |url=https://dairybusinessmea.com/2023/04/03/saudi-arabia-achieves-dairy-self-sufficiency-in-less-than-50-years/ |access-date=2025-07-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> it operates the world's largest dairy farm at Al Safi.<ref>{{Cite journal |journal= Middle East Notes and Comment|date=2010-04-15 |title=Dairy Kingdom: Saudi Arabia Makes the Desert Moo |url=https://www.csis.org/analysis/dairy-kingdom-saudi-arabia-makes-desert-moo |language=en}}</ref>

Following an end to domestic wheat production in 2016 to preserve water,<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia ends domestic wheat production program |url=https://www.world-grain.com/articles/6275-saudi-arabia-ends-domestic-wheat-production-program |access-date=8 October 2018}}</ref> Saudi Arabia encouraged small famers to produce wheat in 2019 through a domestic production programme established under the Saudi Ministry of Environment, Water, and Agriculture (MEWA).<ref name=":7">[https://apps.fas.usda.gov/newgainapi/api/Report/DownloadReportByFileName?fileName=Grain%20and%20Feed%20Annual_Riyadh_Saudi%20Arabia_SA2025-0003#:~:text=Since%20MY%202019/2020%2C%20small,wheat%20supply%20situation%20as%20needed. Grain and Feed Annual: Saudi Arabia] (March 20, 2025) U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service.</ref> In 2025, wheat production is forecast to more than double the five-year average.<ref>{{Cite web |title=FAO GIEWS Country Brief on Saudi Arabia - |url=https://www.fao.org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=SAU#:~:text=Wheat%20production%20forecast%20at%20above,stocks%20to%20ensure%20food%20security. |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=www.fao.org}}</ref>

Consuming nonrenewable groundwater resulted in the loss of an estimated four-fifths of the total groundwater reserves by 2012.<ref>{{cite web |date=19 December 2012 |title=Saudi Arabia Stakes a Claim on the Nile – Water Grabbers – National Geographic |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2012/12/121217-saudi-arabia-water-grabs-ethiopia/ |access-date=16 September 2015}}</ref> About half the arable land is cultivated through [[Dryland farming|rain-fed dry farming]] (mostly in [[Asir]]), two-fifths through the planting of local tree crops (namely dates and olives), and the remainder by irrigation, mostly by underground water.

As part of the Saudi Green Initiative, which seeks to restore vegetation cover and ecological sustainability, the kingdom aims to plant 100 million [[mangrove]]s; as of 2024, the National Centre for Vegetation Cover Development and Combating Desertification announced it had planted 13 million seedlings.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-24 |title=Saudi Arabia plants 13 million mangrove seedlings |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/saudi/saudi-arabia-plants-13-million-mangrove-seedlings-1.103589232 |access-date=2024-07-24 |website=gulfnews.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Water supply and sanitation ===
{{Main|Water supply and sanitation in Saudi Arabia|Irrigation in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Musk Lake 1.jpg|thumb|[[Al-Musk Lake]] close to Jeddah]]
One of the main challenges for Saudi Arabia is [[water scarcity]]. Substantial investments have been undertaken in seawater [[desalination]], water distribution, sewerage and [[wastewater treatment]]. Today about 50% of drinking water comes from desalination, 40% from the mining of non-renewable groundwater, and 10% from surface water in the mountainous southwest of the country.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1410576|title=Desalination in Saudi Arabia: An attractive investment opportunity|date=25 November 2018|website=Arab News}}</ref> Saudi Arabia is suffering from a major depletion of the water in its underground aquifers and a resultant break down and disintegration of its agriculture as a consequence.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.revealnews.org/article/what-california-can-learn-from-saudi-arabias-water-mystery/|title=What California can learn from Saudi Arabia's water mystery|date=22 April 2015|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/freshwater/saudi-arabia-water-use/|title=Saudi Arabia's Great Thirst|date=10 January 2017|website=National Geographic|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref> As a result of the catastrophe, Saudi Arabia has bought agricultural land in the United States,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eAE2QEaF3A0|title=Saudi Farmers Buy Up US Land After Drying Out Theirs|last=RYOT|date=9 November 2015|access-date=26 March 2019|via=YouTube}}{{cbignore}}{{Dead YouTube link|date=February 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.alarabiya.net/en/business/property/2014/03/09/Saudi-dairy-giant-Almarai-buys-agricultural-land-in-USA-.html|title=Saudi dairy giant Almarai buys agricultural land in USA|website=english.alarabiya.net|date=9 March 2014|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref> Argentina,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/story/2011-12-25/argentina-farmland-saudi-arabia/52142448/1|title=Saudi firm buys farmland in Argentina to secure animal feed|website=USA Today|access-date=26 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111225160434/https://www.usatoday.com/money/industries/food/story/2011-12-25/argentina-farmland-saudi-arabia/52142448/1|archive-date=2011-12-25}}</ref> and Africa.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2009/05/21/outsourcings-third-wave|title=Outsourcing's third wave|date=21 May 2009|access-date=26 March 2019|newspaper=The Economist}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/07/15/why-is-saudi-arabia-buying-up-african-farmland/|title=Why is Saudi Arabia buying up African farmland?|first=Michael|last=Wilkerson|date=15 July 2009 |access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://greenprophet.com/2012/06/africa-land-grab-middle-east/|title=African Land Grab Continues – Middle East Is Major Buyer|first=Arwa|last=Aburawa|website=Green Prophet|date=26 June 2012|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/wonk/wp/2015/05/21/rich-countries-are-buying-up-farmland-from-poorer-ones-around-the-world/ |title=An incredible image shows how powerful countries are buying up much of the world's land |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=2015-05-21 |access-date=2019-03-26}}</ref> Saudi Arabia ranked as a major buyer of agricultural land in foreign countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/transnational-land-deals-india-china-2012-5|title=These 14 Countries Are Buying Incredible Amounts Of Foreign Land In Deals You Never Hear About|first=Sanya|last=Khetani|website=Business Insider|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/world/asia/la-fg-china-foreign-farmland-20140329-story.html|title=China looks abroad for greener pastures|first=Barbara|last=Demick|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=29 March 2014|access-date=26 March 2019}}</ref>

[[File:Water stress, top countries (2022).svg|thumb|Saudi Arabia was the third most water stressed country in the world in 2022.<ref>[[FAO]]. 2023.&nbsp;''[https://www.fao.org/3/cc8166en/cc8166en.pdf World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023]''. Rome.&nbsp;p. 41–42</ref>]]
According to the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme]] (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation of the [[WHO]] and [[UNICEF]], the latest reliable source on access to water and sanitation in Saudi Arabia is the 2004 census. It indicates that 97% of the population had access to an improved source of drinking water and 99% had access to [[improved sanitation]]. For 2015, the JMP estimates that access to sanitation increased to 100%. Sanitation was primarily through on-site solutions, and about 40% of the population was connected to sewers.<ref name="JMP">{{Cite web |url=http://www.wssinfo.org/ |title=WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Program |access-date=2007-10-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216075751/http://www.wssinfo.org/ |archive-date=2008-02-16 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 2015, 886,000 people lacked access to "improved" water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://washwatch.org/en/countries/saudi-arabia/summary/|title=WASHWatch Saudi Arabia|website=washwatch.org|language=en|access-date=2017-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328065526/https://washwatch.org/en/countries/saudi-arabia/summary/|archive-date=2019-03-28}}</ref><ref>WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Saudi Arabia}}


In 2019, Saudi Arabia adopted a general tourism [[travel visa]] to allow non-Muslims to visit.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hiltner |first=Stephen |date=2024-06-05 |title=Surprising, Unsettling, Surreal: Roaming Through Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/06/05/travel/saudi-arabia-tourism.html |access-date=2024-06-05 |work=The New York Times |language=en-US |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Although most tourism largely involves religious pilgrimages, there is growth in the leisure tourism sector. According to the [[World Bank]], approximately 14.3 million people visited Saudi Arabia in 2012, making it the world's 19th-most-visited country.<ref>[https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21607898-can-kingdom-attract-more-visitors-wish-you-were-here Tourism in Saudi Arabia: Wish you were here], economist.com.</ref> Tourism is an important component of the [[Saudi Vision 2030]], and according to a report conducted by [[BMI Research]] in 2018 both religious and non-religious tourism have significant potential for expansion.<ref>[http://www.arabianbusiness.com/travel-hospitality/387984-tourism-key-to-saudi-arabias-vision-2030-plans Tourism key to Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 plans], arabianbusiness.com</ref>

The kingdom offers an electronic visa for foreign visitors to attend sports events and concerts.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-saudi-visa/saudi-arabia-to-offer-visitor-visa-for-special-events-from-december-idUSKCN1M51LD|title=Saudi Arabia to offer visitor visa for special events from December|work=Reuters|access-date=25 September 2018}}</ref> In 2019, the kingdom announced its plans to open visa applications for visitors, where people from about 50 countries would be able to get tourist visas to Saudi.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mirrorherald.com/tourist-visa-to-saudi-arabia/|title=Tourist Visa to Saudi Arabia: Revising Age-Old Policies for Visitors|access-date=8 September 2019|website=Mirror Herald|archive-date=3 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231003010758/https://mirrorherald.com/tourist-visa-to-saudi-arabia/|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2020 it was announced that holders of a US, UK or [[Schengen Area|Schengen]] visa are eligible for a Saudi electronic visa upon arrival.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-01-04|title=Saudi visa on arrival for tourists with UK, US, EU visas|url=https://arab.news/prnxs|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arab News|language=en}}
</ref>

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Saudi Arabian people|Demographics of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Saudi Arabia population density 2010.png|thumb|Saudi Arabia population density (people per km<sup>2</sup>)]]
Saudi Arabia's reported population is 32,175,224 as of 2022,<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-05-31 |title=Saudi Arabia's population crosses 32 million, census results show |url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/article/632956/SAUDI-ARABIA/Saudi-Arabias-population-crosses-32-million-census-results-show |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Saudigazette |language=English}}</ref> making it the fourth most populous country in the [[Arab world]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=@stats_saudi |url=https://twitter.com/stats_saudi/status/1663858269553668096?s=46&t=H4EEcLIw0913BHpEdhZ33w |access-date=2023-05-31 |website=Twitter |language=en}}</ref> Close to 42% of its inhabitants are immigrants,<ref name="CIA2">{{cite web |date=December 21, 2021 |title=The World Factbook: Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210319180722/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia |archive-date=March 19, 2021 |access-date=January 4, 2022 |website=Central Intelligence Agency}}</ref> mostly from the Middle East, South Asia, and Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Thiollet |first=Hélène |date=2021-08-02 |title=Migrants and monarchs: regime survival, state transformation and migration politics in Saudi Arabia |url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-03329591 |journal=Third World Quarterly |language=en |volume=43 |issue=7 |pages=1645–1665 |doi=10.1080/01436597.2021.1948325 |s2cid=238794883}}</ref>

The Saudi population has grown rapidly since 1950, when it was estimated at 3 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/Panel_profiles.htm |title=World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision |access-date=7 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110507035406/http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/Panel_profiles.htm |archive-date=7 May 2011 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref> For much of the 20th century, the country had one of the highest population growth rates in the world, at around 3% annually;<ref name="long-27">[[#Long|Long]], p. 27</ref> it continues to grow at a rate of 1.62% per year,<ref name="CIA2"/> slightly higher than the rest of the Middle East and North Africa. Consequently, the Saudi [[Youth in Saudi Arabia|people are quite young]] by global standards, with over half the population under 25 years old.<ref>One journalist states that 51% of the Saudi population is under the age of 25: {{cite web |author=Caryle Murphy |date=7 February 2012 |title=Saudi Arabia's Youth and the Kingdom's Future |url=http://www.newsecuritybeat.org/2012/02/saudi-arabias-youth-and-the-kingdoms-future/ |publisher=Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars' Environmental Change and Security Program}} Two other sources state that 60% is under the age of 21: {{cite news |date=3 March 2012 |title=Out of the comfort zone |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2012/03/03/out-of-the-comfort-zone |newspaper=The Economist}}, [[#House|House]], p. 221</ref>

Ethnically, 90% of citizens are [[Arab]] with 10% holding [[Afro-Arab]] ancestry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/|url-status=dead|archive-date=18 January 2026|title=Saudi Arabia |work=The World Factbook |date=8 February 2022 |publisher=Cia.gov}}</ref> Most Saudis are concentrated in the southwest; Hejaz, which is the most populated region,<ref>{{cite web |title=Mecca: Islam's cosmopolitan heart |url=http://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214002857/https://www.opendemocracy.net/faith-europe_islam/mecca_3882.jsp |archive-date=14 December 2018 |access-date=8 July 2014 |quote=The Hijaz is the largest, most populated, and most culturally and religiously diverse region of Saudi Arabia, in large part because it was the traditional host area of all the pilgrims to Mecca, many of whom settled and intermarried there.}}</ref> is home to one-third of the population, followed by neighbouring Najd (28%) and the Eastern Province (15%).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |title=Saudi Arabia Population Statistics 2011 (Arabic) |page=11 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131115051640/http://www.relooney.info/SI_Milken-Arabia/0-Important_14.pdf |archive-date=15 November 2013}}</ref> As late as 1970, most Saudis lived a subsistence life in the rural provinces, but in the last half of the 20th century, the kingdom has urbanized rapidly: as of 2023, about 85% of Saudis live in urban metropolitan areas—specifically Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam.<ref>[[#House|House]], p. 69: "Most Saudis only two generations ago eked out a subsistence living in rural provinces, but ... urbanization over the past 40 years [so now] .... fully 80% of Saudis now live in one of the country's three major urban centers – Riyadh, Jeddah, and Dammam."</ref><ref>[[#HT2003|Tripp, ''Culture Shock'', 2003]]: p. 31</ref> As recently as the early 1960s, Saudi Arabia's slave population was estimated at {{gaps|300|000}}.<ref>Willem Adriaan Veenhoven and Winifred Crum Ewing (1976) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=tIfYPppdbeYC&pg=PA452 Case studies on human rights and fundamental freedoms: a world survey]'', Brill, p. 452. {{ISBN|978-90-247-1779-8}}</ref> [[History of slavery in the Muslim world|Slavery]] was officially abolished in 1962.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_8.shtml |title=Religion & Ethics – Islam and slavery: Abolition |publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref name="autogenerated2">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |title=Slavery |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120201010846/http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 |archive-date=1 February 2012}}</ref>

{{Largest cities
| country      = Saudi Arabia
| stat_ref     = Data.gov.sa (2013/2014/2016)
| list_by_pop  = List of cities and towns in Saudi Arabia
| div_link     = Regions of Saudi Arabia{{!}}Regions
|city_1  = Riyadh |div_1=Riyadh Region{{!}}Riyadh |pop_1=<ref>{{cite web|title=About ArRiyadh|url=http://www.arriyadh.com/Eng/Ab-Arriyad/Content/getdocument.aspx?f=%2Fopenshare%2FEng%2FAb-Arriyad%2FContent%2FRiyadh-in-year-2013.doc_cvt.htm|work=High Commission for the Development of Ar-Riyadh|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=6 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181206134021/http://www.arriyadh.com/Eng/Ab-Arriyad/Content/getdocument.aspx?f=%2Fopenshare%2FEng%2FAb-Arriyad%2FContent%2FRiyadh-in-year-2013.doc_cvt.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> 6,506,700
|city_2  = Jeddah |div_2=Makkah Region{{!}}Mecca |pop_2=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Makkah Al-Mokarramah Region, 2014 A.D.|url=https://www.stats.gov.sa/sites/default/files/cdsi_data/yb50/Tabels/Chapter2/Table2-3.htm|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160302154408/https://www.stats.gov.sa/sites/default/files/cdsi_data/yb50/Tabels/Chapter2/Table2-3.htm|archive-date=2 March 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> 3,976,400
|city_3  = Mecca |div_3=Mecca Province{{!}}Mecca |pop_3=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah"/> 1,919,900
|city_4  = Medina |div_4=Medina Province (Saudi Arabia){{!}}Medina |pop_4=<ref name="Al-Madinah Al-Monawarah">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Al-Madinah Al-Monawarah Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/53/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183628/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/53/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 1,271,800
|city_5  = Hofuf |div_5=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_5=<ref name="Eastern Region">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Eastern Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/65/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183625/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/65/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 1,136,900
|city_6  = Ta'if |div_6=Mecca Province{{!}}Mecca |pop_6=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah"/> 1,109,800
|city_7  = Dammam |div_7=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_7=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 975,800
|city_8  = Buraidah |div_8=Al-Qassim Region{{!}}Al-Qassim |pop_8=<ref name="Al-Qaseem">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Al-Qaseem Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/55/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183620/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/55/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 658,600
|city_9  = Khobar |div_9=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_9=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 626,200
|city_10 = Tabuk, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Tabuk |div_10=Tabuk Region{{!}}Tabuk |pop_10=<ref name="Tabouk">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Tabouk Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/75/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=12 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201112235000/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/75/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 609,000
|city_11 = Qatif |div_11=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_11=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 559,300
|city_12 = Khamis Mushait |div_12=Asir|pop_12=<ref name="Aseer">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Aseer Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/61/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183622/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/61/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 549,000
|city_13 = Ha'il |div_13=Ha'il Region{{!}}Ha'il |pop_13=<ref name="Hail">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Hail Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/67/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125210933/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/67/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 441,900
|city_14 = Hafar al-Batin |div_14=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_14=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 416,800
|city_15 = Jubail |div_15=Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia{{!}}Eastern |pop_15=<ref name="Eastern Region"/> 411,700
|city_16 = Kharj |div_16=Riyadh Region{{!}}Riyadh |pop_16=<ref name="Al-Riyad">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Al-Riyad Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183619/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 404,100
|city_17 = Abha |div_17=Asir |pop_17=<ref name="Aseer"/> 392,500
|city_18 = Najran |div_18=Najran Region{{!}}Najran |pop_18=<ref name="Najran">{{cite web|title=Population Distribution (Saudi and Non Saudi) in Governorates of Najran Region, 2013 A.D.|url=http://www.data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|work=Stats.gov.sa|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=31 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190531183619/https://data.gov.sa/en/node/57/download|url-status=dead}}</ref> 352,900
|city_19 = Yanbu |div_19=Al Madinah Region{{!}}Al Madinah |pop_19=<ref name="Al-Madinah Al-Monawarah"/> 320,800
|city_20 = Al Qunfudhah |div_20=Mecca Province{{!}}Mecca |pop_20=<ref name="Makkah Al-Mokarramah"/> 304,400
}}

=== Language ===
The official language is [[Arabic]].<ref name="CIA World Factbook">[https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ Saudi Arabia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].</ref><ref name="BLG">{{cite web |title=Basic Law of Governance |url=https://www.moe.gov.sa/en/TheMinistry/AboutKSA/Pages/System-of-Governance.aspx |access-date=1 September 2020 |website=Ministry of Education |publisher=Ministry of Education – Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |archive-date=5 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205091610/https://www.moe.gov.sa/en/TheMinistry/AboutKSA/Pages/System-of-Governance.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> There are four main regional dialect groups spoken by Saudis: [[Najdi Arabic|Najdi]] (about 14.6 million speakers<ref>[[:ethnologue:ars|Arabic, Najdi Spoken]]. Ethnologue</ref>), [[Hejazi Arabic|Hejazi]] (about 10.3 million speakers<ref>[[:ethnologue:acw|Arabic, Hijazi Spoken]]. Ethnologue</ref>), [[Gulf Arabic|Gulf]] (about 0.96 million speakers<ref>[[:ethnologue:afb|Arabic, Gulf Spoken]]. Ethnologue</ref>), and Southern Hejaz-Tihama<ref>{{cite book |last1=Prochazka |first1=Theodore |title=Saudi Arabian dialects |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=9781138981294 |page=3 |edition=First issued in paperpack}}</ref> dialects. [[Faifi language|Faifi]] is spoken by about {{gaps|50|000}}. The [[Mehri language]] is also spoken by around {{gaps|20|000}} [[Mehri people|Mehri]] citizens.<ref>{{cite news |last1=الحيدري |first1=فيصل |title=20 ألف سعودي يتحدثون "المهرية" |url=https://www.alwatan.com.sa/article/142226 |access-date=19 September 2022 |work=Watanksa |date=20 June 2012 |language=Arabic}}</ref> [[Saudi Sign Language]] is the principal language of the deaf community, amounting to around {{gaps|100|000}} speakers. The large expatriate communities have brought their languages as well, the most numerous of which, according to 2018 data, are [[Bengali language|Bengali]] (~1 {{gaps|500|000}}), [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]] (~{{gaps|900|000}}), [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] (~{{gaps|800|000}}), [[Urdu]] (~{{gaps|740|000}}), [[Egyptian Arabic]] (~{{gaps|600|000}}), [[Rohingya language|Rohingya]], [[North Levantine Arabic]] (both ~{{gaps|500|000}})<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/country/SA/status|access-date=2021-01-19|website=Ethnologue}}</ref> and [[Malayalam]].<ref>{{cite news |last1=Basheer |first1=K P M |title=Market for Malayalam films unfolding in Saudi |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/cinema-returns-to-saudi-arabia/article21599013.ece |access-date=17 November 2021 |work=[[The Hindu]] |date=14 September 2017}}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Masjid Quba Mosque.jpg|thumb|[[Quba Mosque]] in [[Medina]], [[Hejaz]] is considered to be one of the [[List of the oldest mosques|oldest mosques]], dating to the lifetime of the [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]].{{efn|The [[Mosque of the Companions, Massawa|Mosque of the Companions]] in the [[Eritrea]]n city of [[Massawa]] dates to approximately the same period, the 7th century CE.<ref name="Reid2012Massawa">{{cite book |last=Reid |first=Richard J. |title=A History of Modern Africa: 1800 to the Present |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |chapter=The Islamic Frontier in Eastern Africa |page=106 |isbn=978-0-470-65898-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=US6RQtYwasUC |date=12 January 2012 |access-date=15 March 2015}}</ref>}}]]

{{Pie chart
| thumb = right
| caption = Religion in Saudi Arabia (ARDA 2020 est.)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thearda.com/world-religion/national-profiles?u=196c|title=Religions in Saudi Arabia &#124; Arda|website=www.thearda.com|access-date=14 January 2026}}</ref>
| label1 = [[Sunni]]
| value1 = 80.07
| color1 = Green
| label2 = [[Shia]]
| value2 = 8.89
| color2 = Light Green
| label3 = [[Islam|Other Muslim]]
| value3 = .45
| color3 = Dark Green
| label4 = [[Catholic]]
| value4 = 6.52
| color4 = Light Blue
| label5 = [[Christianity|Other Christian]]
| value5 = .46
| color5 = Dark Blue
| label6 = [[Hinduism]]
| value6 = 2.03
| color6 = Orange
| label7 = [[Buddhism]]
| value7 = .33
| color7 = Yellow
| label8 = [[Irreligion|None]]
| value8 = .71
| color8 = Black
| label9 = Other
| value9 = 0.54
| color9 = White
}}

Virtually all Saudi inhabitants [[Islam in Saudi Arabia|are Muslim]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091108194815/http://pewforum.org/newassets/images/reports/Muslimpopulation/Muslimpopulation.pdf|title=Mapping the World Muslim Population|archive-date=8 November 2009}}</ref><ref name=PewForump.17>[http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf Mapping the World Muslim Population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180619214725/http://www.pewforum.org/files/2009/10/Muslimpopulation.pdf |date=19 June 2018 }}(October 2009), Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. p. 16 (p. 17 of the PDF).</ref><ref>Data for Saudi Arabia comes primarily from general population surveys, which are less reliable than censuses or large-scale demographic and health surveys for estimating minority-majority ratios.</ref> as by law Saudi citizens are Muslim. Estimates of the [[Sunni]] population range between 85% and 90%, with the remaining 10 to 15% being [[Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shia Muslim]],<ref name=PF2009>{{cite web|title=Mapping the Global Muslim Population. Countries with More Than 100,000 Shia Muslims |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2009/10/07/mapping-the-global-muslim-population/|website=Pew Forum|access-date=12 March 2015|date=7 October 2009|quote=Saudi Arabia ... Approximate Percentage of Muslim Population that is Shia .... 10–15}}</ref><ref name=bbc-shia>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/7959531.stm |title=Saudi Arabia's Shia press for rights|publisher= bbc|first1=Anees|last1=al-Qudaihi |date=24 March 2009 |quote=Although they only represent 15% of the overall Saudi population of more than 25 million ...}}</ref><ref name=cfr-shiite>{{cite web|url=http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html|title=Shia Muslims in the Mideast|publisher=Council on Foreign Relations|first1=Lionel|last1=Beehner|date=16 June 2006|access-date=12 March 2015|quote=Small but potentially powerful Shiite are found throughout the Gulf States ... Saudi Arabia (15 percent)|archive-date=11 April 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100411123648/http://www.cfr.org/publication/10903/shiite_muslims_in_the_middle_east.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Nasr2006 p. 236">Nasr, ''Shia Revival'', (2006) p. 236</ref> practicing either [[Twelver Shi'ism]] or [[Sulaymani|Sulaymani Ismailism]]. [[Shia Islam in Saudi Arabia|Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia]] are largely found in the [[Eastern Province, Saudi Arabia|Eastern Province]], particularly in [[Qatif]] and [[Al-Ahsa Governorate|Al–Ahsa]].<ref name="ibnghannam">{{cite book |last=Ibn Ghannam |first=Hussien |title=Tarikh najd |year=1961 |location=Cairo |page=438}}</ref> The official and dominant form of Sunni Islam is [[Salafism]], commonly known as [[Wahhabism]],<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wSVQI3Ya2EC&pg=PA54|title=What Everyone Needs to Know about Islam: Second Edition|last=Esposito|first=John L.|year=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press, US|isbn=978-0-19-979413-3|page=54}}</ref><ref name="The Daily Star">{{Cite web |last=Chikhi |first=Lamine |date=27 November 2010 |title=State cracks down on Salafi literature at Algiers book fair |url=http://dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&Article_id=121904 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127003849/http://dailystar.com.lb/article.asp?edition_id=10&categ_id=4&Article_id=121904#axzz16RGaXcDq |archive-date=27 November 2010 |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=Reuters |via=The Daily Star}}</ref>{{efn|Proponents prefer the name ''Salafist'', considering ''Wahhabi'' derogatory.}} which was founded in the Arabian Peninsula by [[Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab]] in the 18th century. Other denominations, including [[Shia Islam]], are systematically suppressed by the state apparatus.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2009/09/03/saudi-arabia-treat-shia-equally |title=Saudi Arabia: Treat Shia Equally |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=3 September 2009 |access-date=14 September 2016}}</ref> Atheism and apostasy are punishable by death or by life imprisonment.

[[Christianity in Saudi Arabia|Christianity is the second largest religion in Saudi Arabia]], estimated at around 2.1 million, of whom the vast majority are foreign workers.<ref>{{cite book|author=House, Karen Elliott|title=On Saudi Arabia : Its People, past, Religion, Fault Lines and Future|publisher=Knopf|year=2012|page=235}}</ref> Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as temporary foreign workers but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. There are officially no Saudi citizens who are Christians,<ref>{{cite web | author = Central Intelligence Agency |date=28 April 2010 |title=Saudi Arabia |work=The World Factbook |url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=18 January 2026 |access-date=22 May 2010}}</ref> as Saudi Arabia forbids religious conversion from Islam ([[Apostasy in Saudi Arabia|apostasy]]) and punishes it by death.<ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of religious freedom|last=Cookson|first=Catharine|year=2003|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-94181-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse/page/207 207]|url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofre0000unse/page/207}}</ref> There are over 708,000 [[Hinduism in Saudi Arabia|Hindus in Saudi Arabia]], comprising the third largest religion; like other minority faiths in the country, with all of them coming from South Asia.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2021-report-on-international-religious-freedom/saudi-arabia/ |access-date=2025-07-30 |website=United States Department of State |language=en-US}}</ref> There may be a significant fraction of [[Atheism|atheists]] and [[Agnosticism|agnostics]],<ref>{{Cite press release |title=GLOBAL INDEX OF RELIGION AND ATHEISM |date=December 2011 |publisher=WIN-Gallup International |url=http://redcresearch.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/RED-C-press-release-Religion-and-Atheism-25-7-12.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812210929/http://redcresearch.ie/wp-content/uploads/2012/08/RED-C-press-release-Religion-and-Atheism-25-7-12.pdf |archive-date=12 August 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Dewey |first=Caitlin |last2=Fisher |first2=Max |date=2014-01-14 |title=A surprising map of where the world's atheists live |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/23/a-surprising-map-of-where-the-worlds-atheists-live/ |access-date=2026-04-23 |work=The Washington Post |language=en-US |issn=0190-8286}}</ref> although they are officially designated as "terrorists".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/saudi-arabia-declares-all-atheists-are-terrorists-in-new-law-to-crack-down-on-political-dissidents-9228389.html|title=All atheists are terrorists, Saudi Arabia declares|date=1 April 2014|newspaper=The Independent|access-date=30 December 2016|last=Withnall|first=Adam}}</ref> In its 2017 religious freedom report, the U.S. State Department named Saudi Arabia a [[Country of Particular Concern]], denoting systematic, ongoing, and egregious violations of religious freedom.<ref>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report, 2017|url=http://www.uscirf.gov/sites/default/files/2017.USCIRFAnnualReport.pdf|publisher=U.S. Department of State|access-date=26 October 2017}}</ref>

[[Najran]] was once home to sizeable historical local [[Christian community of Najran|Christian]] and [[History of the Jews in Saudi Arabia|Jewish communities]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=Assegaf |first=Faisal |date=2022-10-27 |title=I am among a few Jews originated from Saudi Arabia still alive |url=https://albalad.co/wawancara/2022A12466/i-am-among-a-few-jews-originated-from-saudi-arabia-still-alive/ |access-date=2024-07-22 |website=albalad.co |language=en-US}}</ref> Before the founding of [[Israel]], Najran had over 7,000 Jews,<ref>{{Cite web |title=رتبها |url=https://rattibha.com/thread/1254881982942756869 |access-date=2025-02-11 |website=rattibha.com}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> predominantly of [[Yemenite Jews|Yemenite Jewish]] background.<ref name=":2" /> Following the [[establishment of Israel]] and the [[1948 Arab–Israeli War|1948 Arab–Israeli war]], Jews began leaving for Israel via [[Yemen]].<ref name=":2" /> By the 1970s, there were no Jews left in the country.

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:KAUST laboratory buildings and town mosque.jpg|thumb|Laboratory buildings at [[KAUST]]]]
Education is free at all levels, although [[Higher education in Saudi Arabia|higher education]] is restricted to citizens only.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ukessays.com/essays/education/the-saudi-education-system-education-essay.php|title=Saudi Education System|website=UKEssays.com|date=14 July 2017 |access-date=28 April 2019}}</ref> The school system is composed of [[List of schools in Saudi Arabia|elementary, intermediate, and secondary schools]]. Classes are segregated by sex. At the secondary level, students are able to choose from three types of schools: general education, vocational or [[List of technical colleges in Saudi Arabia|technical]], and religious.<ref>{{Cite web |title=K 12 Education System of Saudi Arabia Classes 1 to 12 |url=https://www.saudiarabiaeducation.info/k12/saudi-arabia-k-12-education-system.html |access-date=2022-06-21 |website=www.saudiarabiaeducation.info}}</ref> The rate of literacy is 99% among males and 96% among females in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult male (% of males ages 15 and above) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.MA.ZS |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Literacy rate, adult female (% of females ages 15 and above) {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.LITR.FE.ZS |access-date=2022-07-23 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Youth literacy rose to approximately 99.5% for both sexes.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Literacy rate, youth male (% of males ages 15–24) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.MA.ZS?locations=SA|access-date=2022-01-16|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15–24) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS?locations=SA|access-date=2022-01-16|website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref>

[[File:Kings Saud University Entrance Gate, Riyadh.jpg|thumb|left|The entrance gate of [[King Saud University]], the kingdom's oldest university, founded in 1957]]

Higher education has expanded rapidly, with large numbers of [[List of universities and colleges in Saudi Arabia|universities and colleges being founded particularly since 2000]]. Institutions of higher education include [[King Saud University]] at Riyadh, the [[Islamic University of Madinah|Islamic University]] at Medina, and the [[King Abdulaziz University]] in Jeddah. [[Princess Nora bint Abdul Rahman University|Princess Norah University]] is the largest women's university in the world. [[King Abdullah University of Science and Technology]], known as KAUST, is the first mixed-gender university campus in Saudi Arabia and was founded in 2009. Other colleges and universities emphasize curricula in sciences and [[Educational technology in Saudi Arabia|technology]], military studies, religion, and medicine. Institutes devoted to Islamic studies, in particular, abound. Women typically receive college instruction in segregated institutions.<ref name=Britannica />
[[File:UIS literacy rate Saudi Arabia population plus15 1990-2015.png|thumb|[[UNESCO Institute for Statistics|UIS]] literacy rate Saudi Arabia population, 15 plus, 1990–2015]]
The ''[[Academic Ranking of World Universities]]'', known as Shanghai Ranking, ranked five Saudi institutions among its 2022 list of the 500 top universities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Shanghai Ranking's Academic Ranking of World Universities |url=https://www.shanghairanking.com/rankings/arwu/2022 |access-date=2023-04-20 |website=www.shanghairanking.com}}</ref> The [[QS World University Rankings]] lists 14 Saudi universities among the 2022 world's top universities and 23 universities among the top 100 in the [[Arab world]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=QS Arab Region University Rankings 2022 |url=https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/arab-region-university-rankings/2022 |access-date=2022-06-21 |website=Top Universities |language=en}}</ref> The 2022 list of [[U.S. News & World Report Best Global University Ranking]] ranked King Abdulaziz University among the top 50 universities in the world and [[KAUST]] among the top 100 universities in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=King Abdulaziz University Wins Global 'Zero Project Award' for 2024 |url=https://english.aawsat.com/node/4877301 |access-date=2024-04-26 |website=english.aawsat.com |language=en}}</ref>

In 2018, Saudi Arabia ranked 28th worldwide in terms of high-quality research output according to the scientific journal ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]].''<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.natureindex.com/annual-tables/2018/country/all|title=2018 tables: Countries/territories|work=Nature Index|access-date=23 August 2018|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019214046/https://www.natureindex.com/annual-tables/2018/country/all|url-status=dead}}</ref> Saudi Arabia spends 9% of its gross domestic product on education, compared with the global average of 5%.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1503356/business-economy|title=Saudi Arabia most improved economy for business|date=28 May 2019|website=Arab News|access-date=28 May 2019}}</ref> Saudi Arabia was ranked 46th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2025, up from 68th in 2019.<ref>{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/saudi-arabia |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2021-09-02|website=www.wipo.int|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2013-10-28|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2021-09-02|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The Saudi education system has been accused of encouraging [[Islamic terrorism]], leading to reform efforts.<ref name="Reforming Saudi Education">[http://www.slate.com/id/2226874/entry/2226875/ Reforming Saudi Education] Slate 7 September. 2009.</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first=Eli|last=Lake|date=25 March 2014 |title=U.S. Keeps Saudi Arabia's Worst Secret |url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/25/u-s-keeps-saudi-arabia-s-worst-secret.html |work=[[The Daily Beast]]}}</ref> Following the 9/11 attacks, the government aimed to tackle the twin problems of encouraging extremism and the inadequacy of the country's university education for a modern economy, by slowly modernizing the education system through the "Tatweer" reform programme.<ref name="Reforming Saudi Education" /> The Tatweer programme is reported to have a budget of approximately US$2 billion and focuses on moving teaching away from the traditional Saudi methods of memorization and rote learning towards encouraging students to analyse and problem-solve. It also aims to create an education system which will provide a more secular and vocationally based training.<ref name="chronicle.com">{{Cite web |last=Lindsey |first=Ursula |date=2010-10-03 |title=Saudi Arabia's Education Reforms Emphasize Training for Jobs |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/saudi-arabias-education-reforms-emphasize-training-for-jobs/ |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=The Chronicle of Higher Education |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Al-Kinani |first=Mohammed |title=SR9 billion Tatweer project set to transform education |url=http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2008081814710 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511114309/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentID=2008081814710 |archive-date=2011-05-11 |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=Saudi Gazette}}</ref>

In 2021, the ''[[Washington Post]]'' reported on the measures taken by Saudi Arabia to clean textbooks from paragraphs considered [[Antisemitism|antisemitic]] and [[Sexism|sexist]]. The paragraphs dealing with the punishment of [[homosexuality]] or same-sex relations have been deleted, as well as the expressions of admiration for the extremist martyrdom. Antisemitic expressions and calls to fight the Jews became fewer. David Weinberg, director of international affairs for the [[Anti-Defamation League]], said that references to demonizing Jews, Christians, and Shiites have been removed from some places or have toned down. The U.S. State Department expressed in an e-mail that it welcomed the changes. The Saudi Ministry of Foreign Affairs supports a training programme for Saudi teachers.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/gdpr-consent/?next_url=https%3a%2f%2fwww.washingtonpost.com%2fworld%2fmiddle_east%2fsaudi-arabia-textbooks-education-curriculum%2f2021%2f01%2f30%2f28ebe632-5a54-11eb-a849-6f9423a75ffd_story.html|title=Saudi Arabia scrubs school textbooks of some offensive text|newspaper=The Washington Post|date=30 January 2021}}</ref>

=== Health care ===
{{Main|Health in Saudi Arabia|Health care in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Sauditwins 17.jpg|thumb|Saudi twins receiving care from doctors at [[King Abdulaziz Medical City]] in [[Riyadh]]]]

Saudi Arabia has a national health care system in which the government provides free health care services through government agencies. Saudi Arabia has been ranked among the 26 best countries in providing high quality healthcare.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Al-Hanawi|first1=Mohammed Khaled|last2=Khan|first2=Sami A.|last3=Al-Borie|first3=Hussein Mohammed|date=2019-02-27|title=Healthcare human resource development in Saudi Arabia: emerging challenges and opportunities—a critical review|journal=Public Health Reviews|volume=40|issue=1|article-number=1|doi=10.1186/s40985-019-0112-4|pmid=30858991|pmc=6391748|issn=2107-6952 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Health (Saudi Arabia)|Ministry of Health]] is the major government agency entrusted with the provision of preventive, curative, and rehabilitative health care. The ministry's origins can be traced to 1925, when several regional health departments were established, with the first in Makkah. The various healthcare institutions were merged to become a ministerial body in 1950.<ref>{{cite book|author=David E. Long|title=Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia|url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long|url-access=registration|date=1 January 2005|publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group|isbn=978-0-313-32021-7|page=[https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long/page/15 15]}}</ref> The Health Ministry created a friendly competition between each of the districts and between different medical services and hospitals. This idea resulted in the creation of the "Ada'a" project launched in 2016. The new system is a nationwide performance indicator, for services and hospitals. Waiting times and other major measurements improved dramatically across the kingdom.<ref>{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia's 937 Service Center received 80,007 calls last week |date=15 October 2018 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1387831/saudi-arabia |publisher=[[Arab News]]}}</ref>

[[File:Life_expectancy_in_Saudi Arabia.svg|thumb|left|Historical development of life expectancy in Saudi Arabia]]

A new strategy has been developed by the ministry, known as Diet and Physical Activity Strategy or DPAS for short,<ref>{{cite web |title=It's time to tip the scale against Saudi Arabia's obesity problem |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1349476 |publisher=Arab News |date=1 August 2018}}</ref> to address bad lifestyle choices. The ministry advised that there should be a tax increase on unhealthy food, drink, and cigarettes. This additional tax could be used to improve healthcare offerings. The tax was implemented in 2017.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Shalhoub |first1=Lulwa |title=New tax doubles the price of cigarettes, energy drinks in Saudi Arabia |date=12 June 2017 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1113771/saudi-arabia |publisher=[[Arab News]]}}</ref> As part of the same strategy, calorie labels were added in 2019 to some food and drink products. Ingredients were also listed as an aim to reduce obesity and inform citizens with health issues to manage their diet.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Gillett |first1=Katy |title=Saudi Arabia brings in mandatory calorie labels on menus |date=2 January 2019 |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/uae/health/saudi-arabia-brings-in-mandatory-calorie-labels-on-menus-1.808556 |publisher=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]}}</ref> As part of the ongoing focus on tackling obesity, women-only gyms were allowed to open in 2017. Sports offered in each of these gyms include bodybuilding, running and swimming to maintain higher standards of health.<ref>{{cite web |last1=White |first1=Charles |title=Saudi Arabia to allow women to use gyms to lose weight |url=https://metro.co.uk/2017/02/13/saudi-arabia-to-allow-women-to-use-gyms-to-lose-weight-6446103/ |publisher=[[Metro (British newspaper)|Metro]] |date=13 February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Fitness First confirms launch of ladies-only gyms in KSA |date=4 March 2017 |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1063326/corporate-news |publisher=[[Arab News]]}}</ref>

[[Smoking in Saudi Arabia|Smoking in all age groups]] is widespread. Before 2010, Saudi Arabia had no policies banning or restricting smoking.

The MOH has been awarded "Healthy City" certificates by the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) for the cities of [[Unayzah]] and [[Riyadh Al Khabra]] as 4th and 5th Healthy Cities in Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite tweet |title=#WHA72: Dr Al-Mandhari presented #HealthyCity certificates to Dr Hani Jokhadar @jokhdarh Undersecretary @SaudiMOH to award Unayzah & Riyadh Al Khabra as 4th and 5th healthy cities in The cities were qualified after successful evaluation by @WHO & external experts in March 2019. |user=whoemro |number=1131318112073203712 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref>
The WHO had earlier classified three Saudi Arabian cities, [[Ad Diriyah]], [[Jalajil]], and Al-Jamoom as "Healthy city", as part of the WHO Healthy Cities Programme. Recently [[Al-Baha]] has also been classified as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization.<ref>{{cite tweet |title=سمو أمير منطقة #الباحة يتسلم شهادة #المندق الصحية من معالي وزير الصحة بعد تصنيفها كمدينة صحية لتنضم إلى قائمة المدن الصحية العالمية المعتمدة من منظمة الصحة العالمية. وكانت كل من #الدرعية و #جلاجل و #الجموم و #عنيزة و #رياض_الخبراء قد أعلن عنها سابقًا كمدن صحية. |language=ar |trans-title=His Highness, the Emir of Al-Baha region, receives the Al-Mandaq health certificate from His Excellency the Minister of Health after classifying it as a healthy city to join the list of global healthy cities approved by the World Health Organization. Al-Diriyah, Jalajil, Al-Jumum, Onaizah, and Riyadh Al-Khubra were previously declared healthy cities. |user=SaudiMOH |number=1312783064595079170 |publisher=Ministry of Health}}</ref>

In May 2019, the then Saudi Minister of Health [[Tawfiq bin Fawzan AlRabiah]] received a global award on behalf of the Kingdom for combating smoking through social awareness, treatment, and application of regulations.<ref name="smokingaward">{{cite web |title=Saudi Arabia receives global anti-smoking award |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/1501311/saudi-arabia |publisher=Arab News |date=24 May 2019}}</ref> The award was presented as part of the 72nd session of the [[World Health Assembly]], held in Geneva in May 2019. After becoming one of the first nations to ratify the [[WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control]] in 2005, it plans to reduce tobacco use from 12.7% in 2017, to 5% in 2030.<ref name="smokingaward" />

Saudi Arabia has a life expectancy of 78 years (77 for males and 80 for females) according to the latest data for the year 2022 from the World Bank.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.LE00.IN?locations=SA&most_recent_value_desc=true|title=Life expectancy at birth, total (years) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data|website=data.worldbank.org|access-date=14 December 2019}}</ref> Infant mortality in 2022 was 6 per 1000 (6 for males and 5 for females).<ref name=":1" /> In 2022, 71.8% of the adult population was overweight and 40.6% was obese.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/gho/ncd/risk_factors/overweight_obesity/obesity_adults/en/|title=Overweight and obesity|website=World Health Organization|access-date=25 August 2018}}</ref>

=== Foreigners ===
{{See also|Foreign workers in Saudi Arabia|Migrant workers in the Gulf region|Kafala system}}

The Central Department of Statistics & Information estimated the foreign population at the end of 2014 at 33% (10.1 million).<ref name="CDSI">{{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/news/697371 |title=KSA population is 30.8m; 33% expats|date=31 January 2015 |publisher=ArabNews.com | access-date=6 November 2015}}</ref> The CIA Factbook estimated that {{as of|2013|lc=on}} foreign nationals living in Saudi Arabia made up about 21% of the population.<ref name="CIA World Factbook" /> Other sources report differing estimates.<ref name="alriyadh.com">{{cite web |author=جريدة الرياض |title=جريدة الرياض : سكان المملكة 27 مليوناً بينهم 8 ملايين مقيم |work=جريدة الرياض |url=http://www.alriyadh.com/2010/08/05/article549461.html |publisher=Alriyadh.com}}</ref> [[Indians in Saudi Arabia|Indian]]: 1.5 million, [[Pakistanis in Saudi Arabia|Pakistani]]: 1.3 million,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/number-pakistani-expats-exceeds-15-m |title=Number of Pakistani expats exceeds 1.5 m |publisher=Arabnews.com |date=29 August 2012}}</ref> Egyptian: {{gaps|900|000}}, Yemeni: {{gaps|800|000}}, [[Bangladeshis in Saudi Arabia|Bangladeshi]]: {{gaps|400|000}}, [[Filipinos in Saudi Arabia|Filipino]]: {{gaps|500|000}}, Jordanian/Palestinian: {{gaps|260|000}}, [[Indonesians in Saudi Arabia|Indonesian]]: {{gaps|250|000}}, Sri Lankan: {{gaps|350|000}}, Sudanese: {{gaps|250|000}}, [[Syrians in Saudi Arabia|Syrian]]: {{gaps|100|000}} and [[Turks in Saudi Arabia|Turkish]]: {{gaps|80|000}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_Ittmig_Arab/P02_Kapiszewski.pdf |title=Arab versus Asian migrant workers in the GCC countries |page=10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120114054812/https://www.un.org/esa/population/meetings/EGM_Ittmig_Arab/P02_Kapiszewski.pdf|archive-date=2012-01-14}}</ref>

According to ''[[The Guardian]]'', {{as of|2013|lc=yes}} there were more than half a million [[Migrant domestic workers|foreign-born domestic workers]]. Most have backgrounds in poverty and come from Africa, the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia.<ref name="the guardian1">{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/saudi-arabia-treatment-foreign-workers |date=13 January 2013 |title=Saudi Arabia's treatment of foreign workers under fire after beheading of Sri Lankan maid |last=Chamberlain |first=Gethin |newspaper=The Guardian |access-date=14 January 2013 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140307/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jan/13/saudi-arabia-treatment-foreign-workers |url-status=live }}</ref> To go to work in Saudi Arabia, they must often pay large sums to recruitment agencies in their home countries. The agencies then handle the necessary legal paperwork.<ref name="humanrightswatch1">{{cite web |author=Human Rights Watch |url=http://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=printdoc&amp;docid=412ef32a4 |title='Bad Dreams:' Exploitation and Abuse of Migrant Workers in Saudi Arabia |publisher=United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees |date=14 July 2004 |access-date=14 January 2013 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312095552/https://www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=printdoc&docid=412ef32a4 |url-status=live }}</ref>

As the Saudi population grows and oil export revenues stagnate, pressure for "Saudization" (the replacement of foreign workers with Saudis) has grown, and the Saudi government hopes to decrease the number of foreign nationals in the country.<ref>{{cite web |author1=P.K. Abdul Ghafour |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/395511 |title=3 million expats to be sent out gradually |date=21 October 2011 |access-date=7 December 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111108233041/http://www.arabnews.com/node/395511 |archive-date=8 November 2011 |quote="Nearly three million expatriate workers will have to leave the Kingdom in the next few years as the Labour Ministry has put a 20% ceiling on the country's guest workers" }}</ref> Saudi Arabia expelled {{gaps|800|000}} Yemenis in 1990 and 1991<ref>"[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2009/apr/01/yemen-guantanamo-al-qaida Yemen's point of no return]". ''The Guardian''. 1 April 2009.</ref> and has built a [[Saudi–Yemen barrier]] against an influx of illegal immigrants and against the smuggling of drugs and weapons.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.hiiraan.com/news2/2008/jan/saudi_authorities_erect_barriers_on_yemeni_border.aspx |title=Saudi authorities erect barriers on Yemeni border |first=Mohammed|last=al-Kibsi|date=12 January 2008 |newspaper=Yemen Observer}}</ref> In November 2013, Saudi Arabia expelled thousands of illegal Ethiopian residents from the kingdom. Various Human Rights entities have criticized Saudi Arabia's handling of the issue.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/saudi-arabia-amnesty-international-calls-for-end-to-arrests-and-expulsions/ |title=Saudi Arabia: Amnesty International calls for end to arrests and expulsions "Persecution of Ahmadiyya Muslim Community |publisher=Persecutionofahmadis.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130407170421/https://www.persecutionofahmadis.org/saudi-arabia-amnesty-international-calls-for-end-to-arrests-and-expulsions/|archive-date=2013-04-07}}</ref>

Over {{gaps|500|000}} [[Illegal immigration to Saudi Arabia|undocumented migrant workers]]—mostly from Somalia, Ethiopia, and Yemen—have been detained and deported since 2013.<ref>"[https://www.vice.com/en/article/dogs-are-better-than-you-saudi-arabia-accused-of-mass-abuses-during-migrant-worker-crackdown/ 'Dogs Are Better Than You': Saudi Arabia Accused of Mass Abuses During Migrant Worker Crackdown]". [[Vice News]]. 11 May 2015.</ref> An investigation led by ''[[The Sunday Telegraph]]'', exposed the condition of African migrants who were detained in Saudi Arabia allegedly for containing [[Coronavirus disease 2019|COVID-19]] in the kingdom. They were beaten, tortured, and electrocuted. Many of the migrants died due to heatstroke or by attempting suicide, after being severely beaten and tortured. The migrants lack proper living conditions, provision of food and water.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/investigation-african-migrants-left-die-saudi-arabias-hellish/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/climate-and-people/investigation-african-migrants-left-die-saudi-arabias-hellish/ |archive-date=10 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Investigation: African migrants 'left to die' in Saudi Arabia's hellish Covid detention centres|access-date=30 August 2020|website=The Telegraph|date=30 August 2020|last1=Brown|first1=Will|last2=Zelalem|first2=Zecharias}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Foreigners cannot apply for [[permanent residency]], though a specialized [[Premium Residency]] visa became available in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=Saudi Arabia Charges Foreigners $213,000 for Permanent Residency |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2019-06-23/saudi-arabia-charges-foreigners-213-000-for-permanent-residency |work=Bloomberg |date=23 June 2019}}</ref> Only Muslims can naturalize as Saudi citizens.<ref>{{cite book|first=Eleanor|last=Doumato|editor-first1=Sameena|chapter=Saudi Arabia|editor-last1=Nazir|editor-first2=Leigh|editor-last2=Tomppert|title=Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Citizenship and Justice|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5spje12_is4C&q=Only%2520a%2520muslim%2520can%2520be%2520a%2520saudi%2520citizen&pg=PA259|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|date= 2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-4992-0|page=259}}</ref> Foreigners who have resided in the kingdom and hold degrees in various scientific fields may apply for Saudi citizenship,<ref>{{Cite web|title=تفاصيل النظام|url=https://laws.boe.gov.sa/BoeLaws/Laws/LawDetails/d9f183b6-3afc-4405-834f-a9a700f18571/1|access-date=2021-06-06|website=laws.boe.gov.sa|archive-date=20 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620060614/https://laws.boe.gov.sa/BoeLaws/Laws/LawDetails/d9f183b6-3afc-4405-834f-a9a700f18571/1|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>2004 law passed by Saudi Arabia's Council of Ministers. {{cite web|url=http://www.arabnews.com/?page=1&section=0&article=58980&d=14&m=2&y=2005 |title=Expatriates Can Apply for Saudi Citizenship in Two-to-Three Months |publisher=Arabnews.com |date=14 February 2005}}</ref> and exception made for Palestinians who are excluded unless married to a male Saudi national, because of [[Arab League]] instructions barring the Arab states from granting them citizenship. Saudi Arabia is not a signatory to the [[Convention relating to the Status of Refugees|1951 UN Refugee Convention]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/12/saudi-arabia-says-reports-of-its-syrian-refugee-response-false-and-misleading |title=Saudi Arabia says criticism of Syria refugee response 'false and misleading' |newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=12 September 2015}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Masjid Nabawi The Prophet's Mosque, Madina.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Mosque of the Prophet]] in [[Medina]] containing the tomb of [[Muhammad]]]]
Saudi Arabia has millennia-old attitudes and traditions, often derived from [[History of the Arabs|Arab civilization]]. Some of the major factors that influence the culture are Islamic heritage and [[Arab]] traditions as well as its historical role as an ancient trade centre.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://sacm.org.au/culture-traditions-and-art/|title=Culture, Traditions and Art|website=Saudi Arabian Cultural Mission {{!}} SACM|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-date=24 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424202018/https://sacm.org.au/culture-traditions-and-art/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The Kingdom also has a very family-oriented culture<ref>{{cite book |author-link= |editor= Rodrigo Basco, Andrea Calabrò, Albert E. James, Jeremy Cheng, Luis Díaz Matajira, Nupur Pavan Bang, Georges Samara|date= May 13, 2022|title= Family Business Case Studies Across the World |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=O-VvEAAAQBAJ |location= |publisher=[[Edward Elgar Publishing]] |page= |isbn= 9781800884250}}</ref> with an emphasis on preserving family traditions and kinship ties.<ref>{{cite news |last= Jambi|first=Rahaf |date=October 3, 2023 |title= Maintaining family traditions and ties plays an important role in Riyadh social life |url= https://www.arabnews.com/node/2382811/saudi-arabia |work=[[Arab News]] |location=[[Riyadh]] |access-date=October 25, 2023}}</ref>

=== Religion in society ===
Religion is a core aspect of everyday life in Saudi Arabia; it plays a dominant role in the country's governance and legal system, and deeply influences culture and daily life, although the power of the religious establishment has been significantly eroded in the 2010s.<ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Dadouch |first=Sarah |date=3 August 2021 |title=Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed seeks to reduce influential clerics' power |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-clerics-crown-prince-mohammed/2021/08/02/9ae796a0-e3ed-11eb-88c5-4fd6382c47cb_story.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803102359/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/saudi-clerics-crown-prince-mohammed/2021/08/02/9ae796a0-e3ed-11eb-88c5-4fd6382c47cb_story.html |archive-date=3 August 2021 |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> The [[Hejaz]] region, where the [[holiest sites in Islam|Islamic holy cities]] of Mecca and Medina are located, is the destination of the [[Hajj|Ḥajj]] pilgrimage, and often deemed to be the cradle of Islam.<ref name="Arabia: the Cradle of Islam">[http://www.muhammadanism.org/Zwemer/arabia/arabia_cradle_islam.pdf Arabia: the Cradle of Islam], 1900, S.M.Zwemmer</ref>{{efn|A number of Muslims, using justifications from the Quran,<ref>{{qref|2|7-286|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{qref|3|96|b=y}}</ref><ref>{{qref|22|25-37|b=y}}</ref> insist that Islam did not begin with [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]], but that it represents even previous [[prophet]]s such as [[Abraham in Islam|Abraham]],<ref name="Esposito1998">{{cite book |last=Esposito |first=John |title=Islam: The Straight Path (3rd ed.) |year=1998 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-511234-4 |pages=9, 12}}</ref><ref name="Esposito2002b">Esposito (2002b), pp. 4–5.</ref><ref name="Peters2003">{{cite book |last=Peters |first=F.E. |title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9 9] |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/9 }}</ref><ref name="Alli2013">{{cite book |last=Alli |first=Irfan |title=25 Prophets of Islam |publisher=eBookIt.com |isbn=978-1-4566-1307-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5nRJK9sLjLsC |date=26 February 2013}}</ref> who is credited with having established the sanctuary of Mecca.<ref name="Michigan C 1986">{{cite book |author=Michigan Consortium for Medieval and Early Modern Studies |editor1=Goss, V.P. |editor2=Bornstein, C.V. |title=The Meeting of Two Worlds: Cultural Exchange Between East and West During the Period of the Crusades |publisher=Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan University |volume=21 |page=208 |isbn=978-0-918720-58-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p44kAQAAMAAJ |year=1986}}</ref><ref name="Abu Sway 2011">{{cite news |author=Mustafa Abu Sway |title=The Holy Land, Jerusalem and Al-Aqsa Mosque in the Qur'an, Sunnah and other Islamic Literary Source |publisher=[[Central Conference of American Rabbis]] |url=http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Abusway_0.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110728001911/http://www.wcfia.harvard.edu/sites/default/files/Abusway_0.pdf |archive-date=28 July 2011 }}</ref><ref name="Dyrness2013">{{cite book |author=Dyrness, W.A. |title=Senses of Devotion: Interfaith Aesthetics in Buddhist and Muslim Communities |publisher=[[Wipf and Stock]] Publishers |volume=7 |page=25 |isbn=978-1-62032-136-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inJNAwAAQBAJ |year=2013}}</ref>}}

Islam is the state religion of Saudi Arabia. There is no law that requires all citizens to be Muslim, but non-Muslims and many foreign and Saudi Muslims whose beliefs are deemed not to conform with the government's interpretation of Islam must practice their religion in private and are vulnerable to discrimination, harassment, detention, and, for foreigners, deportation.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Saudi Arabia|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2013/nea/222311.htm|access-date=2021-11-03|website=U.S. Department of State}}</ref> Neither Saudi citizens nor guest workers have the right of [[freedom of religion]].<ref name=depstate>{{cite web|title=International Religious Freedom Report 2004|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/irf/2004/35507.htm|publisher=US Department of State|access-date=22 September 2012}}</ref> The dominant form of Islam in the kingdom—Wahhabism—arose in the central region of Najd, in the 18th century. Proponents call the movement "[[Salafism]]",<ref name="The Daily Star" /> and believe that its teachings purify the practice of Islam of innovations or practices that deviate from the seventh-century teachings of Muhammad and [[Sahaba|his companions]].<ref>{{Cite report |url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21695.pdf |title=The Islamic Traditions of Wahhabism and Salafiyya |last=Blanchard |first=Christopher M. |date=February 10, 2005 |publisher=Congressional Research Service |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050305121706/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RS21695.pdf |archive-date=5 March 2005 |via=Federation of American Scientists}}</ref> The Saudi government has often been viewed as an active oppressor of [[Shia Islam|Shia Muslims]] because of the funding of the Wahhabi ideology which denounces the Shia faith.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/alastair-crooke/isis-wahhabism-saudi-arabia_b_5717157.html|title=You Can't Understand ISIS If You Don't Know the History of Wahhabism in Saudi Arabia|website=[[HuffPost]]|date=27 August 2014}}</ref><ref name=syedjaffar>{{cite web|last=syedjaffar|title=The Persecution of Shia Muslims in Saudi Arabia|url=http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1015700|work=4 August 2013|publisher=CNN Report|access-date=1 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150123095434/http://ireport.cnn.com/docs/DOC-1015700|archive-date=23 January 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> Prince [[Bandar bin Sultan]], Saudi ambassador to the United States, stated: "The time is not far off in the Middle East when it will be literally 'God help the Shia'. More than a billion Sunnis have simply had enough of them."<ref>"[https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/comment/iraq-crisis-how-saudi-arabia-helped-isis-take-over-the-north-of-the-country-9602312.html Iraq crisis: How Saudi Arabia helped Isis take over the north of the country]," ''[[The Independent]],'' 13 July 2014.</ref>

[[File:Supplicating Pilgrim at Masjid Al Haram. Mecca, Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|left|Supplicating [[Pilgrimage#Islam|pilgrim]] at ''[[Great Mosque of Mecca|Al-Masjid Al-Ḥarām]]'' (The Sacred Mosque) in [[Mecca]]. The [[Kaaba]] (the holiest site of Islam) is the cubic building in front of the pilgrim.]]

Saudi Arabia is one of the few countries that have "[[Committee for the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice (Saudi Arabia)|religious police]]" (known as ''Haia'' or ''Mutaween''), who patrol the streets "[[enjoining good and forbidding wrong]]" by enforcing [[Clothing laws by country|dress codes]], strict [[sex segregation|separation of men and women]], attendance at prayer (''[[salat]]'') five times each day, the ban on alcohol, and other aspects of ''Sharia.'' However, since 2016 the power of religious police was curbed, which barred them from pursuing, questioning, requesting identification or arresting suspects.<ref name="france24.com">{{Cite web |date=2022-01-14 |title=Changing times for Saudi's once feared morality police |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20220114-changing-times-for-saudi-s-once-feared-morality-police |access-date=2022-07-17 |website=France 24 |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4" /> In the privacy of homes, behaviour can be far looser, and reports from [[WikiLeaks]] indicate that low ranked members of the ruling Saudi Royal family indulge in parties with alcohol, drugs, and prostitutes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Brooke |first=Heather |date=2010-12-07 |title=WikiLeaks cables: Saudi princes throw parties boasting drink, drugs and sex |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/07/wikileaks-cables-saudi-princes-parties |access-date=2026-04-23 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 |quote=Royals flout puritanical laws to throw parties for young elite while religious police are forced to turn a blind eye.}}</ref>

=== Women in society ===
{{See also|Women's rights in Saudi Arabia|Women's education in Saudi Arabia}}

Throughout history, women did not have equal rights to men in the kingdom; the [[U.S. State Department]] considers the Saudi Arabian government's discrimination against women a "significant problem" and notes that women have few political rights because of the government's discriminatory policies.<ref name= State2010>{{cite web |url=https://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154472.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110412164532/http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154472.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 April 2011 |title=2010 Human Rights Report: Saudi Arabia |date=8 April 2011 |publisher=U.S. State Department |access-date=11 July 2011}}</ref> However, since 2017, a series of social reforms have been witnessed regarding women's rights.

Under previous Saudi law, all females were required to have a male guardian ({{transliteration|ar|[[Wali (Islamic legal guardian)|wali]]}}), typically a father, brother, husband, or uncle ({{transliteration|ar|mahram}}). In 2019, this law was partially amended to exclude women over 21 years old from the requirement of a male guardian.<ref name=":22">{{Cite news |last=Chulob |first=Martin |date=2019-08-03 |title='We feel empowered': Saudi women relish their new freedoms |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/aug/03/we-feel-empowered-saudi-women-relish-new-freedoms |access-date=2019-08-03 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The amendment also granted women rights in relation to the guardianship of minor children.<ref name=":22" /><ref name=":32">{{Cite web |date=2019-08-02 |title=Saudi Arabia to allow adult women to travel, register divorce |url=https://nation.com.pk/02-Aug-2019/saudi-arabia-to-allow-adult-women-to-travel-register-divorce |access-date=2019-08-03 |website=The Nation |language=en}}</ref> Previously, girls and women were forbidden from travelling, conducting official business, or undergoing certain medical procedures without permission from their male guardians.<ref name="hrw-permission">{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/saudi-arabia |title=World Report 2013 – Saudi Arabia |date=9 January 2013 |work=Human Rights Watch |access-date=22 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109161037/http://www.hrw.org/world-report/2013/country-chapters/saudi-arabia |archive-date=9 January 2014}}</ref> In 2019, Saudi Arabia allowed women to travel abroad, register for divorce or marriage, and apply for official documents without the permission of a male guardian.

In 2006, [[Wajeha al-Huwaider]], a leading Saudi feminist and journalist said "Saudi women are weak, no matter how high their status, even the 'pampered' ones among them, because they have no law to protect them from attack by anyone."<ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Writer and Journalist Wajeha Al-Huwaider Fights for Women's Rights|url=http://memri.org/bin/articles.cgi?Page=archives&Area=ia&ID=IA31206|publisher=[[MEMRI]] | first= Aluma | last= Dankowitz | date= December 28, 2006 }}</ref> Following this, Saudi Arabia implemented the anti-[[Domestic violence in Saudi Arabia|domestic violence]] law in 2014.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Saudi Arabia launches powerful ad campaign against domestic violence |language=en-US |newspaper=Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/05/01/saudi-arabia-launches-powerful-ad-campaign-against-domestic-violence/ |access-date=2022-08-08 |date= 1 May 2013 | first= Caitlin | last= Dewey}}</ref> Furthermore, between 2017 and 2020, the country addressed issues of mobility, sexual harassment, pensions, and employment-discrimination protections.<ref>{{Cite book |date=2020 |title=World Bank's Women, Business and the Law 2020 report |url=https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/32639/9781464815324.pdf |author=World Bank | author-link= World Bank | isbn = 978-1-4648-1533-1 | doi=10.1596/978-1-4648-1532-4 | lccn= 2020901241 | place=Washington, DC | publisher= World Bank Publications | page=11|hdl=10400.14/39334 |s2cid=214418106 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2020-01-14 |title=Saudi Arabia leads in women's legal gains at work, World Bank says |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-global-women-work-trfn-idUSKBN1ZD2NV |access-date=2020-01-16 | author1= Ellen Wulfhorst}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last1=Nadworny |first1=Katie |date=2019-10-18 |title=Saudi Arabia's Legal Reforms Help Women in the Workforce |url=https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/legal-and-compliance/employment-law/pages/global-saudi-arabia-legal-reforms-women-workforce.aspx |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=Society for Human Resources Management |language=en-US |archive-date=14 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230814135751/https://www.shrm.org/resourcesandtools/legal-and-compliance/employment-law/pages/global-saudi-arabia-legal-reforms-women-workforce.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref> al-Huwaider and other female activists have applauded the general direction in which the country was headed.<ref>{{Cite web |date=September 26, 2017 |title='I am so happy': Activist reacts to end of ban on female drivers in Saudi Arabia |url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-tuesday-edition-1.4307609/i-am-so-happy-activist-reacts-to-end-of-ban-on-female-drivers-in-saudi-arabia-1.4308348 |access-date=December 16, 2021 |website=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation}}</ref>

[[File:Princess Reema Remarks.jpg|thumb|left|[[Reema bint Bandar Al Saud|Princess Reema bint Bandar]], the [[List of ambassadors of Saudi Arabia to the United States|Saudi Ambassador to the United States of America]], delivering an address at an event honouring the 75th anniversary of [[Saudi Arabia–United States relations|Saudi-US relations]]]]

Women face discrimination in the courts, where the testimony of one man equals that of two women [[Legal system of Saudi Arabia#Family law|in family and inheritance law]].<ref name= State2010 /> Polygamy is permitted for men,<ref>[[#Long|Long]], p. 66</ref> and men have a unilateral right to divorce their wives ([[Divorce (Islamic)|talaq]]) without needing any legal justification.<ref name= Otto164>[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 164</ref> Historically, a woman could only obtain a divorce with the consent of her husband or judicially if her husband has harmed her;<ref name="Otto163">[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 163</ref> however, in 2022, women were granted the right to initiate divorce without the approval of a legal guardian under the new Personal Status Law.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-03-09 |title=Saudi Arabia Reforms Marriage Laws To Empower Women |url=https://www.abouther.com/node/47421/people/leading-ladies/saudi-arabia-reforms-marriage-laws-empower-women |access-date=2022-08-08 |website=About Her |language=en}}</ref> With regard to inheritance law, the Quran specifies that fixed portions of the deceased's estate must be left to the ''Qur'anic heirs''<ref name= Otto165>[[#Otto|Otto]], p. 165</ref> and generally, female heirs receive half the portion of male heirs.<ref name=Otto165 />

=== Heritage sites ===
{{See also|Mecca|Medina|Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|Tourism in Saudi Arabia|Saudi Heritage Preservation Society}}
[[File:The old city of Adummatu.jpg|thumb|right|The 3000-year-old ancient historical city of [[Dumat al-Jandal]] in [[Al Jawf Province]]]]

Saudi Wahhabism is hostile to any reverence given to historical or religious places of significance for fear that it may give rise to [[Shirk (Islam)|'shirk']] (idolatry), and the most significant historic Muslim sites (in Mecca and Medina) are located in the western Saudi region of the Hejaz.<ref name="Arabia: the Cradle of Islam" /> As a consequence, under Saudi rule an estimated 95% of Mecca's historic buildings, most over a thousand years old, [[Destruction of early Islamic heritage sites in Saudi Arabia|have been demolished]] for religious reasons.<ref>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-destruction-of-mecca-saudi-hardliners-are-wiping-out-their-own-heritage-501647.html 'The destruction of Mecca: Saudi hardliners are wiping out their own heritage'], ''The Independent'', 6 August 2005. Retrieved 17 January 2011</ref> Critics claim that over the last 50 years, 300 historic sites linked to Muhammad, his family or companions have been lost,<ref>[http://www.islamicpluralism.org/764/islamic-heritage-lost-as-makkah-modernises 'Islamic heritage lost as Makkah modernises'] Center for Islamic Pluralism</ref> leaving fewer than 20 structures remaining in Mecca that date back to the time of Muhammad.<ref name="independent.co.uk">[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-474736.html 'Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca'], The Independent, 19 April 2006</ref> Demolished structures include the mosque originally built by Muhammad's daughter [[Fatima bint Muhammad|Fatima]], and other mosques founded by [[Abu Bakr]] (Muhammad's father-in-law and the first [[caliph]]), [[Umar ibn al-Khattab|Umar]] (the second caliph), [[Ali ibn Abi Talib|Ali]] (Muhammad's son-in-law and the fourth caliph), and [[Salman al-Farsi]] (another of Muhammad's companions).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Destruction of Islamic Architectural Heritage in Saudi Arabia: A Wake-up Call |url=http://theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/articles/saudi_destruction_of_muslim_historical_sites/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323135558/http://theamericanmuslim.org/tam.php/features/articles/saudi_destruction_of_muslim_historical_sites/ |archive-date=2012-03-23 |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=The American Muslim}}</ref> Other historic buildings that have been destroyed include the house of [[Khadija bint Khuwaylid|Khadijah]], the wife of Muhammad, the house of [[Abu Bakr]], now the site of the local [[Hilton hotel]]; the house of Ali-Oraid, the grandson of Muhammad, and the Mosque of Abu-Qubais, now the location of the King's palace in Mecca.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Howden |first=Daniel |date=2006-04-18 |title=Shame of the House of Saud: Shadows over Mecca |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/shame-of-the-house-of-saud-shadows-over-mecca-6103414.html |access-date=2026-04-23 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>[[File:MasjidNabawi.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Mosque of the Prophet]] in [[Medina]] containing the tomb of [[Muhammad]]]]Eight cultural sites in Saudi Arabia are designated as [[UNESCO World Heritage Sites]]: Al-Hijr Archaeological Site ([[Mada'in Saleh|Madâin Sâlih]]);<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/|title=Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> the [[Turaif district]] in Diriyah;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1329/|title=At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Mecca;<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1361/|title=Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Makkah|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> [[Al-Ahsa Oasis]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1563/|title=Al-Ahsa Oasis, an Evolving Cultural Landscape|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> [[Rock Art in the Ha'il Region|Rock Art in the Hail Region]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1472/|title=Rock Art in the Hail Region of Saudi Arabia|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=24 April 2019}}</ref> [[Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions|Ḥimā Cultural Area]];<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1619 |title=Ḥimā Cultural Area|website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=12 August 2021}}</ref> [['Uruq Bani Ma'arid]];<ref>{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1699 |title='Uruq Bani Ma'arid |author=<!--Not stated--> |publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |access-date=2024-03-12 }}</ref> and [[Qaryat al-Faw]]. Ten other sites submitted requests for recognition to UNESCO in 2015.<ref>[https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/sa/ KSA Properties inscribed on the World Heritage List (4)], Unesco, 2017</ref> There are six elements inscribed on [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists|UNESCO's Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity list]]:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/state|title=UNESCO – Saudi Arabia|website=ich.unesco.org|access-date=24 April 2019|archive-date=20 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520153604/https://ich.unesco.org/en/state|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Al-Qatt Al-Asiri]], female traditional interior wall decoration in Asir; [[Almezmar in Saudi Arabia|Almezmar]], drumming and dancing with sticks; [[Falconry]], a living human heritage; [[Arabic coffee]], a symbol of generosity; [[Majlis]], a cultural and social space; [[Alardah Alnajdiyah]], dance, drumming and poetry in Saudi Arabia.

In June 2014, the Council of Ministers approved a law that gives the [[Saudi Commission for Tourism and National Heritage]] the means to protect Saudi Arabia's ancient relics and historic sites. Within the framework of the 2016 National Transformation Programme, also known as [[Saudi Vision 2030]], the kingdom allocated 900 million euros to preserve its historical and cultural heritage.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2016-06-30 |title=Saudi Arabia to spend $1bn on cultural heritage |url=http://ksamissioneu.net/en/saudi-arabia-to-spend-1bn-on-cultural-heritage/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170903164543/http://ksamissioneu.net/en/saudi-arabia-to-spend-1bn-on-cultural-heritage/ |archive-date=2017-09-03 |access-date=2026-04-23 |work=Saudi Mission EU |language=en-GB}}</ref> Saudi Arabia also participates in the International Alliance for the Protection of Heritage in Conflict Areas, created in March 2017, with a contribution of 18.5 million euros.<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/archeo-paleo/archeologie/destruction-du-patrimoine-une-resolution-historique-du-conseil-de-securite_111642 Destruction du patrimoine : une résolution historique du Conseil de Sécurité], Sciences et Avenir, 28 March 2017</ref>

In 2017, Crown Prince Mohammad bin Salman promised to return Saudi Arabia to the "moderate Islam" of the era before the 1979 Iranian revolution.<ref>{{cite news |last=Chulov |first=Marin |date=24 October 2017 |title=I will return Saudi Arabia to moderate Islam, says crown prince |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/24/i-will-return-saudi-arabia-moderate-islam-crown-prince |work=The Guardian|access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> A new centre, the King Salman Complex for the Prophet's Hadith, was established that year to monitor interpretations of Muhammad's hadiths to prevent them being used to justifying terrorism.<ref>{{cite news |last=Al Wasmi |first=Naser |date=20 June 2018 |title=Saudi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman's dynamic year of reform |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/gcc/saudi-crown-prince-mohammed-bin-salman-s-dynamic-year-of-reform-1.742510 |work=[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]] |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

In March 2018, the Crown Prince met the Archbishop of Canterbury during a visit to the UK, pledging to promote interfaith dialogue. In Riyadh the following month King Salman met the head of the Vatican's Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Catholic cardinal meets Saudi King in historic visit to Riyadh|url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-saudi-vatican/catholic-cardinal-meets-saudi-king-in-historic-visit-to-riyadh-idUKKBN1HP1T5 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180527090408/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-saudi-vatican/catholic-cardinal-meets-saudi-king-in-historic-visit-to-riyadh-idUKKBN1HP1T5 |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 May 2018 |work=Reuters |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> In July 2019, UNESCO signed a letter with the Saudi Minister of Culture in which Saudi Arabia contributed US$25 million to UNESCO for the preservation of heritage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.unesco.org/news/saudi-arabia-commits-us25-million-unesco-protection-heritage|title=Saudi Arabia commits US$25 million to UNESCO for the protection of heritage|date=12 July 2019|website=UNESCO|access-date=18 July 2019}}</ref>

On November 5, 2024, archeologists published the news of an ancient city discovered in the Saudi oasis of [[Khaybar]]. The city named [[al-Natah]], that dates back some 4,000 years, was inhabited during the Bronze Age around 2,400 BCE, and had about 500 houses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-11-05 |title=Archaeology breakthrough! 4,000-year-old fort city found hidden in Saudi oasis |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/archaeology/saudi-arabia-oasis-fort-city-b2641611.html |access-date=2024-11-05 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref>

=== Dress ===
Saudi Arabian dress strictly follows [[hijab]] (the Islamic principle of modesty, especially in dress). The predominantly loose and flowing, but covering, garments are suited to Saudi Arabia's desert climate. Traditionally, men usually wear a white ankle-length garment woven from wool or cotton (known as a [[thawb]]), with a [[keffiyeh]] (a large checkered square of cotton held in place by an [[Agal (accessory)|agal]]) or a ghutra (a plain white square made of a finer cotton, also held in place by an [[Agal (accessory)|agal]]) worn on the head. For rare chilly days, Saudi men wear a camel-hair cloak ([[bisht (clothing)|bisht]]) over the top. In public, women are required to wear a black [[abaya]] or other black clothing that covers everything under the neck with the exception of their hands and feet, although most women cover their head for religious reasons. This requirement applies to non-Muslim women too and failure to abide can result in police action, particularly in more conservative areas. Women's clothes are often decorated with tribal motifs, coins, sequins, metallic thread, and appliques.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thelovelyplanet.net/traditional-dress-of-the-kingdom-of-saudi-arabia/ |title=Traditional dress of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia |date=29 September 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018115808/http://www.thelovelyplanet.net/traditional-dress-of-the-kingdom-of-saudi-arabia/ |archive-date=18 October 2015 }}</ref>

=== Arts and entertainment ===
{{Main|Saudi Arabian art|Cinema of Saudi Arabia|Music of Saudi Arabia|Theatre in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:King Abdullah in his youth.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|King Abdullah practising [[falconry]], a traditional pursuit in the country]]

During the 1970s, cinemas were numerous in the kingdom although they were seen as contrary to Wahhabi norms.<ref name="Return of cinema in Saudi Arabia provokes critics">[http://worldfocus.org/blog/2009/01/05/return-of-cinema-in-saudi-arabia-provokes-critics/3473/ World Focus]. 5 January 2009</ref> During the [[Islamic revival]] movement in the 1980s, and as a political response to an increase in Islamist activism including the 1979 seizure of the Grand Mosque in Mecca, the government closed all cinemas and theatres. However, with King Abdullah and King Salman's reforms, cinemas re-opened,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/babylonbeyond/2008/12/saudi-arabia--1.html |work=Los Angeles Times |title=Babylon & Beyond |date=23 December 2008}}</ref> including one in [[King Abdullah University of Science and Technology|KAUST]].

From the 18th century onward, Wahhabi fundamentalism discouraged artistic development inconsistent with its teaching. In addition, Sunni Islamic prohibition of creating representations of people have limited the visual arts, which tend to be dominated by [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric]], [[Arabesque|floral]], and abstract designs and by [[Islamic calligraphy|calligraphy]]. With the advent of the oil-wealth in the 20th century came exposure to outside influences, such as Western housing styles, furnishings, and clothes. Music and dance have always been part of Saudi life. Traditional music is generally associated with poetry and is sung collectively. Instruments include the [[Rebab|rabābah]], an instrument not unlike a three-string fiddle, and various types of percussion instruments, such as the ṭabl (drum) and the ṭār (tambourine). The national dance is a native sword dance known as [[ardah]]. Originating from Najd, it involves lines or circles of men and singing poetry.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://embassies.mofa.gov.sa/sites/usa/EN/ABOUTSAUDIARABIA/CountryInformation/Pages/Curlture.aspx|title= Folk Music & Dance|author=<!--Not stated--> |website=embassies.mofa.gov.sa|publisher=The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Washington, DC|access-date=19 July 2025}}</ref> Bedouin poetry, known as nabaṭī, is popular.<ref name=Britannica />

Censorship has limited the development of Saudi literature, although several [[List of Saudi Arabian writers|Saudi novelists and poets]] have achieved critical and popular acclaim in the Arab world—albeit generating official hostility in their home country. These include [[Ghazi Algosaibi]], [[Mansour al-Nogaidan]], [[Abdelrahman Munif]], [[Turki al-Hamad]], and [[Rajaa al-Sanea]].<ref name="Guardian2410">{{cite news |first=Trevor |last=Mostyn |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/aug/24/ghazi-algosaibi-obituary |title=Ghazi al-Gosaibi obituary |newspaper=The Guardian |date=24 August 2010 |place=London}}</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20050411140638/http://www.time.com/time/europe/magazine/article/0,13005,901050117-1015836,00.html "Triumphant Trilogy"], by Malu Halasa, ''Time'', 17 January 2005</ref><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070711094317/http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/article2041373.ece "Sex and the Saudi Girl"]. ''[[The Times]]''. 8 July 2007</ref> In 2016, the General Entertainment Authority (GEA) was formed to oversee the expansion of the Saudi entertainment sector.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Saudi Arabia allows concerts—even country music |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2017/06/01/saudi-arabia-allows-concerts-even-country-music |newspaper=The Economist |date=1 June 2017 |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>
The first concerts in Riyadh for 25 years took place the following year.<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Mohammed Abdu to perform live in Riyadh |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/978866/saudi-arabia |work=[[Arab News]] |date=2 September 2016 |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref> In 2018 the first public cinema opened after a ban of 35 years, with plans to have more than {{gaps|2|000}} screens running by 2030.<ref>{{cite news |last=Reid |first=David |date=11 December 2011 |title= Saudi Arabia to reopen public cinemas for the first time in 35 years |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2017/12/11/saudi-arabia-to-open-public-cinemas-for-the-first-time-in-35-years.html |work=CNBC |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

Developments in the arts in 2018 included Saudi Arabia's debut appearances at the [[Cannes Film Festival]] and the [[Venice Biennale]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Nick |first=Vivarelli |date=9 April 2018 |title=Saudi Arabia to Debut at Cannes With Its First National Pavilion |url=https://variety.com/2018/film/news/saudi-arabia-debut-cannes-first-national-film-industry-pavilion-1202747397/ |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |access-date=24 September 2018}}</ref>

=== TV and media ===
{{Main|Mass media in Saudi Arabia|Television in Saudi Arabia}}

[[File:Saad Khadr from left and right Mohammad Al-Ali in 1979 in Saudi Arabia.jpg|thumb|[[Saad Khader]] (left) and [[Mohammad Al-Ali]] (right) in 1979]]

Television was introduced in Saudi Arabia in 1954. Saudi Arabia is a major market for [[Pan-Arab States|pan-Arab]] satellite and [[Pay television|pay-TV]]. It controls the largest share of the pan-Arab broadcasting market; among the major Saudi-owned broadcasting companies are the [[MBC Group|Middle East Broadcasting Centre]], [[Rotana Group|Rotana]], and the [[Saudi Broadcasting Authority]].<ref name="obg">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gMPjxHzG1xQC&pg=PA173 |title=The Report: Saudi Arabia 2008 |publisher=Oxford Business Group |year=2008 |isbn=978-1-902339-00-9 |page=173}}</ref> The Saudi government [[Censorship in Saudi Arabia|closely monitors media and restricts it]] under official state law. Changes have been made to lessen these restrictions; however, some government-led efforts to control information have also drawn international attention. As of 2022, [[Reporters Without Borders]] rates the kingdom's press a "very serious" situation.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Index {{!}} RSF |url=https://rsf.org/en/index |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=rsf.org |language=en}}</ref>

Most of the early newspapers in the Persian Gulf region were established in Saudi Arabia.<ref name="aarti">{{cite news |author=Aarti Nagraj |date=26 March 2013 |title=Revealed: 10 Oldest Newspapers In The GCC |magazine=Gulf Business |url=http://gulfbusiness.com/2013/03/revealed-10-oldest-newspapers-in-the-gcc/#.UtWFDmRdWi8 |access-date=14 January 2014 |archive-date=11 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141011095915/http://gulfbusiness.com/2013/03/revealed-10-oldest-newspapers-in-the-gcc/#.UtWFDmRdWi8 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The first newspaper founded in the country and in the Persian Gulf area is ''[[Al Fallah]]'', which was launched in 1920,<ref name="aarti" /> and the first English-language newspaper is ''[[Arab News]]'', which was launched in 1975.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How Arab News, Saudi Arabia's first English-language newspaper, was born |url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1661641/amp |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> All of the [[List of newspapers in Saudi Arabia|newspapers published in Saudi Arabia]] are privately owned.<ref>{{cite web |title=Arab Media Influence Report |url=http://www.newsgroup.ae/swfs/AMIR-Master-Base.swf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140912115714/http://www.newsgroup.ae/swfs/AMIR-Master-Base.swf |archive-date=12 September 2014 |access-date=12 September 2014 |publisher=AMIR |df=dmy-all}}</ref>

According to [[World Bank]], as of 2020, 98% of the population of Saudi Arabia are internet users which puts it in the 8th rank among countries with the highest percentage of internet users.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Individuals using the Internet (% of population) – Saudi Arabia {{!}} Data |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.NET.USER.ZS?locations=SA |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=data.worldbank.org}}</ref> Saudi Arabia has one of the fastest [[5G]] internet speeds in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-04-19 |title=Saudi 5G Is Fast, and New Spectrum Allocations Should Make it Faster |url=https://www.ookla.com/articles/saudi-5g-q1-2021 |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Ookla – Providing network intelligence to enable modern connectivity |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-10-20 |title=This country has the world's fastest 5G download speed |url=https://zeenews.india.com/technology/saudi-arabia-has-fastest-5g-download-speed-s-korea-second-full-list-of-15-countries-2318863.html |access-date=2022-06-08 |website=Zee News |language=en}}</ref> The kingdom is the 27th largest market for [[e-commerce]] with a revenue of US$8 billion in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=Jun 8, 2022 |title=The eCommerce market in Saudi Arabia |url=https://ecommercedb.com/en/markets/sa/all |access-date=Jun 8, 2022 |website=ecommerceDB}}</ref>

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Saudi Arabian cuisine|Arab cuisine}}

[[File:ArabicCoffee.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.7|[[Arabic coffee]] is a traditional beverage in Arabian cuisine.]]

Saudi Arabian cuisine is similar to that of the surrounding countries in the Arabian Peninsula and the wider Arab world, and has influenced and been influenced by Turkish, Indian, Persian, and African food. [[Islamic dietary laws]] are enforced: pork is not allowed, and other animals are slaughtered in accordance with [[halal]]. [[Kebab]]s and [[falafel]] are popular, as is [[shawarma]], a marinated grilled meat dish of lamb, mutton, or chicken. [[Kabsa]], a rice dish with lamb, chicken, fish, or shrimp, is among the national dishes as is [[mandi (food)|mandi]]. Flat, unleavened [[taboon bread]] is a staple of virtually every meal, as are dates, fresh fruit, yoghurt, and hummus. Coffee, served in the [[Arabic coffee|Arabic style]], is the traditional beverage, but tea and various fruit juices are popular as well.<ref name=Britannica /> The earliest substantiated evidence of either [[history of coffee|coffee drinking]] or knowledge of the coffee tree is from the 15th century, in the [[Sufi]] monasteries of Arabia.

=== Sport ===
{{Main|Sport in Saudi Arabia}}

{{see also|Saudi Arabia at the Olympics}}
[[File:King Fahd International Stadium, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia, April 2014.jpg|thumb|left|[[King Fahd International Stadium]] in [[Riyadh]]]]
[[Football in Saudi Arabia|Football]] is the national sport in Saudi Arabia. The [[Saudi Arabia national football team]] is among Asia's strongest, having reached a joint record six [[AFC Asian Cup]] finals, winning three of those finals ([[1984 AFC Asian Cup final|1984]], [[1988 AFC Asian Cup final|1988]], and [[1996 AFC Asian Cup final|1996]]) and [[Saudi Arabia at the FIFA World Cup|having qualified for the World Cup]] four consecutive times ever since debuting at the 1994 tournament. In the [[1994 FIFA World Cup]] under the leadership of [[Jorge Solari]], Saudi Arabia beat both Belgium and Morocco in the group stage before failing to defeat Sweden in the round of 16. During the [[1992 King Fahd Cup|1992 FIFA Confederations Cup]], which was played in Saudi Arabia, the country reached the [[1992 King Fahd Cup Final|final]], losing 1–3 to Argentina. Since 2023, Saudi Arabia's [[Public Investment Fund]] has brought many elite footballers to the country's league, such as [[Cristiano Ronaldo]], [[Roberto Firmino]], [[Neymar]], [[Sadio Mané]], [[Jordan Henderson]] and [[Kalidou Koulibaly]]. Even domestic competitions from Spain and Italy have been held in Saudi Arabia during the 2020s. In December 2024, Saudi Arabia was confirmed as host of the [[2034 FIFA World Cup]].<ref>{{Cite news |last=MacInnes |first=Paul |date=2024-12-11 |title=Saudi Arabia confirmed as 2034 World Cup host despite human rights concerns |url=https://www.theguardian.com/football/2024/dec/11/saudi-arabia-confirmed-as-2034-world-cup-host-despite-human-rights-concerns |access-date=2024-12-11 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> There are reportedly 11 new stadiums being built and airports are scheduled to be expanded to accommodate the expected influx of passengers.<ref>{{cite web |date=2024-08-01 |title=Saudi 2034 plans include stadium 350m above ground |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/football/articles/cqqlnel9z32o |access-date=2024-11-24 |website=BBC}}</ref>

Scuba diving, windsurfing, sailing, and basketball (which is played by both men and women) are also popular with the [[Saudi Arabia national basketball team|Saudi Arabian national basketball team]] winning bronze at the [[1999 ABC Championship|1999 Asian Championship]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Publications/Magazine/1998-Winter/slamdunk.htm |title=Saudi Arabian Slam Dunk, Fall 1997, Winter 1998, Volume 14, Number 4, Saudi Arabia |publisher=Saudiembassy.net |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028000423/http://saudiembassy.net/files/PDF/Publications/Magazine/1998-Winter/slamdunk.htm |archive-date=28 October 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |first=Joud |last=Al |url=http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article463435.ece |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120120102128/http://arabnews.com/saudiarabia/article463435.ece |archive-date=20 January 2012 |title=Saudi women show greater interest in sports and games |newspaper=Arab News }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |first=Todor |last=Krastev |url=http://todor66.com/basketball/Asia/Men_1999.html |title=Men Basketball Asia Championship 1999 Fukuoka (JPN)- 28.08–05.09 Winner China |publisher=Todor66.com |date=21 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118115942/http://todor66.com/basketball/Asia/Men_1999.html |archive-date=18 January 2012 }}</ref> More traditional sports such as [[horse racing]] and [[camel racing]] are also popular. The annual King's Camel Race, begun in 1974, is one of the sport's most important contests and attracts animals and riders from throughout the region. [[Falconry]] is another traditional pursuit.<ref name="Britannica" />

[[File:Sarah Attar Rio2016.jpg|thumb|right|[[Sarah Attar]] competing at the [[2012 Summer Olympics]] as one of the first two females representing Saudi Arabia|232x232px]]
[[Women's sport in Saudi Arabia|Women's sport]] is controversial because of the suppression of female participation in sport by conservative Islamic religious authorities,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/saudi-women-push-for-right-play-sports-447831.html |title=Saudi women push for right to play sports – Sport |newspaper=Arabian Business |publisher=ArabianBusiness.com |date= 1 March 2012}}</ref> however the restrictions have eased.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/saudi-arabia-opens-first-sports-centre-for-women-1.1192220 |title=Saudi Arabia opens first sports centre for women|publisher=GulfNews.com |date=3 June 2013 |access-date=28 June 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cnn.com/2013/05/05/world/meast/saudi-arabia-girls-sports |title=Saudi government sanctions sports in some girls' schools |publisher=CNN |date= 5 May 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Saudi Arabia: No women on Asian Games Team|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/09/17/saudi-arabia-no-women-asian-games-team|website=Human Rights Watch|date=18 September 2014}}</ref> Until 2018 women were not permitted in sport stadiums. Segregated seating, allowing women to enter, has been developed in three stadiums across major cities.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Grinberg and Hallam|first1=Emanuella and Jonny|title=Saudi Arabia to let women into sports stadiums|url=http://www.cnn.com/2017/10/29/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-sports-arenas/index.html|website=CNN/2017/10/29/middleeast/saudi-arabia-women-sports-arenas/index.html|date=30 October 2017|publisher=CNN|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref> Since 2020, the progress of women's integration into the Saudi sport scene began to develop rapidly.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-05 |title=Empowered through sports, Saudi females take the sector by storm |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/views/2021/12/05/Empowered-through-sports-Saudi-females-take-the-sector-by-storm |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=Al Arabiya English |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-03-08 |title=Saudi women's sport grows by leaps and bounds |url=https://arab.news/2pd2a |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=Arab News |language=en}}</ref> 25 Saudi sport federations established a national women's team,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Female athletes change the game in Saudi |url=https://www.visitsaudi.com/en/do/lifestyle/female-athletes-change-the-game-in-saudi |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=www.visitsaudi.com |language=en}}</ref> including a national [[Saudi Arabia women's national football team|football]] and [[Saudi Arabia women's national basketball team|basketball team]]. In November 2020, the [[Saudi Arabian Football Federation]] announced the launch of the first nationwide [[Saudi Women's Premier League|Saudi women's premier league]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Saudi Arabia stages first-ever nationwide women's league |url=https://www.fifa.com/womens-football/news/origin1904-p.cxm.fifa.comsaudi-arabia-stages-first-ever-nationwide-womens-league |access-date=2022-10-30 |website=www.fifa.com |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220192708/https://www.fifa.com/womens-football/news/origin1904-p.cxm.fifa.comsaudi-arabia-stages-first-ever-nationwide-womens-league|archive-date=2022-02-20}}</ref>

The nation has introduced many international sporting events. However, in August 2019, the kingdom's strategy received criticism for appearing as a method of [[Sportswashing in Saudi Arabia|sportswashing]] soon after Saudi's US-based 2018 lobbying campaign foreign registration documentations got published online. The documents showed Saudi Arabia as allegedly implementing a sportswashing strategy, including meetings and official calls with authorities of associations like [[Major League Soccer]], [[WWE in Saudi Arabia|World Wrestling Entertainment]], and the [[National Basketball Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2019/sep/02/sportswashing-saudi-arabia-sports-mohammed-bin-salman|title=Sportswashing: how Saudi Arabia lobbies the US's largest sports bodies|access-date=2 September 2019|website=The Guardian|date=2 September 2019}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Saudi Arabia|Asia|Middle East|Islam}}
* [[Outline of Saudi Arabia]]{{Clear}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}

== References ==
{{Duplicated citations|reason=DuplicateReferences script detected:
* https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-36083990 (refs: 229, 234)
* https://www.theguardian.com/world/2010/dec/05/wikileaks-cables-saudi-terrorist-funding (refs: 247, 252)
|date=August 2026}}

{{Reflist}}

== Bibliography ==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book |ref=Abir1987|title=Saudi Arabia in the oil era: regime and elites : conflict and collaboration |last=Abir |first=Mordechai |year=1987 |publisher=Croom Helm |isbn=978-0-7099-5129-2}}
* {{cite book|title=Saudi Arabia: Government, Society, and the Persian Gulf Crisis |last=Abir|first =Mordechai |year=1993 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-09325-5}}
* {{cite book|ref=Al-Rasheed |title=A History of Saudi Arabia |author=Al-Rasheed, Madawi |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-74754-7}}
* {{cite book |title=The History of Saudi Arabia |last=Bowen|first=Wayne H. |year=2007 |publisher=Greenwood Press |isbn=978-0-313-34012-3}}
* {{cite book |ref=Hegghammer|title=Jihad in Saudi Arabia: Violence and Pan-Islamism Since 1979 |author=Hegghammer, Thomas |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-73236-9}}
* {{Cite book|ref=House|title=On Saudi Arabia: Its People, Past, Religion, Fault Lines—and Future|last=House |first=Karen Elliott|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |year=2012 |isbn=978-0-307-27216-4}}
* {{cite book|ref=Long |title=Culture and Customs of Saudi Arabia |last=Long |first=David E. |year=2005 |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |isbn=978-0-313-32021-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/culturecustomsof00long }}
* {{cite book |ref=Malbouisson|title=Focus on Islamic issues |last=Malbouisson |first=Cofie D. |year=2007 |publisher=Nova Publishers |isbn=978-1-60021-204-8}}
* {{cite book |title=Sharia Incorporated: A Comparative Overview of the Legal Systems of Twelve Muslim Countries in Past and Present|ref=Otto |last=Otto |first=Jan Michiel |year=2010 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-90-8728-057-4}}
* {{cite book|title=CultureShock! A Survival Guide to Customs and Etiquette. Saudi Arabia
|last1=Tripp
|first1=Harvey
|last2=North
|first2=Peter
|edition=3rd
|date=2009
|publisher=Marshall Cavendish
|url=https://archive.org/stream/CultureShockSaudiArabia/Culture%20Shock!%20Saudi%20Arabia_djvu.txt|ref=HT2009}}
* {{cite book
|last1=Tripp
|first1=Harvey
|last2=North
|first2=Peter
|title=Culture Shock, Saudi Arabia. A Guide to Customs and Etiquette
|date=2003
|publisher=Times Media Private Limited
|place=Singapore; Portland, Oregon
|ref=HT2003}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|d=Q851|mw=no|species=no|m=no|voy=Saudi Arabia|collapsible=collapsed}}
* [https://www.saudi.gov.sa/ Saudi Arabia]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210930005408/https://www.saudi.gov.sa/ |date=30 September 2021 }} official government website.
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20260118101507/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/saudi-arabia/ Saudi Arabia]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]].
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14702705 Saudi Arabia profile] from the [[BBC News]]
* {{Wikiatlas|Saudi Arabia}}
* {{GovPubs|saudiarabia}}
* [http://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=SA Key Development Forecasts for Saudi Arabia] from [[International Futures]]

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