{{Short description|Academic discipline; implementation or management of policy}} {{About|the discipline|the journal|Public Administration (journal)}} {{See also|Public policy|Political science|Nonprofit management}} [[File:FEMA - 43019 - FEMA National Advistory Council meets in Washington, DC.jpg|thumb|Public administration is both an academic discipline and a field of practice; the latter is depicted in this picture of [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal public servants]] at a meeting.]] {{Politics sidebar|expanded=Public administration}} '''Public administration''', also known as '''public policy and administration''' or '''public management''', is the implementation of [[Public policy|public policies]], which are sets of proposed or decided actions to [[Problem solving|solve problems]] and address relevant [[Social issue|social and economic issues]]. Administrative effectiveness refers to the consistent performance of administrative duties and the timely achievement of set objectives (Akinfolarin, 2017). This implementation generally occurs through the administration of government programs in the [[public sector]], but also through the [[management]] of [[Nonprofit organization|non-profit organizations]] in the [[community sector]], and/or [[business]]es in the [[private sector]] that provide [[goods and services]] to the government through [[Public–private partnership|public-private partnerships]] and [[government procurement]].{{Cite SSRN |last=Lassance |first=Antonio |date=2020-11-10 |title=What Is a Policy and What Is a Government Program? A Simple Question With No Clear Answer, Until Now |language=en |ssrn=3727996}}{{cite web |title=Random House Unabridged Dictionary |url=http://dictionary.infoplease.com/public-administration |access-date=2014-08-23 |publisher=Dictionary.infoplease.com}}{{cite web |date=1 June 2021 |title=What is Public Policy? Why It's Important? {{!}} UoPeople |url=https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/what-is-public-policy/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012114324/https://www.uopeople.edu/blog/what-is-public-policy/ |archive-date=12 October 2022 |access-date=12 October 2022 |website=University of the People}}Robert and Janet Denhardt, ''Public Administration: An Action Orientation''. 6th Ed. 2009: Thomson Wadsworth, Belmont, CA. It has also been characterized as the "translation of politics into the reality that citizens experience every day."Kettl, Donald, and James Fessler. 2009. ''The Politics of the Administrative Process''. Washington D.C.: CQ Press In an academic context, public administration has been described as the study of government [[decision-making]]; the analysis of policies and the inputs that have produced them, as well as those necessary to produce alternative policies.Jerome B. McKinney and Lawrence C. Howard. Public Administration: Balancing Power and Accountability. 2nd Ed. 1998: Praeger Publishing, Westport, CT. p. 62 It is also a subfield of [[political science]] taught in [[public policy school]]s where studies of policy processes and the structures, functions, and behavior of public institutions and their relationships with broader society take place. The study and application of public administration is founded on the principle that the proper functioning of an organization or institution relies on effective management. In [[contemporary literature]], it is also recognized as applicable to private businesses and nonprofit organizations.{{Cite book |author1=David H. Rosenbloom |title=Public Administration: Understanding Management, Politics, and Law in the Public Sector |author2=Robert S. Kravchuk |author3=Richard M Clerkin |date=27 January 2022 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781003198116 |location=New York}} The mid-twentieth century saw the rise of German [[Sociology|sociologist]] [[Max Weber]]'s theory of [[bureaucracy]], bringing about a substantive interest in the theoretical aspects of public administration. ==Definitions== [[File:US Navy 020614-N-0552D-001 SPAWAR award winning employee.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Administrators tend to work with both paper documents and computer files: "There has been a significant shift from paper to electronic records during the past two decades."{{cite web|url=https://www.ipc.on.ca/wp-content/uploads/Resources/up-erdms_e.pdf |title=Electronic Records and Document Management Systems: A New Tool for Enhancing the Public's Right to Access Government-Held Information? |access-date=2017-04-29}} Pictured here is Stephen C. Dunn, Deputy Comptroller for the US Navy.]] In 1947, [[Paul H. Appleby]] defined public administration as the "public leadership of public affairs directly responsible for executive action." In democracies, it usually has to do with leadership and executive action that respect and contribute to the dignity, worth, and potential of the citizen.Appleby, Paul 1947. "Toward Better Public Administration", ''[[Public Administration Review]]'' Vol. 7, No. 2 pp. 93–99. One year later, Gordon Clapp, then Chairman of the [[Tennessee Valley Authority]], defined public administration "as a public instrument whereby democratic society may be more completely realized." This implies that it must relate itself to concepts of justice, liberty, and fuller economic opportunity for human beings and is thus concerned with "people, with ideas, and with things".Clapp, Gordon. 1948. "Public Administration in an Advancing South", ''[[Public Administration Review]]'' Vol. 8. No. 2 pp. 169–75. Clapp attributed part of this definition to Charles Beard. James D. Carroll and Alfred M. Zuck called [[Woodrow Wilson]]'s publication of his essay, "[[The Study of Administration]]", "the beginning of public administration as a specific and influential field of study."Carroll, J.D. & Zuck, A.M. (1983). "The Study of Public Administration Revisited". ''A Report of the Centennial Agendas project of the American Society for Public Administration''. Washington, DC; American Society for Public Administration. More recently, scholars claim that "public administration has no generally accepted definition" because the "scope of the subject is so great and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define."{{cite web|url=https://thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/public-administration|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170328003943/http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/public-administration/|url-status=live|archive-date=March 28, 2017|title=Public Administration | the Canadian Encyclopedia|access-date=March 13, 2018}} Public administration is a field of study (i.e., a discipline) and an occupation. There is much disagreement about whether the study of public administration can properly be called a discipline, largely because of the debate over whether it is a subfield of political science or of administrative science, the latter an outgrowth of its roots in policy analysis and evaluation research.{{cite journal |last=Haveman |first=R. H. |year=1987 |title=Policy analysis and evaluation research after twenty years |journal=Policy Studies Journal |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=191–218|doi=10.1111/j.1541-0072.1987.tb00775.x }} Scholar Donald F. Kettl is among those who view public administration "as a sub-field within political science."{{cite web |title=The Future of Public Administration |first=Donald F. |last=Kettl |url=http://www.h-net.org/~pubadmin/tfreport/kettl.pdf |publisher=H-net.org |access-date=October 25, 2010}} According to Lalor, a society with a public authority that provides at least one public good can be said to have a public administration. In contrast, the absence of either (or ''a fortiori'' both) a public authority or the provision of at least one public good implies the absence of a public administration. He argues that public administration is the public provision of public goods, in which the demand function is satisfied more or less effectively by politics, whose primary tool is rhetoric. The supply function is more or less efficiently satisfied by public management, whose primary tools are speech acts and the production of public goods. The moral purpose of public administration, implicit in its acceptance of its role, is the maximization of the opportunities of the public to satisfy its wants.{{cite book |last=Lalor |first=Stephen |title=A General Theory of Public Administration |year=2014}} The [[North American Industry Classification System]] definition of the Public Administration sector (NAICS 91) states that public administration "... comprises establishments primarily engaged in activities of a governmental nature, that is, the enactment and judicial interpretation of laws and their pursuant regulations, and the administration of programs based on them." This includes "legislative activities, taxation, national defense, public order and safety, immigration services, foreign affairs and international assistance, and the administration of government programs are activities that are purely governmental in nature."{{cite web |url=http://www.ic.gc.ca/cis-sic/cis-sic.nsf/IDE/cis-sic91defe.html |title=Definition Public Administration (NAICS 91) |publisher=Ic.gc.ca |access-date=October 25, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130506223436/http://www.ic.gc.ca/cis-sic/cis-sic.nsf/IDE/cis-sic91defe.html |archive-date=May 6, 2013 |url-status=dead }} ==History== ===Antiquity=== Dating back to antiquity, states have required officials like pages, treasurers, and tax collectors to administer the practical business of government. Before the 19th century, the staffing of most public administrations was rife with nepotism, favoritism, and political patronage, which was often referred to as a "[[spoils system]]".{{Cite web |title=Spoils system {{!}} Definition, Examples, Significance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/spoils-system |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} ====Ancient India==== {{Main|Charvaka#Public administration}} The [[Harappa]] and [[Mohenjo-daro]] civilizations had organized bodies of public servants, suggesting the presence of some form of public administration. Numerous references exist to [[Brihaspati]]'s contributions to laws and governance. An excerpt from [[Ain-i-Akbari]] [vol.III, tr. by H. S. Barrett, p. 217–218], written by [[Abu'l-Fazl ibn Mubarak]], mentions a symposium of philosophers from various faiths held in 1578 at Akbar's instance.{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Vincent |title=The Jain Teachers of Akbar |publisher=Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |year=1917}} It is believed that some [[Charvaka]] thinkers may have participated in the symposium. In "[[Āstika and nāstika|Naastika]]", Fazl refers to the Charvaka law-makers, emphasizing "good work, judicious administration, and welfare schemes". [[Somadeva]] also describes the Charvaka method of defeating the nation's enemies, referring to thirteen disguised enemies in the kingdom with selfish interests who should not be spared. [[Chanakya|Kautilya]] presents a detailed scheme to remove the enemies in the guise of friends. The Charvaka stalwart, Brihaspati, is more ancient than Kautilya and Somadeva. He appears to have been contemporaneous with the Harappa and Mohenjo-daro cultures. Archaeological evidence regarding kings, priests, and palaces in the Harappa and [[Mohenjo-daro|Mohenjo-Daro]] excavations is limited.{{Cite web |date=2009-10-09 |title=The lost city of Mohenjo Daro |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/mohenjo-daro |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=History |language=en}} However, the presence of complex civilization and public facilities such as granaries and bathhouses, along with the existence of large cities, indicates the likelihood of centralized governance. The uniformity of the artifacts and brick sizes suggests some form of centralized governance. Although speculation regarding social hierarchies and class structures is plausible, the absence of discernible elite burial sites also suggests that most citizens were almost equal in status. ====Ancient China==== The field of [[management]] may have originated in ancient [[China]],Ewan Ferlie, Laurence E. Lynn, Christopher Pollitt (2005) ''The Oxford Handbook of Public Management'', p.30. including, possibly, the first highly centralized bureaucratic state and the earliest (by the second century BC) example of a [[meritocracy]] based on [[Imperial examination|civil service tests]].Kazin, Edwards, and Rothman (2010), 142. ''One of the oldest examples of a merit-based civil service system existed in the imperial bureaucracy of China.'' * {{cite book|last1=Tan|first1=Chung|first2=Yinzheng|last2=Geng|title=India and China: twenty centuries of civilization interaction and vibrations|year=2005|publisher=University of Michigan Press|page=128|quote=China not only produced the world's first "bureaucracy", but also the world's first "meritocracy"}} * {{cite book|last=Konner|first=Melvin|title=Unsettled: an anthropology of the Jews|url=https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn|url-access=registration|year=2003|publisher=Viking Compass|page=[https://archive.org/details/unsettledanthrop00konn/page/217 217]|isbn=9780670032440|quote=China is the world's oldest meritocracy}} * {{cite journal |last1=Tucker|first1=Mary Evelyn|year=2009|title=Touching the Depths of Things: Cultivating Nature in East Asia|journal=Ecology and the Environment: Perspectives from the Humanities|page=51|quote=To staff these institutions, they created the oldest meritocracy in the world, in which government appointments were based on civil service examinations that drew on the values of the Confucian Classics}} In regards to public administration, China was considered to be "advanced" compared to the rest of the world up until the end of the 18th century. Though Chinese administration cannot be traced to any one individual, figures of the [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Fa-Jia]] emphasizing a [[merit system]], like [[Shen Buhai]] (400–337 BCE), may have had the most influence, and could be considered its founders, if they are not valuable as rare pre-modern examples of the abstract theory of administration. Creel writes that, in Shen Buhai, there are the "seeds of the [[civil service examination]]", and that, if one wishes to exaggerate, it would "no doubt be possible to translate Shen Buhai's term Shu, or technique, as 'science'", and argue that he was the first political scientist, though Creel does "not care to go this far".Creel, What Is Taoism?, 94 * Creel, 1974, p.4, 119 Shen Pu-hai: A Chinese Political Philosopher of the Fourth Century B.C. * Creel 1964: 155–6 * Herrlee G. Creel, 1974, p.119. Shen Pu-Hai: A Secular Philosopher of Administration, Journal of Chinese Philosophy Volume 1. * Paul R. Goldin, p.16, Persistent Misconceptions about Chinese Legalism. https://www.academia.edu/24999390/Persistent_Misconceptions_about_Chinese_Legalism_ ===Medieval to 19th-century=== Public administrators have long been the "eyes and ears" of rulers. In medieval times, the ability to read and write, as well as to add and subtract, was as dominated by the educated elite as public employment was. Consequently, the need for expert civil servants whose ability to read and write formed the basis for developing expertise in such necessary activities as legal record-keeping, paying and feeding armies, and levying taxes. As the [[European imperialism|European imperialist age]] progressed and the military powers extended their hold over other continents and people, the need for a sophisticated public administration grew.{{Cite journal |last=Basheka |first=B.C. |date=March 2012 |title=THE PARADIGMS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION RE-EXAMINED: A REFLECTION |url=https://hdl.handle.net/10520/EJC121371 |journal=Journal of Public Administration |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=25–67 |hdl=10520/EJC121371 |via=Sabinet African Journals}} In the 18th century, [[Frederick William I of Prussia]] established professorates in [[Kameralism|Cameralism]] to train a new class of public administrators. The universities of [[Frankfurt an der Oder]] and the [[University of Halle]] were [[Prussia]]n institutions emphasizing economic and social disciplines, with the goal of societal reform. [[Johann Heinrich Gottlob Justi]] was a well-known professor of [[Cameralism]].{{cn|date=July 2026}} The development of French bureaucracy, like that of the British, was influenced by the Chinese system. [[Voltaire]] claimed that the Chinese had "perfected moral science" and [[François Quesnay]] advocated an economic and political system modeled after that of the Chinese.{{cite book |author1=Mark W. Huddleston |author2=William W. Boyer |title=The Higher Civil Service in the United States: Quest for Reform |date=1996 |publisher=University of Pittsburgh Press |isbn=0822974738 |page=15}} French civil service examinations adopted in the late 19th century were also heavily based on general cultural studies. These features have been likened to the earlier Chinese model.{{cite book |last1=Rung |first1=Margaret C. |title=Servants of the State: Managing Diversity & Democracy in the Federal Workforce, 1933–1953 |date=2002 |publisher=University of Georgia Press |isbn=0820323624 |pages=8,200–201 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ucVgkbmqynUC}} [[Thomas Taylor Meadows]], the British consul in [[Guangzhou]], argued in his ''Desultory Notes on the Government and People of China'' (1847) that "the long duration of the Chinese empire is solely and altogether owing to the good government which consists in the advancement of men of talent and merit only". Influenced by the ancient Chinese imperial examination, the [[Northcote–Trevelyan Report]] of 1854 recommended that recruitment should be based on merit determined through competitive examination, candidates should have a solid general education to enable inter-departmental transfers, and promotion should be through achievement rather than "preferment, patronage, or purchase".[http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf Full text of the Northcote-Trevelyan Report] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222072511/http://www.civilservant.org.uk/northcotetrevelyan.pdf |date=22 December 2014 }}{{cite web|last=Bodde|first=Derke|title=China: A Teaching Workbook|url=http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/readings/inventions_ideas.htm|publisher=Columbia University}} This led to implementation of [[Her Majesty's Civil Service]] as a systematic, meritocratic civil service bureaucracy.{{cite news|last=Walker|first=David|title=Fair game|work=The Guardian|date=2003-07-09|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2003/jul/09/publicsector.guardiansocietysupplement|access-date =2003-07-09|location=London, UK}} [[Lorenz von Stein]], a 1855 German professor from Vienna, is considered the founder of the science of public administration in many parts of the world. {{citation needed|date=August 2024}} In the time of Von Stein, public administration was considered a form of administrative law, but Von Stein believed this concept was too restrictive. Von Stein taught that public administration relies on many pre-established disciplines such as [[sociology]], political science, [[administrative law]], and [[public finance]]. He called public administration an integrating science and stated that public administrators should be concerned with both theory and practice. He argued that public administration is a science because knowledge is generated and evaluated according to the scientific method.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} ===United States=== [[File:Woodrow Wilson (Nobel 1919).jpg|thumb|[[Woodrow Wilson]]]] ====Foundations==== The father of public administration in the US is considered to be [[Woodrow Wilson]].{{cite journal |last1=Stivers |first1=C |last2=McDonald |first2=B. D. |year=2023 |title=Teaching Public Administration Historically |journal=Journal of Public Affairs Education |volume=29 |issue=3 |pages=275–279 |doi=10.1080/15236803.2023.2205805}} He first formally recognized public administration in an 1887 article entitled "[[The Study of Administration]]". The future president wrote that "it is the object of administrative study to discover, first, what government can properly and successfully do, and, secondly, how it can do these proper things with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or energy."Wilson, Woodrow. June 1887. "[[The Study of Administration]]", ''Political Science Quarterly'' 2. By the 1920s, scholars of public administration had responded to Wilson's call, and textbooks in the field had been introduced. Distinguished scholars of that period include [[Luther Gulick (social scientist)|Luther Gulick]], [[Lyndall Urwick]], [[Henri Fayol]], and [[Frederick Winslow Taylor|Frederick Taylor]]. Taylor argued in ''[[The Principles of Scientific Management]],'' that scientific analysis would lead to the discovery of the "[a] best way" to do things or carry out an operation. Taylor's technique was introduced to private industrialists, and later to various government organizations.{{cite book |first1=Chun Hai |last1=Jeong |first2=Nor Fadzlina |last2=Nawi |year=2007 |title=Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction |location=Kuala Lumpur |publisher=Karisma Publications |isbn=978-983-195-253-5}} [[Image:Exec bldg.JPG|right|thumb|The [[Eisenhower Executive Office Building]] at night]] In 1937, the [[Brownlow Committee]], which was a presidentially commissioned panel of [[political science]] and public administration experts, recommended sweeping changes to the executive branch of the [[Federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]], including the creation of the Executive Office of the President. Based on these recommendations, President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] lobbied Congress in 1939 to approve the [[Reorganization Act of 1939]]. The Act led to Reorganization Plan No. 1,{{cite news |last= Roosevelt |first= Franklin D. |url= http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=15748 |title= Message to Congress on the Reorganization Act |date= April 25, 1939 |department= John T. Woolley and Gerhard Peters |work= The American Presidency Project |location= Santa Barbara |publisher= University of California |access-date=May 6, 2011}} which created the office,{{cite book |last= Mosher |first= Frederick C. |title= American Public Administration: Past, Present, Future |edition= 2nd |location= Birmingham |publisher= University of Alabama Press |year= 1975 |isbn= 0817348298}} which reported directly to the president. The [[American Society for Public Administration]] (ASPA), the leading professional group for public administration, was founded in 1939. ASPA sponsors the journal [[Public Administration Review]], which was founded in 1940.{{cite web |url=http://www.aspanet.org/scriptcontent/ASPAgeneral.cfm |title=Our Web Site Has Moved! |publisher=Aspanet.org |access-date=2014-08-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111203193218/http://www.aspanet.org/scriptcontent/ASPAgeneral.cfm |archive-date=2011-12-03 |url-status=dead }} The [[National Academy of Public Administration (United States)|National Academy of Public Administration]] (NAPA) is a United States nonprofit, non-governmental, non-partisan organization. As a [[Congressional charter|congressionally chartered]] [[national academy]], its mission is to produce independent research and studies that advance the field of public administration and facilitate the development, adoption, and implementation of solutions to government's most significant challenges.''[https://napawash.org/who-we-are Who We Are]'' ''National Academy of Public Administration'' Retrieved March 12, 2025. ====1940s: Administrative theory==== [[File:Luther Gulick (social scientist).jpg|thumb|left|[[Luther Gulick (social scientist)|Luther Gulick]] (1892–1993) was an expert on public administration.]] The separation of politics and administration advocated by Wilson continues to play a significant role in public administration today. However, the dominance of this dichotomy was challenged by second-generation scholars beginning in the 1940s. [[Luther Gulick (social scientist)|Luther Gulick]]'s fact-value dichotomy was a key contender for Wilson's proposed [[politics-administration dichotomy]]. In place of Wilson's first-generation split, Gulick advocated a "seamless web of discretion and interaction".Fry, Brian R. 1989. Mastering Public Administration: From Max Weber to Dwight Waldo. Chatham, New Jersey: Chatham House Publishers, Inc., p. 80 Luther Gulick and [[Lyndall Urwick]] are two second-generation scholars. Gulick, Urwick, and the new generation of administrators built on the work of contemporary behavioral, administrative, and organizational scholars including [[Henri Fayol]], [[Fredrick Winslow Taylor]], Paul Appleby, Frank Goodnow, and Willam Willoughby. The new generation of organizational theories no longer relies on logical assumptions and generalizations about human nature, as do classical and enlightened theorists. Gulick developed a comprehensive, generic theory of organization that emphasized the scientific method, efficiency, professionalism, structural reform, and executive control. Gulick summarized the duties of administrators with an acronym, [[POSDCORB]], which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting. Fayol developed a systematic, 14-point treatment of private management. Second-generation theorists drew upon private management practices for administrative sciences. A single, generic management theory that blurred the borders between the private and public sectors was thought to be possible. Within the general theory, administrative theory could focus on governmental organizations. The mid-1940s theorists challenged Wilson and Gulick. The politics-administration dichotomy remained the center of criticism. ====1950s–1970s: Expansion and reform==== During the 1950s, the United States experienced prolonged prosperity and solidified its place as a world leader. Public administration experienced a kind of heyday due to the successful war effort and successful post-war reconstruction in Western Europe and Japan. The government was popular, as was President Eisenhower. In the 1960s and 1970s, the government itself came under fire as ineffective, inefficient, and largely a wasted effort. The costly [[Vietnam War]] and domestic scandals, including the bugging of Democratic Party headquarters (the 1974 [[Watergate]] scandal), are two examples of self-destructive government behavior that alienated citizens. [[File:B-52D(061127-F-1234S-017).jpg|thumb|right|The costly [[Vietnam War]] alienated U.S. citizens from their government. Pictured is [[Operation Arc Light]], a U.S. bombing operation.]] There was a call by citizens for efficient administration to replace ineffective, wasteful bureaucracy. Public administration would have to distance itself from politics to answer this call and remain effective. Elected officials supported these reforms. The [[Hoover Commission]], chaired by University of Chicago professor [[Louis Brownlow]], examines the reorganization of government. Brownlow subsequently founded the Public Administration Service (PAS) at the university, an organization that provided consulting services to all levels of government until the 1970s. Concurrently, after [[World War II]], the entire concept of public administration expanded to include policymaking and analysis; thus, the study of "administrative policy making and analysis" was introduced and integrated into government decision-making bodies. Later on, the human factor became a predominant concern and a focus of emphasis in the study of public administration. This period witnessed the development and incorporation of knowledge from other social sciences, predominantly psychology, anthropology, and sociology, into the study of public administration (Jeong, 2007). Henceforth, the emergence of scholars such as [[Fritz Morstein Marx]], with his book ''The Elements of Public Administration'' (1946), Paul H. Appleby ''Policy and Administration'' (1952), Frank Marini 'Towards a New Public Administration' (1971), and others that have contributed positively in these endeavors. Stimulated by events during the 1960s such as an active civil rights movement, the Vietnam War and war protests, assassinations of a president and civil rights leaders, and an active women's movement, public administration changed course somewhat. Landmark legislation such as the [[Equal Pay Act of 1963]] and the [[Civil Rights Act of 1964]] also gave public administrators new responsibilities. These events were manifest in the public administration profession through the new public administration movement. "Under the stimulating patronage of Dwight Waldo, some of the best of the younger generation of scholars challenged the doctrine they had received".Schick, A. (1975). The trauma of politics: public administration in the sixties. In Mosher, F. (Ed.), American Public Administration: Past, Present, Future, pp. 142–80. University of Alabama Press (p. 161). These new scholars demanded more policy-oriented public administrators that incorporated "four themes: relevance, values, equity, and change".Schick, A. (1975). The trauma of politics: public administration in the sixties. In Mosher, F. (Ed.), American Public Administration: Past, Present, Future, pp. 142–80. University of Alabama Press. (p. 162). All of these themes would encourage more participation among women and minorities.Shields, P. M., & Elias, N. M. (2022). Introduction to the Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.)Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. pp.1 – 19. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781789904727/9781789904727.00008.xml Stimulated by the events of the '60s, the 1970s brought significant change to the American Society for Public Administration. Racial and ethnic minorities and women members organized to seek greater participation.Foye-Cox, N. (2006). Women in public administration: breaking new ground. In Felbinger, C. and Haynes, W. (Eds.), Profiles of Outstanding Women in Public Administration, pp. 7–42. American Society for Public Administration. Eventually, the Conference on Minority Public Administrators and the Section for Women in Public Administration were established.Rubin, M. (1990). Women in ASPA: the fifty-year climb toward equality. Public Administration Review, 50(2), 277–87. The 1968 [[Minnowbrook Conference]], which convened at [[Syracuse University]] under the leadership of [[Dwight Waldo]], gave rise to the concept of [[New Public Administration]].{{Cite journal |url=https://academic.oup.com/jpart/article/21/suppl_1/i1/913462 |access-date=2024-02-17 |title=Minnowbrook: Tradition, Idea, Spirit, Event, Challenge |first=Rosemary |last=O'Leary |journal=Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory |volume=21 |issue=1 |year=2011 |pages=i1–i6|doi=10.1093/jopart/muq066 }} ====1980s–1990s: Managerial reform==== In the late 1980s, yet another generation of public administration theorists began to displace the last. The new theory, which came to be called [[New Public Management]], was proposed by David Osborne and Ted Gaebler in their book ''Reinventing Government''.{{Cite journal | last = Kamensky | first = John M. | title = Role of the "Reinventing Government" movement in Federal management reform | journal = [[Public Administration Review]] | volume = 56 | issue = 3 | pages = 247–55 | doi = 10.2307/976448 | jstor = 976448 | date = May–June 1996 }} The new model advocated the use of [[private sector]]-style models, organizational ideas and values to improve the efficiency and service-orientation of the public sector. During the [[Clinton Administration]] (1993–2001), Vice President [[Al Gore]] adopted and reformed federal agencies using NPM approaches. In the 1990s, new public management became prevalent throughout the bureaucracies of the US, the UK, and, to a lesser extent, in Canada. The original public management theories have roots attributed to policy analysis, according to [[Richard Elmore]] in his 1986 article published in the "[[Journal of Policy Analysis and Management]]".{{Cite journal | last = Elmore | first = Richard F. | author-link = Richard Elmore | title = Graduate education in public management: working the seams of government | journal = [[Journal of Policy Analysis and Management]] | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–83 | doi = 10.1002/pam.4050060107 | date = 1986 }} Some modern authors define NPM as a combination of splitting large bureaucracies into smaller, more fragmented agencies; encouraging competition among public agencies and between public agencies and private firms; and using economic incentive lines (e.g., performance pay for senior executives or user-pay models).{{Cite journal | last1 = Margetts | first1 = Helen | last2 = Dunleavy | first2 = Patrick | last3 = Bastow | first3 = Simon | last4 = Tinkler | first4 = Jane | author-link1 = Helen Margetts | author-link2 = Patrick Dunleavy | title = New public management is dead – long live digital-era governance | journal = [[Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory]] | volume = 16 | issue = 3 | pages = 467–94 | doi = 10.1093/jopart/mui057 | date = July 2006 | doi-access = free }} NPM treats individuals as "customers" or "clients" (in the private sector sense), rather than as citizens.[[Diane Stone]], (2008) "Global Public Policy, Transnational Policy Communities and their Networks", ''Journal of Policy Sciences''. Some critics{{Cite journal |last=Thomas |first=John Clayton |date=November–December 2013 |title=Citizen, Customer, Partner: Rethinking the Place of the Public in Public Management |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42003125 |journal=Public Administration Review |volume=73 |issue=6 |pages=786–796 |doi=10.1111/puar.12109 |jstor=42003125 |url-access=subscription }}{{Cite journal |last=Mathiasen |first=David |date=31 July 2000 |title=The new public management and its critics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1096749400874334 |journal=Elsevier |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=90–111 |doi=10.1016/S1096-7494(00)87433-4 |via=Science Direct|url-access=subscription }} argue that the New Public Management concept of treating people as "customers" rather than "citizens" is an inappropriate borrowing from the private sector model, because businesses see customers as a means to an end (profit), rather than as the proprietors of government (the owners), opposed to merely the customers of a business (the patrons). In New Public Management, people are viewed as economic units, not as democratic participants, which is the hazard of linking an MBA (business administration, economic and employer-based model) too closely with the public administration (governmental, [[Public good (economics)|public good]]) sector. Nevertheless, the NPM model (one of four described by Elmore in 1986, including the "generic model") is still widely accepted at multiple levels of government (e.g., municipal, state/province, and federal) and in many OECD nations.{{citation needed|date=August 2024}} In the late 1990s, Janet and Robert Denhardt proposed a new public services model in response to the dominance of NPM.{{Cite journal | last1 = Denhardt | first1 = Robert B. | last2 = Vinzant Denhardt | first2 = Janet | title = The new public service: serving rather than steering | journal = [[Public Administration Review]] | volume = 60 | issue = 6 | pages = 549–59 | doi = 10.1111/0033-3352.00117 | jstor = 977437 | date = November–December 2000 }} A successor to NPM is [[digital era governance]], focusing on themes of reintegrating government responsibilities, needs-based holism (executing duties in cursive ways), and digitalization (exploiting the transformational capabilities of modern IT and digital storage). One example of DEG deployment is [[Open Forum (Australia)|openforum.com.au]]. This Australian not-for-profit e-Democracy project invites politicians, senior public servants, academics, business people, and other key stakeholders to engage in high-level policy debate. Another example is Brunei's Information Department in deploying Social Media technology to improve its Digital Governance process.Omar, A. M. (2020). Digital Era Governance and Social Media: The Case of Information Department Brunei. In Employing Recent Technologies for Improved Digital Governance (pp. 19–35). IGI Global. The book chapter work concludes that digital dividends can be secured through the effective application of Social Media within the framework of Digital Era Governance. Another new public service model is what has been called New Public Governance, an approach that includes a centralization of power; an increased number, role, and influence of partisan-political staff; personal-politicization of appointments to the senior public service; and the assumption that the public service is promiscuously partisan for the government of the day.Aucoin, Peter (2008). "New Public Management and the Quality of Government: Coping with the New Political Governance in Canada", Conference on ''New Public Management and the Quality of Government'', SOG and the Quality of Government Institute, University of Gothenburg, Sweden, 13–15 November 2008, p. 14. In the mid-1980s, the goals of community programs in the United States were often expressed in terms such as independent living, [[community integration]], inclusion, community participation, [[deinstitutionalization]], and civil rights. Thus, the same public policy (and public administration) was to apply to all citizens, including those with disabilities. However, by the 1990s, categorical state systems were strengthened in the United States (Racino, in press, 2014), and efforts were made to introduce more disability content into the public policy curricula{{Cite journal | last1 = Elmore | first1 = Richard F. | last2 = Watson | first2 = Sara | last3 = Pfeiffer | first3 = David | author-link1 = Richard Elmore | title = A case for including disability policy issues in public policy curricula | journal = Journal of Policy Analysis and Management (Curriculum and Case Notes) | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 167–73 | doi = 10.2307/3325146 | date = 1992 | jstor = 3325146 }} with disability public policy (and administration) distinct fields in their own right.{{Citation | last = Zola | first = Irving K. | author-link = Irving Zola | contribution = Introduction | editor-last1 = Brown | editor-first1 = Susan T. | title = An Independent Living Approach to Disability Policy Studies | publisher = Research and Training Center on Public Policy And Independent Living, World Institute on Disability | location = Berkeley, CA | year = 1993 | oclc = 36404707 | postscript = .}}{{cite book | last = Racino | first = Julie A. | title = Public administration and disability community services administration in the US | publisher = CRC Press | location = Boca Raton | year = 2015 | isbn = 9781466579828 }} Behaviorists have also dominated "intervention practice" (generally not the province of public administration) in recent years, believing that they are in opposition to generic public policy (termed [[ecological systems theory]], of the late [[Urie Bronfenbrenner]]). Increasingly, public policy academics and practitioners have used the theoretical concepts of [[political economy]] to explain policy outcomes, such as the success or failure of reform efforts and the persistence of suboptimal outcomes.{{cite book |last1=Corduneanu-Huci |first1=Cristina |first2=Alexander |last2=Hamilton |first3=Issel |last3=Masses Ferrer |year=2012 |title=Understanding Policy Change: How to Apply Political Economy Concepts in Practice |publisher=The World Bank |location=Washington, D.C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oKShuAAACAAJ }}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} ====Alternative traditions in public administration==== =====Women's civic clubs and the Settlement movement===== Contemporary scholars Shields, P. M., & Elias, N. M. (2022). Introduction to the ''Handbook on Gender and Public Administration''. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.)''Handbook on Gender and Public Administration''. pp.1 – 19. Edward Elgar Publishing. https://www.elgaronline.com/view/edcoll/9781789904727/9781789904727.00008.xmlStivers, C. (2000). ''Bureau Men, Settlement Women: Constructing Public Administration in the Progressive Era''. University Press of Kansas.Burnier, D. (2008). Erased history: Frances Perkins and the emergence of care-centered public administration. ''Administration & Society'', 40(4), 403–22.Burnier, D. (2022). The long road of administrative memory: Jane Addams, Frances Perkins and care-centered administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.),''Handbook on Gender and Public Administration''. Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar Publishing. are reclaiming a companion public administration origin story that includes women's contributions. This has become known as the "alternative" or "settlement" model of public administration. During the 19th century, upper-class women in the United States and Europe organized voluntary associations that worked to mitigate the excesses of urbanization and industrialization in their towns. Eventually, these voluntary associations became networks capable of spearheading changes in policy and administration.Skocpol, T. (1992). ''Protecting Soldiers and Mothers: The Political Origins of Social Policy in the United States''. Harvard University Press.Hunt, K. (2006). Women as citizens: changing the polity. In Simonton, D. (Ed.), ''The Routledge History of Women in Europe Since 1700'', pp. 216–58. Routledge. These women's civic clubs worked to make cities and workplaces safer (cleaner streets, water, sewage, and workplaces) and more suited to the needs of their children (playgrounds, libraries, juvenile courts, child labor laws). These were administrative and policy spaces that their fathers and husbands ignored. The work of these clubs was amplified by newly organized non-profit organizations ([[Settlement houses|Settlement Houses]]), usually situated in industrialized city slums filled with immigrants.Shields, P. (2022). The origins of the settlement model of public administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.), ''Handbook on Gender and Public Administration''. Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar Publishing.Shields, P. (2017). Jane Addams: pioneer in American sociology, social work, and public administration. In Shields, P. (Ed.), ''Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration'', pp. 43–67. Springer.Burnier, D. (2021). Hiding in plain sight: recovering public administration's lost Legacy of social justice, ''Administrative Theory & Praxis'', https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2021.1891796. Reforms that emerged from the [[New Deal]] (e.g., income for older people, unemployment insurance, aid for dependent children and people with disabilities, child labor prohibitions, and limits on hours worked) were supported by leaders of the Settlement movement. Richard Stillman Stillman II, R. (1998). Creating the American State: The Moral Reformers and the Modern Administrative World They Made. University of Alabama Press, p. 82. credits [[Jane Addams]], a key leader of the Settlement movement and a pioneer of public administration, with "conceiving and spawning" the modern welfare state. The accomplishments of the Settlement movement and their conception of public administration were ignored in the early literature of public administration. The alternative model of Public Administration was invisible or buried for about 100 years until Camilla Stivers published ''Bureau Men and Settlement Women'' in 2000.Stivers, C. (2000). Bureau Men, Settlement Women: Constructing Public Administration in the Progressive Era. University Press of Kansas. Settlement workers explicitly fought for social justice as they campaigned for reform. They sought policy changes that would improve the lives of immigrants, women, children, the sick, the old, and the impoverished. Both municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship applied an ethic of care informed by the feminine experience of policy and administration.Burnier, D. (2022). The long road of administrative memory: Jane Addams, Frances Perkins and care-centered administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.), Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. Cheltenham, UK, and Northampton, MA, USA, Edward Elgar Publishing. While they saw the relevance of the traditional public administration values (efficiency, effectiveness, etc.) and practicesSchachter, H.L. (2002). Women, progressive-era reform, and scientific management. ''Administration & Society'', 34(5), 563–78.Schachter, H.L. (2011). The New York School of Philanthropy, the Bureau of Municipal Research, and the trail of the missing women: a public administration history detective story. ''Administration & Society'', 43(1), 3–21. of their male reformist counterparts, they also emphasized social justice and social equity. Jane Addams, for example, was a founder of the [[NAACP|National Association for the Advancement of Colored People]] (NAACP).Shields, P. (ed.)(2017) ''Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration'', Springer. =====The Settlement Model of Public Administration===== The Settlement movement and its leaders, such as Jane Addams, [[Julia Lathrop]], and [[Florence Kelley]], were instrumental in crafting an alternative, feminine-inspired model of public administration.McGuire, J.T. (2011). Continuing an alternative view of public administration: Mary van Kleeck and industrial citizenship, 1918–1927. Administration & Society, 43(1), 66–86. This settlement model of public administration had two interrelated components – municipal housekeeping and industrial citizenship. Municipal housekeepingShields, P. (2017). Jane Addams: pioneer in American sociology, social work and public administration. In Shields, P. (Ed.), Jane Addams: Progressive Pioneer of Peace, Philosophy, Sociology, Social Work and Public Administration, pp. 43–67. Springer. called for cities to be run like a caring home, the city should be conceived as an extension of the home where families could be safe, and children cared for. Clean streets, clean water, playgrounds, educational curricular reform, and juvenile courts are examples of reforms associated with this movement. Industrial citizenship Shields, Patricia (2023). 'Jane Addams and Public Administration: Clarifying Industrial Citizenship', in Patricia M. Shields, Maurice Hamington, and Joseph Soeters (eds), The Oxford Handbook of Jane Addams, pp. 305–326. Oxford Academic https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780197544518.013.3 focused on the problems and risks of labor force participation in a laissez-faire, newly industrialized economy. Reforms that mitigated workplace problems such as child labor, unsanitary working conditions, excessive work hours, the risk of industrial accidents, and old-age poverty were the focus of these efforts. Organized settlement women's reform efforts led to workplace safety laws and inspections. Settlement reformers went on to serve as local, state, and federal administrators. Jane Addams was a garbage inspector, Florence Kelley served as the chief factory inspector for the State of Illinois, Julia Lathrop was the first director of the [[United States Women's Bureau|Women's Bureau]], and [[Francis Perkins]] was Secretary of Labor during the F. Roosevelt AdministrationShields, P. (2022). The origins of the settlement model of public administration. In Shields, P. and Elias, N. (Eds.), Handbook on Gender and Public Administration. pp. 35–52. Edward Elgar PublishingBurnier, D. (2008). Erased history: Frances Perkins and the emergence of care-centered public administration. Administration & Society, 40(4), 403–22.Newman, M.A. (2004). Madam Secretary: Frances Perkins. In Felbinger, C. and Hanes, W. (Eds.), Outstanding Women in Public Administration: Leaders, Mentors, and Pioneers, pp. 83–102. Routledge. ==Branches== === Core branches === In academia, the field of public administration comprises several subfields. Scholars have proposed several different sets of sub-fields. One of the proposed models uses five "pillars":Shafritz, J.M., A.C. Hyde. 2007. ''Classics of Public Administration''. Wadsworth: Boston. * [[Organization theory|Organizational theory in public administration]] is the study of the structure of governmental entities and the many particulars inculcated in them. * [[Public sector ethics|Ethics in public administration]] serves as a normative and impartial approach to decision making based on [[political legitimacy]].{{cite journal | last=Triantafillou | first=Peter | title=The Politics of Neutrality and the Changing Role of Expertise in Public Administration | journal=Administrative Theory & Praxis | volume=37 | issue=3 | date=2015 | issn=1084-1806 | doi=10.1080/10841806.2015.1053362 | pages=174–187 | url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10841806.2015.1053362 | access-date=2026-06-27| url-access=subscription }} The public preferences and values can be estimated from [[opinion poll]]s.{{cite journal | last=Barrett | first=Edith J. | title=The Role of Public Opinion in Public Administration | journal=The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science | volume=537 | issue=1 | date=1995 | issn=0002-7162 | doi=10.1177/0002716295537000013 | pages=150–162 | url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002716295537000013 | access-date=2026-06-27| url-access=subscription }} * [[Policy analysis]] and [[program evaluation]] serves as an empirical approach to decision making. * Public budgeting and public finance ** [[Public budgeting]] is the activity within a government that seeks to allocate scarce resources among unlimited demands. ** [[Public finance]] is the study of the role of the government in the economy.{{cite book |last=Gruber |first=Jonathan |title=Public Finance and Public Policy |publisher=Worth Publications |year=2005 |isbn=0-7167-8655-9 |location=New York |pages=2}} It is the branch of economics that assesses the [[government revenue]] and [[government expenditure]] of the public authorities and the adjustment of one or the other to achieve desirable effects and avoid undesirable ones.{{cite book |author=Jain, P C |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2AhEMv7qeoC&q=Public+finance+definition&pg=PA2 |title=The Economics of Public Finance |year=1974}} * [[Human Resource Management in Public Administration|Human resource management]] is an in-house structure that ensures that public service staffing is done in an unbiased, ethical, and values-based manner. The basic functions of the HR system include employee benefits, employee health care, compensation, and more (e.g., human rights, the [[Americans with Disabilities Act]]). The executives managing the HR director and other key departmental personnel are also part of the public administration system. === Other branches === * [[Nonprofit studies|Nonprofit management]] is research into and the practice of operating nonprofit organizations and their effects. * [[Emergency management]] is the managerial function charged with creating the framework within which communities reduce [[vulnerability]] to hazards and cope with disasters.{{cite web |title=Emergency Management Definition, Vision, Missions, Principles |url=https://training.fema.gov/hiedu/docs/emprinciples/0907_176%20em%20principles12x18v2f%20johnson%20(w-o%20draft).pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005115917/http://www.training.fema.gov/hiedu/docs/emprinciples/0907_176%20em%20principles12x18v2f%20johnson%20(w-o%20draft).pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=October 5, 2015 |access-date=2022-12-08 |website=training.fema.gov |language=EN-US}} ==Academic field== {{Further|Public policy school|Public policy degrees|Political science#Education}} Universities can offer undergraduate and graduate degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with a concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. Graduate degrees include the [[Master of Public Administration|Master of Public Administration (MPA)]] degree, a [[Master of Arts|Master of Arts (MA)]] or [[Master of Science|Master of Science (MS)]] in Public Administration (for the management tract), and the [[Master of Public Policy|Master of Public Policy (MPP)]], a Master of Arts (MA), or a Master of Science (MS) in Public Policy (for the research tract) In the United States, the academic field of public administration draws heavily on political science and administrative law. Some MPA programs include economics courses to give students a background in microeconomic issues (markets, rationing mechanisms, etc.) and macroeconomic issues (e.g., national debt). Scholars such as [[John A. Rohr]] write of a long history behind the constitutional legitimacy of government bureaucracy. One public administration scholar, Donald Kettl, argues that "public administration sits in a disciplinary backwater", because "for the last generation, scholars have sought to save or replace it with fields of study like implementation, public management, and formal bureaucratic theory". Kettl states that "public administration, as a subfield within political science ... is struggling to define its role within the discipline". He notes two problems with public administration: it "has seemed methodologically to lag" and "the field's theoretical work too often seems not to define it"-indeed, "some of the most interesting recent ideas in public administration have come from outside the field". ===Public administration theory and bureaucracy=== [[Public administration theory]] is the domain in which discussions of the meaning and purpose of government, the role of bureaucracy in supporting democratic governments, budgets, governance, and public affairs take place. In the 1920s, the German sociologist [[Max Weber]] expanded the definition of bureaucracy to include any system of administration conducted by trained professionals according to fixed rules.{{cite book |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=KtFI15WCr_8C&pg=PA3 |title= Bureaucracy |first= David |last= Beetham |access-date= 26 May 2013 |isbn= 978-0816629398 |year= 1996|publisher= U of Minnesota Press }} Weber saw bureaucracy as a relatively positive development; however, by 1944 the [[Austria]]n economist [[Ludwig von Mises]] opined in the context of his experience in the [[Nazi]] regime that the term ''bureaucracy'' was "always applied with an opprobrious connotation",{{cite book|author=Ludwig von Mises|author-link=Ludwig von Mises|url=https://mises.org/etexts/mises/bureaucracy.asp|access-date=12 October 2012|title=Bureaucracy|year=1944}} and by 1957 the American sociologist [[Robert K. Merton|Robert Merton]] suggested that the term ''[[bureaucrat]]'' had become an "[[epithet]], a {{Lang|de|Schimpfwort}}" in some circumstances.{{cite book|author=Robert K. Merton|author-link=Robert K. Merton|title=Social Theory and Social Structure|url=http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/merton_bureaucratic_structure.php|access-date=12 October 2012|year=1957|publisher=Glencoe, IL;Free Press|pages=195–206|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121227113532/http://www.sociosite.net/topics/texts/merton_bureaucratic_structure.php|archive-date=27 December 2012|url-status=dead}} The word ''bureaucracy'' is also used in politics and government with a disapproving tone to disparage official rules that appear to make it difficult—by insisting on procedure and compliance with rules, regulations, and laws—to get things done. In workplaces, the word is often used to blame complicated rules, processes, and written work that are interpreted as obstacles rather than as safeguards and assurances of accountability.{{cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/bureaucracy|title=Meaning of bureaucracy in English |publisher=Cambridge.org}} Socio-bureaucracy would then refer to certain social influences that may affect the function of a society.{{cite journal |first = Franz |last = Wirl |date = July 1998 |title = Socio-economic typologies of bureaucratic corruption and implications |journal = Journal of Evolutionary Economics |volume = 8 |issue = 2 |pages = 199–220 |publisher = Springer-Verlag |doi = 10.1007/s001910050062 |s2cid = 154833892 }} In modern usage, modern bureaucracy has been defined as comprising four features: {{Cite book |last1= BARNETT |first1= Michael |title= Rules for the World: International Organizations in Global Politics |last2= FINNEMORE |first2= Marftha |date= 2004 |publisher= Cornell University Press |isbn= 978-0-8014-4090-8 |pages= 17–18 |jstor= 10.7591/j.ctt7z7mx}} # hierarchy (clearly defined spheres of competence and divisions of labor) # continuity (a structure where administrators have a full-time salary and advancement within the structure) # impersonality (prescribed rules and operating rules rather than arbitrary actions) # expertise (officials are chosen according to merit, have been trained, and hold access to knowledge) ===Comparative public administration=== Comparative public administration (CPA) is the study of administrative systems in a comparative fashion, or of public administration in other countries. Today, the American Society for Public Administration has a section that specializes in comparative administration. It is responsible for the annual Riggs Award for Lifetime Achievement in International and Comparative Public Administration. There have been several issues that have hampered the development of comparative public administration, including the major differences between Western and developing countries; the lack of a curriculum on this subfield in public administration programs; and the limited success in developing theoretical models that can be scientifically tested. Even though CPA is a weakly formed field as a whole, this subfield of public administration is an attempt at cross-cultural analysis, a "quest for patterns and regularities of administrative action and behavior."{{Cite journal|last=Jreisat|first=Jamil E.|date=2005-03-01|title=Comparative Public Administration Is Back In, Prudently|journal=Public Administration Review|language=en|volume=65|issue=2|pages=231–42|doi=10.1111/j.1540-6210.2005.00447.x|s2cid=154592957 |issn=1540-6210}} CPA is an integral part of the analysis of public administration techniques. The process of comparison allows more broadly applicable policies to be tested across a variety of situations. Comparative public administration lacks a curriculum, which has prevented it from becoming a major field of study. This lack of understanding of the basic concepts that form the field's foundation has ultimately led to its limited use. For example, William Waugh, a professor at Georgia State University, has stated: "Comparative studies are difficult because of the necessity to provide enough information on the sociopolitical context of national administrative structures and processes for readers to understand why there are differences and similarities."{{cite journal |title=Comparative Politics: Review of ''Comparative Bureaucratic Systems,'' Tummala, Krishna K., ed.| last = Waugh Jr.| first=William L. |journal = Perspectives on Political Science|location = Philadelphia|volume= 33|issue= 2|date = Spring 2004|page = 119|doi =10.1080/10457090409600740|s2cid=220344433}} He also asserts, "Although there is sizable literature on comparative public administration it is scattered and dated." === Bachelor's degrees, academic concentrations, and academic minors === {{See also|Bachelor's degree|Bachelor of Arts|Bachelor of Science|Academic concentration|Academic minor|Student organization}} {{Missing information||Bachelor's degrees and undergraduate concentrations, but information on this within the article is missing|date=July 2022}} Universities offer undergraduate-level bachelor's degrees in Public Administration or Government, Political Science, and International Affairs with an academic concentration or specialization in Public Policy and Administration. At several universities, undergraduate-level public administration and non-profit management education is packaged together (along with international relations and security studies) into a political science degree. ===Master's degrees=== {{See also|Master of Public Administration|Master of Public Policy|Master of Public Policy and Administration|Master of Nonprofit Organizations|Master of Arts|Master of Science}} Some public administration programs have similarities to [[business administration]] programs, as students in both the Master's in Public Administration (MPA) and Master's in Business Administration (MBA) programs often take many of the same courses.{{Cite web |title=What is the difference between public and private administration? |url=https://www.cmich.edu/blog/all-things-higher-ed/difference-between-public-and-private-administration |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=www.cmich.edu |language=en}} [[Master of Business Administration]] (MBA) is a postgraduate degree focused on business principles, management, and leadership skills, typically aimed at preparing students for managerial roles in the private sector. Master of Public Administration (MPA) is a postgraduate degree focused on the theory and practice of public administration, management, and policy. ===Doctoral degrees=== {{See also|Doctor of Public Administration|}} There are two types of doctoral degrees in public administration: the Doctor of Public Administration (DPA) and the [[Ph.D.]] in public administration. The DPA is an applied-research doctoral degree in public administration, focusing more on practice than on theory. The Ph.D. is typically sought by individuals aiming to become professors of public administration or researchers. Individuals pursuing a Ph.D. in public administration often pursue more theoretical dissertation topics than their DPA counterparts. ===Notable scholars=== {{main|List of notable public administration scholars}} Notable scholars of public administration have come from a wide range of fields. In the period before public administration emerged as an independent sub-discipline of political science, scholars contributing to the field came from economics, sociology, management, political science, law—specifically administrative law—and other related fields. More recently, scholars from public administration and public policy have contributed important studies and theories. === Notable Institutions === {{Further|Public policy school}}For notable institutions, see the Wikipedia article on [[public policy school]]s. ==International organizations== There are several international public administration organizations. The Commonwealth Association of Public Administration and Management (CAPAM) includes the 56 member states of the Commonwealth, from India and the UK to Nauru.{{Cite web |date=2024-08-15 |title=Commonwealth {{!}} History, Members, Purpose, Countries, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Commonwealth-association-of-states |access-date=2024-08-16 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} The oldest organization is the [[International Institute of Administrative Sciences]] (IIAS), founded in 1930, in Brussels, Belgium. Another body, the International Committee of the US-based [[Network of Schools of Public Policy, Affairs, and Administration]] (NASPAA), has developed several relationships worldwide. They include sub-regional and National forums like CLAD, INPAE, NISPAcee, APSA, ASPA.{{cite web |url=http://www.GlobalMPA.net |title=NASPAA International Web Portal |publisher=Globalmpa.net |access-date=2014-08-23 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140517102057/http://globalmpa.net/ |archive-date=2014-05-17 }} The Center for Latin American Administration for Development (CLAD), based in Caracas, Venezuela, is a regional network of schools of public administration set up by the governments in Latin America.{{cite web |url=http://www.clad.org.ve/ |title=CLAD |publisher=CLAD |date=2007-08-29 |access-date=2017-04-29 |archive-date=2017-07-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170718145315/http://www.clad.org.ve/ |url-status=dead }} NISPAcee is a network of experts, scholars, and practitioners who work in the field of public administration in Central and Eastern Europe, including the Russian Federation and the Caucasus and Central Asia.{{cite web |first1=Floyd |last1=Studio |first2= Ján |last2=Andruch |url=http://www.nispa.sk/_portal/homepage.php|title=Homepage – NISPAcee Information Portal|work=nispa.sk}} [[Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration]] (EROPA) is a state-membership-based organization, open to other organizations and individuals, headquartered in the Philippines, with centers and membership organized across the Asia-Pacific region. EROPA organizes annual conferences and publishes a journal, ''Asian Review of Public Administration'' (ARPA). It has several centers in the region, and assists in networking experts with its members.{{cite web|title=Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration|url=http://www.eropa.org.ph|website=Eastern Regional Organization for Public Administration|access-date=17 April 2017}} ==Public management== "Public management" is an approach to government and nonprofit administration that resembles or draws on private-sector management and business practices. These business approaches often aim to maximize efficiency and effectiveness and provide improved customer service. A contrast is drawn with the study of public administration, which emphasizes the social and cultural drivers of government that many contend (e.g., [[Graham T. Allison]] and [[Charles Goodsell]]) makes it different from the private sector.{{Cite book|last=Raczkowski|first=Konrad|title=Public management : theory and practice|publisher=Springer|year=2016|isbn=978-3-319-20312-6|location=Cham, Heidelberg, New York, Dordrecht, London|pages=15|oclc=914254547}} A positive and negative definition of public management have been proposed. The positive approach as: "praxeological and rightful process of public service for citizens for the sake of their and following generations good through strengthening mutual relationships, competitiveness of national economy and practical increase of social utility through effective allocation of public resources". Negative approach as: "Fiction, whose aim is the possibility of temporal or permanent appropriation of public goods for the implementation of the particular interests of a narrow social group".{{Cite book |last=Sánchez-Bayón |first=Antonio |url=https://doi.org/10.2478/sbe-2023-0015 |title=Digital transition and readjustmen on EU tourism industry. Studies in Business and Economics, 18(1): 275-297. |date=14 July 2023 |edition=18º |location=reference global |doi=10.2478/sbe-2023-0015 }} Studying and teaching about public management are widely practiced in [[developed nation]]s{{Cite journal |last1=Sánchez-Bayón |first1=Antonio |last2=Sastre |first2=F. Javier |last3=Sánchez |first3=Luis Isasi |date=2025-07-01 |title=Public management of digitalization into the Spanish tourism services: a heterodox analysis |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s11846-024-00753-1 |journal=Review of Managerial Science |language=en |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=2235–2253 |doi=10.1007/s11846-024-00753-1 |issn=1863-6691|hdl=10115/35130 |hdl-access=free }} ===Organizations=== Many entities study public management in particular, in various countries, including: * In the US, the [[American Society for Public Administration]]. [[Indiana University Bloomington]] * In Canada, the [http://www.ipac.ca Institute of Public Administration of Canada], the ''[http://www.observatoire.enap.ca Observatoire de l'Administration publique]'', and various projects of the [[Federation of Canadian Municipalities]] and [[Housing, Infrastructure and Communities Canada]] * In the UK, [https://www.birmingham.ac.uk/schools/government/departments/local-government-studies/index.aspx Institute of Local Government Studies], INLOGOV, [[Newcastle Business School]], [[Warwick Business School]], the [[London School of Economics]], [[University College London]], the [[UK local democracy project]] and [[Public health observatory|London Health Observatory]]. * In the Netherlands, [[Erasmus University Rotterdam]] * In Australia, the [http://www.ipaa.org.au Institute of Public Administration Australia]. * In France, the {{lang|fr|[[École nationale d'administration]]|italic=no}}, the [[Sciences Po]] School of Public Affairs, the [[:en:Institut national des études territoriales|INET]], National Institute of Territorial Studies, and the {{ill|IMPGT|fr|Institut de management public et de gouvernance territoriale|vertical-align=sup}}, Institute of Public Management and Territorial Governance in Aix-en-Provence, Aix-Marseille University. * In Belgium, the [http://soc.kuleuven.be/io/english/ Public Governance Institute], [[KU Leuven]]. * In Germany, the [[German University of Administrative Sciences Speyer]], the [[Hertie School of Governance]], the Bachelor and Master of [https://www.zu.de/pair Politics, Administration & International Relations (PAIR)] at the [[Zeppelin University|Zeppelin University Friedrichshafen]], and the Bachelor and Master of Public Policy & Management and the Executive Public Management Master of [[University of Potsdam]]. * In Switzerland, the [[University of Geneva]] and the [[Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration|Swiss Graduate School of Public Administration (IDHEAP)]]. * In Italy, the [[SDA Bocconi School of Management]], the graduate business school of [[Bocconi University]] in Milan. * In Cyprus, the [[Cyprus International Institute of Management]]. * In Ireland, the Institute of Public Administration, Dublin. * In South Africa, [[Regenesys Business School]] is offered through the Regenesys School of Public Management and MANCOSA. Comparative public management, through [[government performance auditing]], examines the efficiency and effectiveness of two or more governments. ==See also== {{Div col}} * [[Administration (government)]] * [[Administrative discretion]] * [[Budgeting]] * [[Bureaucracy]] * [[Civil society]] * [[Community services]] ** [[Max Weber]] * [[Doctor of Public Administration]] * [[List of Public Administration Journals]] * [[List of public administration schools]] * [[Master of Public Administration]] * [[Municipal government]] * [[Official]] * [[Political science]] * [[Politics]] * [[Professional administration]] * [[Public policy]] * [[Policy Studies]] * [[Public policy schools]] * [[Social policy]] * [[Teleadministration]] * [[Theories of administration]] * [[The Study of Administration]] {{div col end}} ===Societies=== {{Div col}} * International Institute of Administrative Sciences * American Society for Public Administration * [[Chinese Public Administration Society]] * [[Dutch Association for Public Administration]] * [[Indian Institute of Public Administration]] * [[Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences]] * [[Korea Institute of Public Administration]] * [[Royal Institute of Public Administration]] {{div col end}} ===Public management academic resources=== * [[Public Policy and Administration]], {{ISSN|1749-4192}}, (electronic) {{ISSN|0952-0767}} (print), [[SAGE Publications]] and Joint University Council of the Applied Social Sciences * International Journal of Public Sector Management, {{ISSN|0951-3558}}, Emerald Group Publishing * Public Management Review, {{ISSN|1471-9045}} (electronic) {{ISSN|1471-9037}} (paper) [[Routledge]] * Public Works Management & Policy, {{ISSN|1552-7549}} (electronic) {{ISSN|1087-724X}} (paper), [[SAGE Publications]] * [[Public Administration and Development]], {{ISSN|1099-162X}}, [[Wiley (publisher)]] ==Notes== {{reflist}} ==References== * Akinfolarin, A. V. (2017). Time Management Strategies as a Panacea for Principals' Pdministrative Effectiveness in Secondary Schools in Enugu State, Nigeria.Journal for Studies in Management and Planning, 3(9), 22–31. * {{Cite NIE |last=Kirchwey |first=George W. |author-link=George W. Kirchwey |wstitle=Civil Administration |year=1905 }} ==Further reading== * Dubois, H.F.W. & Fattore, G. (2009), 'Definitions and typologies in public administration research: the case of decentralization', International Journal of Public Administration, 32(8): 704–27. * Jeong Chun Hai @Ibrahim, & Nor Fadzlina Nawi. (2007). ''Principles of Public Administration: An Introduction.'' Kuala Lumpur: Karisma Publications. {{ISBN|978-983-195-253-5}} * Smith, Kevin B. and Licari, Michael J. (2006) ''Public Administration – Power and Politics in the Fourth Branch of Government'', LA: Roxbury Pub. Co. {{ISBN|1-933220-04-X}} * White, Jay D. and Guy B. Adams. ''Research in public administration: reflections on theory and practice''. 1994. * Donald Menzel and Harvey White (eds) 2011. ''The State of Public Administration: Issues, Challenges and Opportunity''. New York: M. E. Sharpe. ===Public management=== * Janicke, M. (1990). ''State Failure''. Cambridge: Polity Press. * Kanter, R. M. (1985). ''The Change Masters: Corporate Entrepreneurs at Work''. Hemel Hempstead: Unwin Paperbacks. * Lane, R. E. (1991). ''The Market Experience''. New York: Cambridge University Press. * Lynn, L. E. Jr. (1996). "Public Management as Art, Science, and Profession." Chatham House, CQ Press. * Lynn, L. E. Jr. (2006). "Public Management: Old and New." Routledge. * Raczkowski, K. (2016). "Public Management: Theory and Practice." Springer ==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{Social sciences|state=collapsed}} {{Public services |state=collapsed}} {{Civil service |state=collapsed}} {{Authority control}} {{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Public Administration}} [[Category:Public administration| ]] [[Category:Management education]] [[Category:Public policy]] [[Category:Subfields of political science]]