{{Short description|Term for stabilizing effects of Mongol conquest}}
{{Italic title}}
[[File:Caravane Marco Polo.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|[[Detail (work of art)|Detail]] of the [[Catalan Atlas]] depicting [[Marco Polo]] travelling to the East during the ''Pax Mongolica'']]

The '''''Pax Mongolica''''' (Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known as '''''Pax Tatarica'''''<ref>[[Michael Prawdin]]. ''The Mongol Empire: its rise and legacy''. New Brunswick: Transaction, 2006. p.&nbsp;347.</ref> ("[[Tatar (term)|Tatar]] Peace"), is a [[Historiography|historiographical]] term modeled after the original phrase ''[[Pax Romana]]'' which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the [[Mongol Empire]] on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast [[Eurasia]]n territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce that the unified administration helped to create and the period of relative peace that followed the [[Mongol invasions and conquests|Mongols' vast and violent conquests]].

The conquests of [[Genghis Khan]] (r. 1206–1227) and his [[List of Mongol rulers|successors]], spanning from [[Southeast Asia]] to [[Eastern Europe]], effectively took over the [[Eastern world]] with the [[Western world]]. The [[Silk Road]], connecting trade centres across [[Asia]] and [[Europe]], came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire. It was commonly said that "a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm".<ref>Charlton M. Lewis and W. Scott Morton. ''China: Its History and Culture (Fourth Edition).'' New York: McGraw-Hill, 2004. Print. p.121</ref><ref>[[Laurence Bergreen]]. ''Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu.'' New York: Vintage, 2007. Print. p.27–28</ref> Despite the [[Division of the Mongol Empire|political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire]] into four khanates ([[Yuan dynasty]], [[Golden Horde]], [[Chagatai Khanate]], and [[Ilkhanate]]), nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century. The end of the ''Pax Mongolica'' was marked by the disintegration of the [[khanate]]s and the outbreak of the [[Black Death]] in Asia which [[Black Death migration|spread along trade routes]] to much of the world in the mid-14th century.

During this time, Mongol elements including the [[ʼPhags-pa script]] made numerous [[Mongol elements in Western medieval art|appearances in Western art]].

==Mongol expansion==
{{See also|Mongol invasions and conquests}}
[[File:Mongol Empire map.gif|thumb|[[Mongol invasions and conquests|The expansion of the Mongol Empire]]]]

''Pax Mongolica'' followed the wake of conquests by the [[Mongol Empire]] beginning with [[Genghis Khan]] in the early 13th century. In the process of conquering the various tribes in the region, Genghis Khan revolutionised the way Mongolian tribal society was structured.<ref>[[David Morgan (historian)]]. ''The Mongols second edition''. Oxford: OUP, 2007. p.55</ref> After each new victory, more and more people were incorporated under Genghis Khan's rule, thus diversifying the societal balance of the tribe. In 1203, Genghis Khan, in an effort to strengthen his army, ordered a reform that reorganised his army's structure while breaking down the traditional clan- and kindred-based divisions that had previously fragmented the society and military. He arranged his army into ''arbans'' (inter-ethnic groups of ten), and the members of an ''arban'' were commanded to be loyal to one another regardless of ethnic origin.<ref>[[Amy Chua]]. ''Day of Empire: How hyperpowers rise to global dominance, and why they fall''. New York: Random House, 2007. p.&nbsp;95.</ref> Ten ''arbans'' made a ''zuun'', or a company; ten ''zuuns'' made a ''myangan'', or a battalion; and ten ''myangans'' formed a ''[[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]'', or an army of 10,000. This [[Mongol military tactics and organization#Decimal system|decimal system]] organisation of Genghis Khan's strong [[Mongol military tactics and organization|military]] would prove very effective in conquering, by persuasion or force, the many tribes of the central Asian steppe, but it would also strengthen Mongol society as a whole.<ref name="JW28">[[Jack Weatherford]]. ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World''. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. p. 28</ref> By 1206, Genghis Khan's military expansion had unified the tribes of Mongolia, and in the same year he was elected and acclaimed as the leader of [[Mongol Empire|Mongolia]].

[[File:Bronze cannon of 1332.jpg|thumb|Bronze cannon with inscription dated the third year of the Zhiyuan era (1332). Yuan dynasty (1206–1368). Discovered at the Yunju Temple, Fangshan, Beijing, 1935.]]

The new Mongol empire quickly moved to annex more territory. The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against the [[Western Xia]].<ref name="All Empires">All Empires: Online History Community. [http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Mongol_Empire "The Mongol Empire."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120905104711/http://www.allempires.com/article/index.php?q=The_Mongol_Empire |date=2012-09-05 }} Feb. 2007. Web. 22 November 2009</ref> In 1209, the Mongols conquered the Western Xia. Between 1213 and 1214, the Mongols conquered the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin Empire]], and by 1214, the Mongols had captured most of the land north of the [[Yellow River]].<ref name="All Empires" /> In 1221, Mongol generals [[Jebe]] and [[Subutai]] began their expedition around the [[Caspian Sea]] and into [[Kievan Rus'|Kievan Rus]]'; Genghis Khan defeated Turkic [[Jalal al-Din Mangburni]] at the [[Battle of the Indus]]; the [[Khwarazmian Empire]] were defeated that same year. In 1235, the Mongols successfully invaded [[Mongol invasions of Korea|Korea]].<ref name="All Empires"/> Two years later in 1237, [[Batu Khan]] and Subutai began their conquest of [[Mongol invasion of Rus'|Rus']]; they invaded [[First Mongol invasion of Poland|Poland]] and [[Mongol invasion of Europe#Invasion of Central Europe|Hungary]] in 1241. In 1252, the Mongols began their invasion of [[Mongol conquest of the Song Dynasty|Song China]]; they would seize the capital of [[Hangzhou]] in 1276. In 1258, [[Hulegu Khan]] captured [[Battle of Baghdad (1258)|Baghdad]].<ref name="All Empires"/>

Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new people, especially foreign engineers and [[Laborer|labourers]], into their society. Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and the opportunity to control [[tax]]ation and [[tribute]]. Thus, through territorial expansion, the Mongol Nation not only became an empire, but also became more [[Technology|technologically]] and [[Economics|economically]] advanced.<ref name="JW28"/>

==Trade network==
[[File:Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing plate 1287.jpg|thumb|Yuan dynasty banknote with its printing wood plate, 1287 CE]]

At its height, the Mongolian empire stretched from [[Busan]] in the east to [[Budapest]] in the west, from [[Mongol invasions of Lithuania|Lithuania]] in the north to [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Vietnam]] in the south. This meant that an extremely large part of the continent was united under one political authority. As a result, the trade routes used by merchants became safe for travel, resulting in an overall [[Silk Road|growth and expansion of trade]] from China in the east to Britain in the west.<ref>Joseph Needham, Ling Wang. ''Science and civilisation in China.'' New York: Caimbridge UP, 1954.</ref> Thus, the ''Pax Mongolica'' greatly influenced many civilizations in [[Eurasia]] during the 13th and 14th centuries.

Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across the [[Old World]], particularly Eurasia. [[Thomas T. Allsen]] noted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period.<ref>[[Thomas T. Allsen]] - ''Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia'', p.6</ref> There were many significant developments in economy (especially trade and public finance), [[military]], [[medicine]], [[agriculture]], [[cuisine]], [[astronomy]], [[printing]], [[geography]], and [[historiography]], which were not limited to Eurasia but also included [[North Africa]].

===World trade system: the Silk Road===
{{multiple image
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Before the Mongols' rise, the [[Old World]] system consisted of isolated imperial systems.<ref>[[Janet Abu-Lughod]]. "The Shape of the World System in the Thirteenth Century." ''Studies in Comparative International Development'' 22.4 (1988): 3–25. Print.</ref> The new Mongol empire amalgamated the once isolated civilizations into a new continental system, and re-established the [[Silk Road]] as a dominant method of transportation. The unification of Eurasia under the Mongols greatly diminished the number of competing tribute gatherers throughout the trade network and assured greater safety and security in travel.<ref>Janet Abu-Lughod. ''Before European Hegemony: the world system a.d. 1250–1350.'' New York: OUP, 1989. Print. p.158</ref>  During the ''Pax Mongolica'', European merchants like [[Marco Polo]] made their way from [[Europe]] to [[China]] on the well-maintained and well travelled roads that linked [[Anatolia]] to China.

On the Silk Road [[Caravan (travelers)|caravans]] with [[Silk#China|Chinese silk]]; [[Black pepper|pepper]], [[ginger]], [[cinnamon]], and [[nutmeg]] came to the [[Western world|West]] from the [[Maluku Islands|Spice Islands]] via the transcontinental trade routes. Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well.<ref name="MP350">Michael Prawdin. ''The Mongol Empire: Its rise and legacy''. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 2006. Print. p.350.</ref> Indian muslins, cottons, pearls, and precious stones were sold in Europe, as well as weapons, carpets, and leather goods from [[Iran]].<ref name="MP350"/> [[Gunpowder]] was also introduced to Europe from China. In the opposite direction, Europeans sent silver, fine cloth, horses, linen, and other goods to the near and Far East.<ref name="MP350"/> Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets, thus increasing the [[Gross Domestic Product|GDP]] of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system. Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size.<ref>Janet Abu-Lughod. ''Before European Hegemony: the world system a.d. 1250–1350.'' New York: OUP, 1989. Print. p.356–357</ref>

Along with land trade routes, a [[Indian Ocean trade|Maritime Silk Road]] contributed to the flow of goods and establishment of a ''Pax Mongolica''. This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China. As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high-seas route into the Indian Ocean. Eventually these routes further developed encompassing the [[Arabian Sea]], [[Persian Gulf]], [[Red Sea]], and the sea off East Africa.<ref>Bira Shagdar. "The Mongol Empire in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: East-West Relations". ''The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce''. Vadime Elisseeff. Paris: Berghahn, 2000. 288–293. Print.</ref>

Along with tangible goods, people, techniques, information, and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time.<ref name="FO108">Robert Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke. ''Power and Plenty: trade, war, and the world economy in the second millennium.'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. Print. p.108</ref> For example, [[John of Montecorvino]], archbishop of [[Archdiocese of Beijing|Beijing]] founded [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] [[Christian mission|missions]] in India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language.<ref name="FO108" /> Long-distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the Far East to Europe; [[Banknote|bills of exchange]], deposit banking, and insurance were introduced to Europe during the ''Pax Mongolica''.<ref>Robert Findlay, Kevin H. O'Rourke. ''Power and Plenty: trade, war, and the world economy in the second millennium''. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2007. Print. p.&nbsp;109.</ref> Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveller would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins.<ref name="JW136"/>

[[Islam]]ic methods of [[Mathematics in medieval Islam|mathematics]], [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|astronomy]], and [[Science in medieval Islam|science]] made their way to [[Africa]], [[East Asia]], and [[Europe]] during the ''Pax Mongolica''.<ref>John M. Hobson. ''The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization''. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge UP, 2004. Print. p.181.</ref> Methods of paper-making and printing made their way from China to Europe. Rudimentary banking systems were established, and money changing and credit extension were common, resulting in large amounts of merchant wealth.<ref>[[William J. Bernstein]]. ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World.'' New York: Grove Press, 2008. Print. p.78–128</ref>

===Mongol administration===
[[File:Mongol warrior of Genghis Khan.jpg|thumb|left|Mongol warrior on horseback, preparing a mounted archery shot]]

Mongolia's central geographical position on the Asian continent was an important reason why it was able to play such a large role in the trade system.<ref name="BS127-144">Bira Shagdar. "The Mongol Empire in the Thirteenth and Fourteenth Centuries: East-West Relations". ''The Silk Roads: Highways of Culture and Commerce''. Vadime Elisseeff. Paris: Berghahn, 2000. 127–144. Print.</ref> The [[Mongol military tactics and organization|Mongol army]] was easily able to assert strong rule{{Specify|reason=details on how they were able to do it?}} throughout most of the [[Mongol Empire|empire]].<ref name="JW136">Jack Weatherford. ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World''. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p.136</ref> The military ensured that supply lines and trade routes flowed smoothly; permanent garrisons were established along trade routes to protect the travelers on these routes.<ref name="JW136"/> Complex local systems of taxation and extortion that were prevalent before Mongol rule were abolished to ensure the smooth flow of merchants and trade through the empire.<ref name="JW136"/> A system of weights-and-measures was also standardised.<ref name="JW136"/> To make the voyage on the trade routes less harrowing, the Mongols went as far as to plant trees along the roads to shade the merchants and travelers in the summer months; stone pillars were used to mark the roads where trees could not grow.<ref name="JW136"/>

The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure the flow of trade through the empire.<ref name="JW136"/> The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less-important or more inaccessible routes.<ref>Jack Weatherford. ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.'' New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p.118–119</ref> The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen. This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances.<ref>George Lane. ''Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.31</ref>

The Mongols developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol-''ortoq'' partnership closely resembled that of [[qirad]] and [[commenda]] arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities.<ref>Enerelt Enkhbold, [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02634937.2019.1652799 "The role of the ''ortoq'' in the Mongol Empire in forming business partnerships,"] ''Central Asian Survey'' 38, no. 4 (2019): 531-547</ref>  Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Chinese and [[Marco Polo]]'s family.<ref>Enkhbold op cit pp.&nbsp;537</ref>

The code of Mongol law, known as the ''[[Yassa]]'' ("Great Law"), decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire's society, especially those areas concerning trade and commerce. The ''Yassa'' helped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war, thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment.<ref>Jack Weatherford. ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World.'' New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p.&nbsp;67.</ref> Theft and animal rustling were outlawed, and the Mongol Empire under [[Genghis Khan]] even established a massive lost-and-found system.<ref name="JW69">Jack Weatherford. ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World''. New York: Three Rivers Press, 2004. Print. p.69</ref> Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads.<ref>George Lane. "Daily Life in the Mongol Empire". Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print. p.216</ref> The ''Yassa'' also decreed complete religious freedom, ensuring that [[Buddhism|Buddhists]], [[Muslims]], [[Christians]], etc., were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation, as were doctors, lawyers, [[Funeral director|undertakers]], teachers, and scholars.<ref name="JW69" /> The ''Yassa'' did allow for flexibility and it usually adapted, absorbed, or built upon legal systems in remote parts of the empire, thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability.<ref>George Lane. ''Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule''. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.&nbsp;36.</ref><ref>Karen Armstrong. ''Islam: A Short History''. New York: Modern Library, 2002. Print. p.&nbsp;98.</ref>

In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced, a hierarchy of legal administration was developed. This was headed by the Secretarial Council "chung-shu-sheng" (中書省) of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as "hsing-sheng" (行省). The Xingsheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases. A police commissioner known as "hsien wei" (縣委) was entrusted with [[Yassa|law enforcement]] and had the authority to arrest suspects. This method of federalising the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent.<ref>George Lane. "Daily Life in the Mongol Empire". Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2006. Print. pp.&nbsp;217–218.</ref>

===Postal system===
{{Main|Yam (route)}}

The Mongols established the [[Yam (route)|Yam]] ({{langx|mn|Өртөө}}, ''Örtöö'', ''checkpoint''), the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West. Relay stations were set up every 25–30 miles or an average [[day's journey]] on horse. These stations were introduced by [[Ögedei Khan]] in 1234 and supplied fresh horses and [[fodder]]. His brothers [[Chagatai Khan]] and [[Tolui]] and his nephew [[Batu Khan]] further extended this network.<ref name="BS127-144" />

The Mongol army administered the [[Yam (route)|Yam]]. The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean.<ref>George Lane. ''Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.33</ref> The routes were well organised, funded, maintained, and administered by the Mongols.<ref>George Lane. ''Genghis Khan and Mongol Rule.'' Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2004. Print. p.35</ref> This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time. As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement, the Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively, thereby ensuring political and economic stability.<ref name="BS127-144"/>

==Decline==
The decline of ''Pax Mongolica'' was a result of a number of factors: incompetent and rivaling leaders, corruption, revolts, [[decadence]], factional struggles, assassinations, external attacks, and disease. The decline of the ''Pax Mongolica'' resulted in a decline of eased trade between East and West.<ref name="BS127-144" />

===Decline of Mongol rule===
[[File:Mongolia 1500 AD.jpg|thumb|Mongol residual states and domains by the 15th century]]

The Mongol Empire, near the time of its decline, consisted of many different territories. Each territory was defined as a "[[khanate]]". Due to the isolation{{Specify|reason=what do you mean}} of the Mongolian world, many rulers in the 14th century started to focus on their own khanates.

[[Religious intolerance]] was one particular factor in the decline of the ''Pax Mongolica''. In [[Vladimir-Suzdal|Rus]]', the Mongols (known as the [[Golden Horde]]), gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions. The Rus' Mongols converted to [[Islam]] and joined the [[Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)|Egyptian Mamluks]] for political reasons. At one point in the war{{Specify|reason=what war?}}, the Golden Horde even fought the [[Ilkhanate|Persian Mongols]].<ref name="BS127-144"/> The eastern part of the Golden Horde, [[White Horde]], had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan. The [[decentralization|decentralisation]] occurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes. Eventually, the [[Persian people|Persian]] Mongol leader [[Ghazan]] converted to Islam in 1295. This contributed to the growing power of [[Nawrūz (Mongol emir)|Nawruz]]; a Muslim [[Oirats|Oirat]] general.

In China, descendants of [[Kublai Khan]] claimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming "too Chinese". This led to [[Yuan dynasty|Yuan]] emperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture. Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under the Yuan emperors this was prohibited. As the Chinese culture was changing, intolerance became more common. Some Chinese thought that the Mongols were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual rituals{{Specify|reason=such as? euphemism?}} on them. As a result many Chinese became [[xenophobia|xenophobic]] towards the Mongols. This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and form the [[Ming dynasty]].<ref name="BS127-144"/><ref>Charles King. ''The Black Sea: A History.'' New York: OUP, 2004. Print. p.90</ref>

===Bubonic plague===
{{Main|Black Death}}
[[File:Bubonic plague map 2.png|thumb|The spread of the [[Black Death]] in Europe; it was introduced to Europe from Asia]]

The segregation and fragmentation of the respective khanates in the Mongol Empire were not the only factors in contributing to the decline of the ''Pax Mongolica''. The outbreak of [[bubonic plague]], or [[Black Death]], also played a devastating role in the decline of the ''Pax Mongolica''. Because the Mongol Empire bridged once isolated regions, it made it easy for the Black Death to spread rapidly.<ref>Angus Mackay, ed. ''Atlas of Medieval Europe''. New York: Routledge, 1997. Print. p.&nbsp;209.</ref>  Historian [[William Hardy McNeill|William H. McNeill]] has noted that the plague was transferred from ground rodents living in southern Chinese and Burmese Himalayan foothills to Mongol soldiers when they [[Mongol conquest of Tibet|invaded]] the area in 1252.<ref name="WB139">William J. Bernstein. ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World.'' New York: Grove Press, 2008. Print. p.&nbsp;139.</ref> In 1331 the [[Bubonic plague|plague]] was noted in China,<ref name="WB139" /> and from East Asia it was carried west along the [[Silk Road|trade routes]] by merchants and Mongol soldiers who were able to so freely and quickly travel across the continent during the ''Pax Mongolica''. Plague-infected fleas hitched rides in the manes of [[horse]]s, on the hair of [[camel]]s, or on [[black rat]]s that nestled in cargoes or in [[saddlebag]]s.<ref>William J. Bernstein. ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World''. New York: Grove Press, 2008. Print. p.139–140</ref> The Black Death is estimated to have killed one-third of China's population and 25-50% of Europe's population.<ref>William J. Bernstein. ''A Splendid Exchange: How Trade Shaped the World''. New York: Grove Press, 2008. Print. p.&nbsp;145.</ref>

Demographically weakened, the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire, which began to revolt once the plague broke out.<ref>Janet Abu-Lughod. ''Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350''. New York: OUP, 1989. Print. p.&nbsp;183.</ref> These revolts disrupted the production of goods and flow of trade, which ended the ''Pax Mongolica''.<ref>Laurence Bergreen. ''Marco Polo: From Venice to Xanadu.'' New York: Vintage, 2007. Print. p.&nbsp;358.</ref>

===Effects on trade===
Over the next 300 years, China became increasingly isolationist and inward-looking.{{cn|date=June 2019|reason=[[Zheng He]]?}} China prohibited foreigners, foreign trade, and languages other than Chinese.{{cn|date=June 2019|reason=[[Zheng He]]?}} [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]] were reinstated as the national religions, and the Chinese experienced cultural stagnation.<ref name="JW340-348">Janet Abu-Lughod. ''Before European Hegemony: The World System A.D. 1250–1350''. New York: OUP, 1989. Print. pp.&nbsp;340–348.</ref> During the early years of the [[Ming dynasty]], despite the voyages of [[Zheng He]], trade with the rest of the world overall declined.<ref name="JW340-348" /> This is attributed to wars, epidemics and widespread disruptions rather than "symbolic policy change".<ref name="JW340-348" /> Economic difficulties also contributed to the decline as an important world trade player.<ref name="JW340-348" /> The [[Black Death]] quickly spread to the rest of the world trade system, and the long-distance trading that was common and applauded during the ''Pax Mongolica'' almost entirely stopped.

==See also==
{{Spoken Wikipedia|En-PaxMongolica-article.ogg|date=2017-12-09}}
* [[Pax Romana]]
* [[Pax Sinica]]
* [[Pax Britannica]]
* [[Pax Americana]]
* [[Pax Ottomana]]
* [[Pax Kushana]]
* [[Pax Khazarica]]
* [[Mongol Empire]]
* [[History of cartography]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Weatherford, Jack. ''Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World'' (New York: Crown; 2004) {{ISBN|0-609-61062-7}}.
* [[Thomas T. Allsen]]. ''Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia'' (Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization Cambridge University Press; March 25, 2004) {{ISBN|0-521-60270-X}}.
* Jackson, Peter. ''The Mongols and the West: 1221-1410'' (Longman; 2005) {{ISBN|0-582-36896-0}}.
* Askew, Joseph Benjamin.[https://www.nzasia.org.nz/uploads/1/3/2/1/132180707/jas_jun2017_askew.pdf The Myth of the Pax Mongolica: Re-visiting the Evidence of European Trade with China in the Mongol Period]. ''[[New Zealand Journal of Asian Studies]]'' 19, 1 (June 2017): 53-76.

==External links==
* {{cite web|title=The Pax Mongolica|url=http://www.silk-road.com/artl/paxmongolica.shtml|access-date=October 13, 2009}}

{{Paxes}}
{{Mongol Empire}}

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