{{Short description|Former empire (c. 1299–1922)}}
{{about|the empire|the associated caliphate|Ottoman Caliphate}}
{{Protection padlock|small=yes}}
{{Use British English|date=March 2026}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2025}}
{{Infobox former country
| common_name = Ottoman Empire
| life_span = {{circa|1299}}–1922
| native_name = {{ubl|{{Lang|ota|دولت عليه عثمانیه}}|{{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOs̱mānīye}}}}
| conventional_long_name = Sublime Ottoman State
| status = [[Empire]]
| image_coat = Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire (1882–1922).svg
| image_flag = Flag of the Ottoman Empire (1844–1922).svg
| flag_type_article = [[Flags of the Ottoman Empire]]
| flag_type = [[Flags of the Ottoman Empire|Flag]]
{{Nowrap|(1844–1922)}}
| symbol_type_article = [[Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire]]
| symbol_type = [[Coat of arms of the Ottoman Empire|Coat of arms]]
{{Nowrap|(1882–1922)}}
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:OttomanEmpire1481.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1481|[[File:OttomanEmpire1566.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1566|[[File:OttomanEmpireMain.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1683|
[[File:OttomanEmpire1739.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1739|[[File:OttomanEmpire1914.png|upright=1.15|frameless]]|The Ottoman Empire in 1914|default=3}}
| national_motto = {{ubl|{{Lang|ota|دولت ابدمدت}}|{{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|Devlet-i Ebed-müddet}}|"The Eternal State"[{{Cite journal |last1=McDonald |first1=Sean |last2=Moore |first2=Simon |date=20 October 2015 |title=Communicating Identity in the Ottoman Empire and Some Implications for Contemporary States |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |journal=Atlantic Journal of Communication |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=269–283 |doi=10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |issn=1545-6870 |s2cid=146299650 |access-date=24 March 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151026/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15456870.2015.1090439 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}]}}
| national_anthem = {{Collapsible list
| title = Various
|"Mahmudiye Marşı"
(1829–1839, 1918–1922){{center|[[File:Mahmudiye Marşı.ogg]]}}
|"[[Mecidiye Marşı]]"
(1839–1861){{center|[[File:Mecidiye Marşı.ogg]]}}
|"[[Aziziye Marşı]]"
(1861–1876){{center|}}
|"[[Hamidiye Marşı]]" (modified)
(1876–1909){{center|[[File:Hamidiye_Marşı.ogg]]}}
|"[[Reşadiye Marşı]]"
(1909–1918){{center|[[File:Marche_de_sa_Majesté_Impériale_Le_Sultan_Mohammed_V._par_Italo_Selvelli.ogg]]}}
}}
| capital = {{Plainlist|
* [[Söğüt]][{{Cite book |first1=Stanford |last1=Shaw |first2=Ezel |last2=Shaw |date=1977 |title=History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=I |isbn=978-0-521-29166-8 |page=13}}]
* ({{circa|1299}}–1331)
* [[Nicaea]] ([[İznik]]){{sfn|Atasoy|Raby|1989|p=19–20}}
* (1331–1335)
* [[Prusa (Bithynia)|Prousa]] ([[Bursa]])
* (1335–1360s)
* [[Adrianople]] ([[Edirne]]){{efn|''[[İslâm Ansiklopedisi]]'': "It is disputed when the Ottomans conquered this place; various dates have been put forward in this regard, such as 1361, 1362, 1367 and 1369. Among these, the opinion that Edirne was captured in 1361 as a result of a systematic conquest policy by Murad and Lala Şahin, while Orhan Gazi was still alive, gains prominence. However, it has also been stated that the date of conquest may have occurred after 1366 (1369), based on an elegy showing that the city metropolitan Polykarpos was in Edirne in this capacity until 1366."[{{TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi|title=Edirne|first=M. Tayyib |last=Gökbilgin|url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/edirne}}]}}
* (1360s–1453)
* [[Constantinople]] ([[Istanbul]]){{efn|In Ottoman Turkish, the city was known by various names, among which were {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|Ḳosṭanṭīnīye}} ({{Lang|ota|قسطنطينيه}}) (replacing the suffix ''-polis'' with the Arabic suffix), ''Istanbul'' ({{Lang|ota|استنبول}}) and ''Islambol'' ({{lang|ota|اسلامبول}}, {{lit|full of Islam}}); see [[Names of Istanbul]]). {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|Ḳosṭanṭīnīye}} became obsolete in Turkish after the [[proclamation of the Republic of Turkey]] in 1923,[{{Cite book |last=Edhem |first=Eldem |chapter=Istanbul |editor-first=Ágoston |editor-last=Gábor |editor-first2=Bruce Alan |editor-last2=Masters |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase |date=21 May 2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA286 286] |quote=With the collapse of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of the Republic of Turkey, all previous names were abandoned and Istanbul came to designate the entire city.}}] and after Turkey's transition to Latin script in 1928,[{{cite book
| title= History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey
| volume= 2: Reform, Revolution, and Republic: The Rise of Modern Turkey 1808–1975
| author1-first= Stanford J.
| author2-first= Ezel Kural
| author1-last= Shaw | author2-last= Shaw
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
|date= 1977b | isbn= 9780511614972 | doi= 10.1017/CBO9780511614972
}}] the Turkish government in 1930 requested that foreign embassies and companies use ''Istanbul'', and that name became widely accepted internationally.[
*{{Harvnb|Shaw|Shaw|1977b|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=AIET_7ji7YAC&pg=PA386 386], volume 2}}
* {{Cite book |last=Robinson |first=Richard D. |author-link=Stanford J. Shaw |date=1963 |title=The First Turkish Republic |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |volume=2 |language=English |isbn=
0674304500 |page=298}}
* {{Cite web |last=Society |date=4 March 2014 |title=Mar 28, 1930 CE: Istanbul, not Constantinople |url=http://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople |access-date=28 March 2019 |website=National Geographic Resource Library |publisher=National Geographic Society |language=en |archive-date=2019-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190114210345/https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/mar28/istanbul-not-constantinople/ |url-status=deviated }})]}}
* (1453–1922)}}
| languages_type = Other languages
| languages = {{plainlist|
* [[Arabic]]{{efn|[[Liturgical language]], [[Coining (mint)|coinage]], and [[scientific literature]][{{Cite book |last=Ihsanoglu |first=Ekmeleddin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inMhEQAAQBAJ&dq=science+language+in+ottoman+empire&pg=PT63 |title=Science, Technology and Learning in the Ottoman Empire: Western Influence, Local Institutions, and the Transfer of Knowledge |date=2024-10-28 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-040-24461-6 |language=en}}]}}
* [[Persian language|Persian]]{{efn|Court, diplomacy, poetry, historiographical works, literary works, taught in state schools, and offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some ''[[madrasa]]s''.[{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |chapter = Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian Learning in the Ottoman World|title=The Persianate World: The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |pages=88–89 |quote=As the Ottoman Turks learned Persian, the language and the culture it carried seeped not only into their court and imperial institutions but also into their vernacular language and culture. The appropriation of Persian, both as a second language and as a language to be steeped together with Turkish, was encouraged notably by the sultans, the ruling class, and leading members of the mystical communities.}}][{{cite book |last1=Tezcan |first1=Baki |editor1-last=Rabasa |editor1-first=José |title=The Oxford History of Historical Writing |volume=3: 1400–1800 |date=2012 |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=192–211 |chapter=Ottoman Historical Writing |quote=Persian served as a 'minority' prestige language of culture at the largely Turcophone Ottoman court.}}][{{Cite book |last=Flynn |first=Thomas O. |title=The Western Christian Presence in the Russias and Qājār Persia, c. 1760 – c. 1870 |date=2017 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-31354-5 |language=en |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |page=30 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151110/https://books.google.com/books?id=cOAzDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA30 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Fortna |first=B. |date=2012 |title=Learning to Read in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Early Turkish Republic |page=50 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-230-30041-5 |quote=Although in the late Ottoman period Persian was taught in the state schools ... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205028/https://books.google.com/books?id=2Bh_DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Spuler |first=Bertold |title=Persian Historiography and Geography |page=68 |date=2003 |publisher=Pustaka Nasional |isbn=978-9971-77-488-2 |quote=On the whole, the circumstance in Turkey took a similar course: in Anatolia, the Persian language had played a significant role as the carrier of civilization. [...] where it was at time, to some extent, the language of diplomacy [...] However Persian maintained its position also during the early Ottoman period in the composition of histories and even Sultan Salim I, a bitter enemy of Iran and the Shi'ites, wrote poetry in Persian. Besides some poetical adaptations, the most important historiographical works are: Idris Bidlisi's flowery 'Hasht Bihist', or Seven Paradises, begun in 1502 by the request of Sultan Bayazid II and covering the first eight Ottoman rulers ... |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA68 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Fetvacı |first=Emine |date=2013 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |title=Picturing History at the Ottoman Court |page=31 |isbn=978-0-253-00678-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31 |quote=Persian literature, and belles-lettres in particular, were part of the curriculum: a Persian dictionary, a manual on prose composition; and Sa'dis 'Gulistan', one of the classics of Persian poetry, were borrowed. All these titles would be appropriate in the religious and cultural education of the newly converted young men. |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205027/https://books.google.com/books?id=f67qIxJrpTMC&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |title=Persian Historiography: A History of Persian Literature |editor-last=Yarshater |editor-first=Ehsan |editor-link=Ehsan Yarshater |date=2012 |volume=10 |page=437 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-0-85773-657-4 |quote=Persian held a privileged place in Ottoman letters. Persian historical literature was first patronized during the reign of Mehmed II and continued unabated until the end of the 16th century. |editor-last2=Melville |editor-first2=Charles |editor-link2=Charles P. Melville |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359 |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=21 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221021205027/https://books.google.com/books?id=s6SmDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT359 |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=Inan |first1=Murat Umut |editor1-last=Green |editor1-first=Nile |editor1-link=Nile Green |title=The Persianate World The Frontiers of a Eurasian Lingua Franca |date=2019 |publisher=University of California Press |page=92 (note 27) |chapter=Imperial Ambitions, Mystical Aspirations: Persian learning in the Ottoman World|quote=Though Persian, unlike Arabic, was not included in the typical curriculum of an Ottoman madrasa, the language was offered as an elective course or recommended for study in some madrasas. For those Ottoman madrasa curricula featuring Persian, see Cevat İzgi, Osmanlı Medreselerinde İlim, 2 vols. (Istanbul: İz, 1997),1: 167–169.}}]}}
* [[Greek language|Greek]]{{efn|Among Greek-speaking community; spoken by some sultans.}}
* [[Chagatai language|Chagatai]]{{efn|Decrees in the 15th century.[{{Cite book |last=Ayşe Gül Sertkaya |title=Archivum Ottomanicum |date=2002 |editor-last=György Hazai |volume=20 |pages=114–115 |chapter=Şeyhzade Abdurrezak Bahşı |quote=As a result, we can claim that ''Şeyhzade Abdürrezak Bahşı'' was a scribe lived in the palaces of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror and his son Bayezid-i Veli in the 15th century, wrote letters (''bitig'') and firmans (''yarlığ'') sent to Eastern Turks by Mehmed II and Bayezid II in both Uighur and Arabic scripts and in East Turkestan (Chagatai) language. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result%2C+we+can%22 |access-date=23 October 2022 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024132428/https://books.google.com/books?id=h11pAAAAMAAJ&q=%22As+a+result,+we+can%22 |url-status=live }}]}}
* [[French language|French]]{{efn|Foreign language among educated people in the post-[[Tanzimat]]/late imperial period.[{{Cite book |last=Strauss |first=Johann |title=The First Ottoman Experiment in Democracy |date=2010 |publisher=[[Orient-Institut Istanbul]] |editor-last=Herzog |editor-first=Christoph |location=[[Würzburg]] |pages=21–51 |chapter=A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire: Translations of the ''Kanun-ı Esasi'' and Other Official Texts into Minority Languages |editor-last2=Malek Sharif |chapter-url=https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |access-date=15 September 2019 |archive-date=11 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011233851/https://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/menalib/download/pdf/2734659?originalFilename=true |url-status=live }} ([http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 info page on book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231333/http://menadoc.bibliothek.uni-halle.de/urn/urn:nbn:de:gbv:3:5-91645 |date=20 September 2019 }} at [[Martin Luther University]]) // CITED: p. 26 (PDF p. 28): "French had become a sort of semi-official language in the Ottoman Empire in the wake of the ''Tanzimat'' reforms. [...] It is true that French was not an ethnic language of the Ottoman Empire. But it was the only Western language which would become increasingly widespread among educated persons in all linguistic communities."]}}
* [[Languages of the Ottoman Empire|many others]]}}
| official_languages = [[Ottoman Turkish]]
| religion = {{Plainlist|
* [[Sunni Islam]] ([[state religion|state]])
* [[Madhab|School]]: [[Hanafi]]}}
| government_type = [[Absolute monarchy]] ({{circa|1299}}–1876; 1878–1908; 1920–1922)
[[Parliamentary constitutional monarchy]] (1876–1878; 1908–1920)
*Under a [[Three Pashas|triumvirate dictatorship]] (1913–1918)
| title_leader = [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Sultan]]
| leader1 = [[Osman I]]
| year_leader1 = {{Nowrap|{{circa|1299}}–1323/4 (first)}}
| leader2 = [[Mehmed VI]]
| year_leader2 = 1918–1922 (last)
| title_representative = [[List of caliphs#Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924)|Caliph]]
| year_representative1 = 1517–1520 (first)
| representative1 = [[Selim I]]
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}}
| house1 = {{nowrap|[[Senate of the Ottoman Empire|Chamber of Notables]]
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}}
| type_house1 = Upper house (unelected)
| house2 = {{nowrap|[[Chamber of Deputies of the Ottoman Empire|Chamber of Deputies]]
(1876–1878; 1908–1920)}}
| type_house2 = Lower house (elected)
| event_start = [[Rise of the Ottoman Empire|Founded]]
| year_start = {{circa|1299}}[{{Cite book|last=Pamuk|first=Şevket|title=A Monetary History of the Ottoman Empire|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2000|isbn=0-521-44197-8|pages=30–31|quote=The Ottomans began to strike coins in the name of [[Orhan]] Bey in 1326. These earliest coins carried inscriptions such as 'the great Sultan, Orhan son of Osman' [...] Ottoman historiography has adopted 1299 as the date for the foundation of the state. 1299 might represent the date at which the Ottomans finally obtained their independence from the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuk]] sultan at [[Konya]]. Probably, they were forced at the same time, or very soon thereafter, to accept the overlordship of the [[Ilkhanids]] [...] Numismatic evidence thus suggest that independence did not really occur until 1326.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30|access-date=21 October 2022|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=Htk3Wn789EQC&pg=PA30|url-status=live}}]
| date_start =
| event_end = [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] established
| year_end = 1923{{efn|The [[Treaty of Sèvres]] (10 August 1920) afforded a small existence to the Ottoman Empire. On 1 November 1922, the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Grand National Assembly]] (GNAT) abolished the sultanate and declared that all the deeds of the Ottoman regime in Constantinople were null and void as of 16 March 1920, the date of the [[occupation of Constantinople]] under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. The international recognition of the GNAT and the [[Government of the Grand National Assembly|Government of Ankara]] was achieved through the signing of the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] on 24 July 1923. The Grand National Assembly of Turkey promulgated the Republic on 29 October 1923.}}
| date_end = 29 October
| event1 = [[Ottoman Interregnum|Interregnum]]
| date_event1 = 1402–1413
| event2 = [[Fall of Constantinople|Conquest of Constantinople]]
| date_event2 = 29 May 1453
| event3 = [[Ottoman Caliphate|Caliphate proclaimed]]
| date_event3 = 1517
| event4 = [[First Constitutional Era|Constitutional Era I]]
| date_event4 = 1876–1878
| event5 = [[Second Constitutional Era|Constitutional Era II]]
| date_event5 = 1908–1920
| event6 = [[Raid on the Sublime Porte|Ottoman coup d'état]]
| date_event6 = 23 January 1913
| event7 = [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|Sultanate abolished]]
| date_event7 = 1 November 1922{{efn|1 November 1922 marks the formal ending of the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI departed Constantinople on 17 November 1922.}}
| event_post = [[Abolition of the Caliphate|Caliphate abolished]]
| date_post = 3 March 1924
| stat_year1 = 1481
| stat_area1 = 1,220,000
| ref_area1 = [{{Cite journal |last=Rein Taagepera |author-link=Rein Taagepera |date=September 1997 |title=Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia |url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |journal=[[International Studies Quarterly]] |volume=41 |issue=3 |page=498 |doi=10.1111/0020-8833.00053 |jstor=2600793 |access-date=8 July 2019 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119114740/https://escholarship.org/uc/item/3cn68807 |url-status=live | issn = 0020-8833|url-access=subscription }}]
| stat_year2 = 1521
| stat_area2 = 3,400,000
| ref_area2 = [{{Cite journal |last1=Turchin |first1=Peter |last2=Adams |first2=Jonathan M. |last3=Hall |first3=Thomas D |date=December 2006 |title=East-West Orientation of Historical Empires |url=http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |journal=Journal of World-Systems Research |volume=12 |issue=2 |page=223 |issn=1076-156X |access-date=12 September 2016 |archive-date=20 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190520161830/http://jwsr.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/jwsr/article/view/369/381 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book|last1=Bang|first1=Peter Fibiger|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|title=The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience|last2=Bayly|first2=C. A.|last3=Scheidel|first3=Walter|year=2020|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-977311-4|pages=92–94|language=en}}]
| stat_year4 = 1913
| stat_area4 = 2,550,000
| ref_area4 = [{{Cite book |last=Erickson |first=Edward J. |title=Defeat in Detail: The Ottoman Army in the Balkans, 1912–1913 |date=2003 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-275-97888-4 |page=59}}]
| stat_year6 =
| stat_pop6 =
| demonym = [[Ottoman Turks|Ottoman]]
| population_label2 = 1600
| population_data2 = 22,000,000[{{Harvard citation no brackets|Roy|2015|p=134}} "Around circa 1600, the Mughal Empire controlled 3.2 million square kilometres with a population of about 150 million. The Ottoman Empire's population at that time was 22 million and the Safavid Empire had 10 million inhabitants."]
| GDP_PPP =
| GDP_PPP_year =
| currency = [[Akçe]], [[manghir]], [[Sultani (coin)|sultani]], [[Para (currency)|para]], [[kuruş]], [[Ottoman lira|lira]]
{{Collapsible list
| title = Dependencies
| [[Algerian budju]]
| [[Egyptian qirsh]]
| [[Tunisian rial]]
}}
{{collapsed infobox section begin|td=yes|Predecessor states and successor states}}
| p1 = Sultanate of Rum
| p2 = Anatolian beyliks
| p3 = Byzantine Empire
| p4 = Despotate of the Morea{{!}}Despotate of the Morea
| p5 = Empire of Trebizond
| p6 = Principality of Theodoro
| p7 = Second Bulgarian Empire
| p8 = Tsardom of Vidin
| p9 = Despotate of Dobruja
| p10 = Despotate of Lovech
| p11 = Serbian Despotate
| p12 = Kingdom of Bosnia
| p13 = Zeta under the Crnojevići{{!}}Zeta
| p14 = Kingdom of Hungary
| p15 = Croatia in union with Hungary{{!}}Kingdom of Croatia
| p16 = League of Lezhë
| p17 = Mamluk Sultanate
| p18 = Hafsid dynasty{{!}}Hafsid Kingdom
| p19 = Aq Qoyunlu
| p20 = Hospitaller Tripoli
| p21 = Kingdom of Tlemcen
| p22 = Duchy of Athens
| p23 = Duchy of the Archipelago
| s1 = Government of the Grand National Assembly{{!}}State of Turkey
| s2 = First Hellenic Republic{{!}}Hellenic Republic
| s3 = Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917){{!}}Caucasus Viceroyalty
| s4 = Principality of Bulgaria
| s5 = Eastern Rumelia
| s6 = Independent Albania{{!}}Albania
| s7 = Kingdom of Romania
| s8 = Revolutionary Serbia
| s9 = Austro-Hungarian rule in Bosnia and Herzegovina{{!}}Bosnia and Herzegovina
| s10 = Principality of Montenegro
| s11 = Idrisid Emirate of Asir{{!}}Emirate of Asir
| s12 = Kingdom of Hejaz
| s13 = Occupied Enemy Territory Administration{{!}}OETA
| s14 = Mandatory Iraq
| s15 = French Algeria
| s16 = British Cyprus
| s17 = French protectorate of Tunisia{{!}}French Tunisia
| s18 = Italian Tripolitania
| s19 = Italian Cyrenaica
| s20 = Sheikhdom of Kuwait
| s21 = Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen{{!}}Kingdom of Yemen
| s22 = Sultanate of Egypt
| footnotes =
}}
{{collapsed infobox section end}}
The '''Ottoman Empire''',{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɒ|t|ə|m|ə|n|audio=LL-Q1860 (eng)-Flame, not lame-ottoman.wav}}; {{langx|ota|دولت عليه عثمانیه|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-i ʿOs̱mānīye|lit=Sublime Ottoman State|engvar=gb}}; {{langx|tr|Osmanlı İmparatorluğu}} or {{lang|tr|Osmanlı Devleti}}; {{langx|fr|Empire ottoman}}[{{Cite journal |last=P. |first=E. A. |date=1916 |title=Review of The Caliph's Last Heritage: A Short History of the Turkish Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=47 |issue=6 |pages=470–472 |doi=10.2307/1779249 |issn=0016-7398 |jstor=1779249 |access-date=10 July 2022 |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710152110/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1779249 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |last=Baykara |first=Tuncer |date=2017 |title=A Study into the Concepts of Turkey and Turkistan which were used for the Ottoman State in XIXth Century |url=https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026 |journal=Journal of Atatürk and the History of Turkish Republic |volume=1 |pages=179–190 |access-date=26 March 2024 |archive-date=26 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240126030712/https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/330026 |url-status=live }}]{{efn|The [[Ottoman dynasty]] also held the title "[[List of caliphs#Ottoman Caliphate (1517–1924)|caliph]]" from the Ottoman victory over the [[Mamluk Sultanate]] in [[Battle of Ridaniya|Ridaniya]] (1517) to the [[abolition of the Caliphate]] (1924) by the [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey]].}} was a state that spanned much of [[Southeastern Europe]], [[West Asia]], and [[North Africa]] from the 14th{{nbsp}}century to the early 20th{{nbsp}}century, centred in modern-day [[Turkey]]. It also controlled parts of southeastern [[Central Europe]] between the early 16th and early 18th{{nbsp}}centuries.[{{Cite book |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |title=The Peace of Passarowitz, 1718 |date=2011-08-12 |publisher=Purdue University Press |isbn=978-1-61249-179-0 |editor-last=Ingrao |editor-first=Charles |doi=10.2307/j.ctt6wq7kw.12 |jstor=j.ctt6wq7kw |editor-last2=Samardžić |editor-first2=Nikola |editor-last3=Pešalj |editor-first3=Jovan |access-date=26 December 2023 |archive-date=20 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231220040810/https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wq7kw |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Szabó |first=János B. |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest in Hungary: Decisive Events (Belgrade 1521, Mohács 1526, Vienna 1529, Buda 1541) and Results |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000013.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=263–275 |access-date=2023-12-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_013 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4|doi-access=free }}][{{Cite book |last=Moačanin |first=Nenad |chapter=The Ottoman Conquest and Establishment in Croatia and Slavonia |date=2019 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |title=The Battle for Central Europe |pages=277–286 |access-date=2023-12-19 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/9789004396234_014 |isbn=978-90-04-39623-4 |doi-access=free |archive-date=15 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115185458/https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789004396234/BP000014.xml |url-status=live }}]
The empire emerged from a [[Anatolian beyliks|''beylik'']], or [[principality]], founded in northwestern [[Anatolia]] in {{circa|1299}} by the [[Turkoman (ethnonym)|Turkoman]] tribal leader [[Osman I]]. His successors [[Ottoman wars in Europe|conquered]] much of Anatolia and expanded into the [[Balkans]] by the mid-14th{{nbsp}}century, transforming their [[petty kingdom]] into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the [[Byzantine Empire]] with the [[Fall of Constantinople|conquest of Constantinople]] in 1453 by [[Mehmed II]]. [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|Further conquests]] by [[Selim I]] led the Sultans to adopt the title of [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliph]]. With its capital at [[History of Istanbul#Ottoman Empire|Constantinople]] and control over a significant portion of the [[Mediterranean Basin]], the Ottoman Empire was at the centre of interactions between the Middle East and Europe for six centuries. Ruling over diverse peoples, the empire granted varying levels of autonomy to its many confessional communities, or ''[[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]]'', to manage their own affairs per [[Islamic law]]. During the reign of [[Suleiman the Magnificent]] in the 16th{{nbsp}}century, the Ottoman Empire became a [[Great power|global power]].[
* {{harvnb|Howard|2016|p=45}}
* {{harvnb|Somel|2010|p=xcvii}}]
Modern academic consensus posits that the empire began to decline after defeat in the [[Battle of Vienna|Second Siege of Vienna]] in 1683, but continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military into much of the 18th{{nbsp}}century. The Ottoman Empire fell behind technologically from the rest of Europe by the late 18th{{nbsp}}century as imperial authority fragmented. Further defeats from [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Russian Empire|Russia]] culminated in the [[Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire|loss of territory]], and with [[Rise of nationalism in the Ottoman Empire|rising nationalism]] after the [[French Revolution]], a number of new states emerged in the Balkans. Following [[Mahmud II]]'s reign and the {{Transliteration|ota|[[Tanzimat]]|engvar=gb}} reforms over the course of the 19th{{nbsp}}century, the Ottoman state became more powerful and organised internally as a new [[Ottomanism|Ottoman identity]] took hold. In the [[1876 Ottoman Revolution|1876 revolution]], the Ottoman Empire attempted [[First Constitutional Era|constitutional monarchy]], before reverting to an [[absolute monarchy]] under [[Abdul Hamid II]], following the [[Great Eastern Crisis]].
Over the course of the late 19th{{nbsp}}century, Ottoman intellectuals known as [[Young Turks]] sought to liberalise and rationalise society and politics along Western lines, culminating in the [[Young Turk Revolution]] of 1908 led by the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] (CUP), which reestablished [[Second Constitutional Era|a constitutional monarchy]]. However, following the disastrous [[Balkan Wars]], the CUP became increasingly radicalised and embraced [[Turkish nationalism]], [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|leading to a coup d'état in 1913]] that established a dictatorship.
In the 19th and in the start of 20th{{nbsp}}centuries, [[persecution of Muslims during the Ottoman contraction]] and [[Persecution of Muslims#Russian Empire|in the Russian Empire]] resulted in large-scale loss of life and [[muhacir|mass migration into modern-day Turkey]] from the [[Balkans]], [[Caucasus]], and [[Crimean Khanate|Crimea]].[
* {{harvnb|Kaser|2011|p=336}}: "The emerging Christian nation states justified the prosecution of their Muslims by arguing that they were their former 'suppressors'. The historical balance: between about 1820 and 1920, millions of Muslim casualties and refugees back to the remaining Ottoman Empire had to be registered; estimations speak about 5 million casualties and the same number of displaced persons"
* {{harvnb|Fábos|2005|p=437}}: "Muslims had been the majority in Anatolia, the Crimea, the Balkans, and the Caucasus and a plurality in southern Russia and sections of Romania. Most of these lands were within or contiguous with the Ottoman Empire. By 1923, 'only Anatolia, eastern Thrace, and a section of the southeastern Caucasus remained to the Muslim land ... Millions of Muslims, most of them Turks, had died; millions more had fled to what is today Turkey. Between 1821 and 1922, more than five million Muslims were driven from their lands. Five and one-half million Muslims died, some of them killed in wars, others perishing as refugees from starvation and disease' (McCarthy 1995, 1). Since people in the Ottoman Empire were classified by religion, Turks, Albanians, Bosnians, and all other Muslim groups were recognised—and recognised themselves—simply as Muslims. Hence, their persecution and forced migration is of central importance to an analysis of 'Muslim migration'."
* {{cite journal |doi=10.1353/jwh.2024.a943172 |title=A Late/Post-Imperial Region of Difference: The Ottoman Empire and its Successor Polities in Southeastern Europe, Turkey, and the Arab East, c. 1850s–1940s |date=2024 |last1=Schayegh |first1=Cyrus |journal=Journal of World History |volume=35 |issue=4 |pages=579–622 |quote=Between 1821 and the 1919–1922 Turko-Greek War, about five and a half million Muslims died of religious-ethnic war-related causes, including disease and hunger during forced migration, in southeastern Europe and the Crimea and Caucasus.}}
* {{harvnb|Findley|2008|pp=16, 35}}
* {{harvnb|Kirişci|2008|pp=175–177}}
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2001|p=343}}: "The main migrations started from Crimea in 1856 and were followed by those from the Caucasus and the Balkans in 1862 to 1878 and 1912 to 1916. These have continued to our day. The quantitative indicators cited in various sources show that during this period a total of about 7 million migrants from Crimea, the Caucasus, the Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands settled in Anatolia. These immigrants were overwhelmingly Muslim, except for a number of Jews who left their homes in the Balkans and Russia in order to live in the Ottoman lands. By the end of the century the immigrants and their descendants constituted some 30 to 40 percent of the total population of Anatolia, and in some western areas their percentage was even higher. ... The immigrants called themselves Muslims rather than Turks, although most of those from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and eastern Serbia descended from the Turkish Anatolian stock who settled in the Balkans in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries."
* {{harvnb|Karpat|2004|pp=5–6}}: "Migration was a major force in the social and cultural reconstruction of the Ottoman state in the nineteenth century. While some seven to nine million, mostly Muslim, refugees from lost territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans and Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace, during the last quarter of the nineteenth and the early part of the twentieth centuries ..."
* {{harvnb|Pekesen|2012}}: "The immigration had far-reaching social and political consequences for the Ottoman Empire and Turkey. ... Between 1821 and 1922, some 5.3 million Muslims migrated to the Empire.50 It is estimated that in 1923, the year the republic of Turkey was founded, about 25 per cent of the population came from immigrant families."
* {{harvnb|Biondich|2011|p=93}}: "The road from Berlin to Lausanne was littered with millions of casualties. In the period between 1878 and 1912, as many as two million Muslims emigrated voluntarily or involuntarily from the Balkans. When one adds those who were killed or expelled between 1912 and 1923, the number of Muslim casualties from the Balkans far exceeds three million. By 1923 fewer than one million remained in the Balkans"
* {{harvnb|Armour|2012|p=213}}: "To top it all, the Empire was host to a steady stream of Muslim refugees. Russia between 1854 and 1876 expelled 1.4 million Crimean Tartars, and in the mid-1860s another 600,000 Circassians from the Caucasus. Their arrival produced further economic dislocation and expense."
* {{harvnb|Bosma|Lucassen|Oostindie|2012a|p=17}}: "In total, many millions of Turks (or, more precisely, Muslim immigrants, including some from the Caucasus) were involved in this 'repatriation' – sometimes more than once in a lifetime – the last stage of which may have been the immigration of seven hundred thousand Turks from Bulgaria between 1940 and 1990. Most of these immigrants settled in urban north-western Anatolia. Today between a third and a quarter of the Republic's population are descendants of these Muslim immigrants, known as Muhacir or Göçmen"] The CUP joined [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]]. It struggled with internal dissent, especially the [[Arab Revolt]], and engaged in [[Late Ottoman genocides|genocide]] against [[Armenian genocide|Armenians]], [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrians]], and [[Greek genocide|Greeks]]. In the [[aftermath of World War I]], the victorious [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] occupied and [[Partition of the Ottoman Empire|partitioned]] the Ottoman Empire, which lost its southern territories to the [[Sykes–Picot Agreement|United Kingdom and France]]. The successful [[Turkish War of Independence]], led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] against the occupying Allies, led to the [[Abolition of the Ottoman sultanate|end of the Ottoman sultanate]] in 1922.
== Etymology ==
{{See also|Osman I#Name}}
The word ''Ottoman'' is an historical [[Anglicisation (linguistics)|anglicisation]] of the name of [[Osman I]], the founder of the Empire and of the ruling [[Ottoman dynasty|House of Osman]] (also known as the Ottoman dynasty). Osman's name in turn was the Turkish form of the Arabic name {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|[[Uthman (name)|ʿUthmān]]}} ({{Lang|ota|عثمان}}). In [[Ottoman Turkish]], the empire was referred to as {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿAlīye-yi ʿOsmānīye}} ({{Lang|ota|دولت عليه عثمانیه}}), {{lit|Sublime Ottoman State}}, or simply {{Lang|tr|Devlet-i ʿOsmānīye}} ({{Lang|ota|دولت عثمانيه}}), {{lit|Ottoman State}}.
The Turkish word for ''Ottoman'' ({{Lang|tr|Osmanlı}}) originally referred to the tribal followers of Osman in the 14th century. The word subsequently came to be used to refer to the empire's military-administrative elite. In contrast, the term ''Turk'' ({{Lang|tr|Türk}}) was used to refer to the Anatolian peasant and tribal population and was seen as a disparaging term when applied to urban, educated individuals.[{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}]{{rp|26}}[{{Cite book|last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |edition=2 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |place=New York |date=2009 |page=3 |quote=By the seventeenth century, literate circles in Istanbul would not call themselves Turks, and often, in phrases such as 'senseless Turks', used the word as a term of abuse.}}] In the [[early modern period]], an educated, urban-dwelling Turkish speaker who was not a member of the military-administrative class typically referred to himself neither as an {{Lang|tr|Osmanlı}} nor as a {{Lang|tr|Türk}}, but rather as a {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} ({{Lang|ota|رومى}}), or "Roman", meaning an inhabitant of the territory of the former [[Byzantine Empire]] in the Balkans and Anatolia. The term {{Lang|tr|Rūmī}} was also used to refer to Turkish speakers by the other Muslim peoples of the empire and beyond.[{{Cite journal |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |date=2007 |title=A Rome of One's Own: Cultural Geography and Identity in the Lands of Rum |journal=Muqarnas |volume=24}}]{{rp|11}}
In Western Europe, the names ''Ottoman Empire'', ''Turkish Empire'' and ''Turkey'' were often used interchangeably, with ''Turkey'' being increasingly favoured both in formal and informal situations. This dichotomy was officially ended in 1920–1923, when the newly established [[Ankara]]-based [[Grand National Assembly of Turkey|Turkish government]] chose Turkey as the sole official name.
== History ==
{{Main|History of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{See also|Territorial evolution of the Ottoman Empire}}
=== Rise (c. 1299–1453) ===
{{Main|Rise of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Sultan Uthman I.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman miniature]] of [[Osman I]] by Yahya Bustanzâde (18th century)|left|upright]]
As the [[Sultanate of Rum|Rum Sultanate]] declined in the 13th century, [[Anatolia]] was divided into a patchwork of independent Turkish principalities known as the [[Anatolian Beyliks]]. One of these, in the region of [[Bithynia]] on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire, was led by the Turkish[{{Cite book |last1=A'goston |first1=Ga'bor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Masters |first2=Bruce Alan |date=2008 |publisher=Infobase Publishing, NY |isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1 |page=444}} "Osman was simply one among a number ''Turkoman'' tribal leaders operating in the Sakarya region."; {{Cite web |title=Osman I |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424073731/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Osman-I |archive-date=24 April 2018 |access-date=1 July 2020 |website=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Osman I, also called Osman Gazi, (born {{circa|1258|lk=no}}—died 1324 or 1326), ruler of a Turkmen principality in northwestern Anatolia who is regarded as the founder of the Ottoman Turkish state.] tribal leader Osman I ({{abbr|d.|died}} 1323/4),[{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1923 |date=13 February 2006 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-02396-7 |pages=2, 7}}] a figure of obscure origins from whom the name Ottoman is derived.[{{Cite book |last=Kermeli |first=Eugenia |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |chapter=Osman I |editor-last2=Masters |editor-first2=Bruce |orig-date=2008}}]{{rp|444}} Osman's early followers consisted of Turkish tribal groups and Byzantine renegades, with many but not all converts to Islam.[{{Cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath |title=The Nature of the Early Ottoman State |date=2003 |publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-5636-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fAppWuoFv3QC |access-date=9 September 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151032/https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Nature_of_the_Early_Ottoman_State/fAppWuoFv3QC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|59}}[{{Cite book |last=Kafadar |first=Cemal |title=Between Two Worlds: The Construction of the Ottoman State |date=1995}}]{{rp|127}} Osman extended control of his principality by conquering Byzantine towns along the [[Sakarya River]]. A Byzantine defeat at the [[Battle of Bapheus]] in 1302 contributed to Osman's rise. It is not well understood how the early Ottomans came to dominate their neighbours, due to the lack of sources surviving. The [[Ghaza thesis]] popular during the 20th century credited their success to rallying religious warriors to fight for them in the name of Islam, but it is no longer generally accepted. No other hypothesis has attracted broad acceptance.[{{Cite book |last=Finkel |first=Caroline |title=Osman's Dream: The History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2005 |publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-0-465-00850-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=9cTHyUQoTyUC&pg=PA5 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|5, 10}}[{{Cite book |last=Lindner |first=Rudi Paul |title=The Cambridge History of Turkey |date=2009 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |volume=1, Byzantium to Turkey, 1071–1453 |location=Cambridge |chapter=Anatolia, 1300–1451}}]{{rp|104}}
In the century after Osman I, Ottoman rule had begun to extend over Anatolia and the [[History of the Balkans|Balkans]]. The earliest conflicts began during the [[Byzantine–Ottoman wars]], waged in Anatolia in the late 13th century before entering Europe in the mid-14th century, followed by the [[Bulgarian–Ottoman wars]] and the [[Serbian–Ottoman wars]] in the mid-14th century. Much of this period was characterised by [[Rumelia|Ottoman expansion into the Balkans]]. Osman's son, [[Orhan]], captured the northwestern Anatolian city of [[Bursa]] in 1326, making it the new capital and supplanting Byzantine control in the region. The important port of [[Thessaloniki]] was captured from the [[Republic of Venice|Venetians]] in 1387 and sacked. The Ottoman victory in [[Battle of Kosovo|Kosovo in 1389]] effectively marked the [[Fall of the Serbian Empire|end of Serbian power]] in the region, paving the way for Ottoman expansion into Europe.[{{Cite book |last=Elsie |first=Robert |title=Historical Dictionary of Kosova |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-5309-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151033/https://books.google.com/books?id=Fnbw1wsacSAC&pg=PA95 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|95–96}} The [[Battle of Nicopolis]] for the [[Second Bulgarian Empire|Bulgarian]] [[Tsardom of Vidin]] in 1396, regarded as the last large-scale [[Crusades|crusade]] of the [[Middle Ages]], failed to stop the advance of the victorious Ottomans.[{{Cite book |last=Nicolle |first=David |title=Nicopolis 1396: The Last Crusade |date=1999 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-85532-918-8}}]
[[File:Battle of Nicopolis.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Nicopolis]] in 1396, as depicted in an [[Ottoman miniature]] from 1523|right|upright=.8]]
As the Turks expanded into the Balkans, the [[Sieges of Constantinople#Ottoman Sieges|conquest of Constantinople]] became a crucial objective. The Ottomans had already wrested control of nearly all former Byzantine lands surrounding the city, but the strong defence of Constantinople's strategic position on the [[Bosporus]] Strait made it difficult to conquer. In 1402, the Byzantines were temporarily relieved when the [[Turco-Mongol tradition|Turco-Mongol]] leader [[Timur]], founder of the [[Timurid Empire]], invaded Ottoman Anatolia from the east. In the [[Battle of Ankara]] in 1402, Timur defeated Ottoman forces and took Sultan [[Bayezid I]] as prisoner, throwing the empire into disorder. The [[Ottoman Interregnum|ensuing civil war]] lasted from 1402 to 1413 as Bayezid's sons fought over succession. It ended when [[Mehmed I]] emerged as the sultan and restored Ottoman power.[{{Cite book |last1=Ágoston |first1=Gábor |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |orig-date=2008 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA363 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|363}}
The Balkan territories lost by the Ottomans after 1402, including Thessaloniki, Macedonia, and Kosovo, were later recovered by [[Murad II]] between the 1430s and 1450s. On 10 November 1444, Murad repelled the [[Crusade of Varna]] by defeating the Hungarian, Polish, and [[Wallachia]]n armies under [[Władysław III of Poland]] and [[John Hunyadi]] at the [[Battle of Varna]], although Albanians under [[Skanderbeg]] continued to resist. Four years later, John Hunyadi prepared another army of Hungarian and Wallachian forces to attack the Turks, but was again defeated at the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]] in 1448.[{{Cite book |last1=Uyar |first1=Mesut |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |title=A Military History of the Ottomans: From Osman to Atatürk |last2=Edward J. Erickson |date=2009 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-0-275-98876-0 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgfNBKHG7S8C&pg=PA29 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|29}}
According to modern historiography, there is a direct connection between the rapid Ottoman military advance and the consequences of the [[Black Death]] from the mid-14th century onwards. Byzantine territories, where the initial Ottoman conquests were carried out, were exhausted demographically and militarily due to the plague, which facilitated Ottoman expansion. In addition, slave hunting was the main economic driving force behind Ottoman conquest. Some 21st-century authors re-periodise conquest of the Balkans into the ''akıncı phase'', which spanned 8 to 13 decades, characterised by continuous slave hunting and destruction, followed by administrative integration into the Empire.[{{cite journal |last1=Schmitt |first1=O. J. |last2=Kiprovska |first2=M. |date=2022 |title=Ottoman Raiders (Akıncıs) as a Driving Force of Early Ottoman Conquest of the Balkans and the Slavery-Based Economy |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |publisher=Brill |volume=65 |issue=4 |pages=497–582 |doi=10.1163/15685209-12341575 |s2cid=249355977 |doi-access=free }}][{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|title=Plague and Empire in the Early Modern Mediterranean World, The Ottoman Experience, 1347–1600|author=Nükhet Varlik|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139004046|isbn=978-1-139-00404-6|s2cid=197967256|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202092936/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/plague-and-empire-in-the-early-modern-mediterranean-world/D35B6A9462B1E2849AA2F9A75048DF69|url-status=live}}][{{cite book|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|title=Natural Disasters in the Ottoman Empire, Plague, Famine, and Other Misfortunes|author=Yaron Ayalon|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2014|doi=10.1017/CBO9781139680943|isbn=978-1-139-68094-3|access-date=2 February 2023|archive-date=2 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230202093507/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/natural-disasters-in-the-ottoman-empire/2F67203808F11027678E583B5CE49C2F|url-status=live}}][{{cite web|url=https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|title=The origin and early spread of the Black Death in Italy: first evidence of plague victims from 14th-century Liguria (northern Italy)|author1=D. Cesana |author2=O.J. Benedictow |author3=R. Bianucci |publisher=Anthropological Science |date=11 October 2016 |access-date=2 February 2023 |archive-date=8 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008073522/https://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ase/advpub/0/advpub_161011/_pdf|url-status=live}}]
=== Expansion and peak (1453–1566) ===
{{Main|Classical Age of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Zonaro GatesofConst.jpg|thumb|Sultan [[Mehmed II|Mehmed the Conqueror]]'s entry into [[Constantinople]]; painting by [[Fausto Zonaro]] (1854–1929)|upright=.8|left]]
The son of Murad II, [[Mehmed the Conqueror]], reorganised both state and military, and on 29 May 1453 conquered [[fall of Constantinople|Constantinople]], ending the Byzantine Empire.[{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-83910-5 |edition=2 |page=4}}] Mehmed allowed the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] to maintain its autonomy and land in exchange for accepting Ottoman authority.[{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=94 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}] Due to tension between the states of western Europe and the later Byzantine Empire, most of the Orthodox population accepted Ottoman rule, as preferable to Venetian rule.[Hodgkinson 2005, p. 240]
In the 15th and 16th centuries, the Ottoman Empire entered a [[Growth of the Ottoman Empire|period of expansion]]. The Empire prospered under the rule of a line of committed and effective [[Ottoman Dynasty|Sultans]]. It flourished economically due to its control of the major overland trade routes between Europe and Asia.[{{Cite book |last=Karpat, Kemal H. |title=The Ottoman state and its place in world history |publisher=Brill |date=1974 |isbn=978-90-04-03945-2 |location=Leiden}}]{{rp|111}}{{efn|A lock-hold on trade between western Europe and Asia is often cited as a primary motivation for [[Isabella I of Castile]] to fund [[Christopher Columbus]]'s westward journey to find a sailing route to Asia and, more generally, for European seafaring nations to explore alternative trade routes (e.g., K.D. Madan, ''Life and travels of Vasco Da Gama'' (1998), 9; I. Stavans, ''Imagining Columbus: the literary voyage'' (2001), 5; W.B. Wheeler and S. Becker, ''Discovering the American Past. A Look at the Evidence: to 1877'' (2006), 105). This traditional viewpoint has been attacked as unfounded in an influential article by A.H. Lybyer ("The Ottoman Turks and the Routes of Oriental Trade", ''English Historical Review'', 120 (1915), 577–588), who sees the rise of Ottoman power and the beginnings of Portuguese and Spanish explorations as unrelated events. His view has not been universally accepted (cf. K.M. Setton, ''The Papacy and the Levant (1204–1571), Vol. 2: The Fifteenth Century (Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 127)'' (1978), 335).}}
Sultan [[Selim I]] (1512–1520) dramatically expanded the eastern and southern frontiers by defeating [[Ismail I|Shah Ismail]] of [[Safavid Iran]], in the [[Battle of Chaldiran]].[{{Cite journal |last=Savory |first=R. M. |date=1960 |title=The Principal Offices of the Ṣafawid State during the Reign of Ismā'īl I (907–930/1501–1524) |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |volume=23 |issue=1 |pages=91–105 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00149006 |jstor=609888|s2cid=154467531}}]{{rp|91–105}} Selim I established [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman rule in Egypt]] by defeating and annexing the [[Mamluk Sultanate|Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] and created a naval presence on the [[Red Sea]]. After this Ottoman expansion, competition began between the [[Portuguese Empire]] and the Ottomans to become the dominant power in the region.[{{Cite journal |last=Hess |first=Andrew C. |date=January 1973 |title=The Ottoman Conquest of Egypt (1517) and the Beginning of the Sixteenth-Century World War |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=55–76 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800027276 |jstor=162225|s2cid=162219690 }}]{{rp|55–76}}
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[[Suleiman the Magnificent]] (1520–1566)[{{Cite web |date=6 May 2008 |title=Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41&_pos=3 |url-status=deviated |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610093907/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1801?_hi=41 |archive-date=10 June 2022 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online}}] captured [[Belgrade]] in 1521, conquered the southern and central parts of the [[Kingdom of Hungary]] as part of the [[Ottoman–Hungarian Wars]], and, after his historic victory in the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526, he established Ottoman rule in the territory of present-day Hungary and other Central European territories. He then laid [[Siege of Vienna (1529)|siege to Vienna]] in 1529, but failed to take the city.[{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3}}]{{rp|50}} In 1532, he made another [[Habsburg–Ottoman wars in Hungary (1526–1568)|attack]] on Vienna, but was repulsed in the [[siege of Güns]].[{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Bard |title=Humanists and Reformers: A History of the Renaissance and Reformation |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |date=1996 |isbn=978-0-8028-6348-5 |page=442}}][{{Cite book |last=Ágoston and Alan Masters |first=Gábor and Bruce |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase Publishing |date=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=583}}] [[Transylvania]], Wallachia and, intermittently, [[Moldavia]], became tributary principalities of the Empire. In the east, the Ottoman Turks took [[Baghdad]] from the Persians in 1535, establishing [[Ottoman Iraq|Ottoman rule in Iraq]] and gaining naval access to the [[Persian Gulf]]. After the end of the [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)]], the [[Caucasus]] became partitioned for the first time between the Safavids and the Ottomans, a ''[[status quo]]'' that persisted until the [[Russian conquest of the Caucasus]] in the 19th century. By this partitioning as signed in the [[Peace of Amasya]], [[Western Armenia]], western [[Kurdistan]], and [[Kingdom of Imereti|Western Georgia]] fell into Ottoman hands,[''The Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, 1520–1566'', V.J. Parry, ''A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730'', ed. M.A. Cook (Cambridge University Press, 1976), 94.] while southern [[Dagestan]], [[Eastern Armenia]], [[Eastern Georgia (country)|Eastern Georgia]], and [[Azerbaijan]] remained Persian.[''A Global Chronology of Conflict: From the Ancient World to the Modern Middle East'', Vol. II, ed. [[Spencer C. Tucker]], (ABC-CLIO, 2010). 516.]
[[File:Battle of Mohács, with Suleiman I in the middle.jpg|thumb|Ottoman miniature of the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526[{{Cite web |last=Lokman |date=1588 |title=Battle of Mohács (1526) |url=http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130529094441/http://warfare.atwebpages.com/Ottoman/Ottoman.htm |archive-date=29 May 2013}}]|upright|left]]
In 1539, a 60,000-strong Ottoman army besieged the [[Habsburg Spain|Spanish]] garrison of [[Siege of Castelnuovo|Castelnuovo]] on the [[Adriatic coast]]; the successful siege cost the Ottomans 8,000 casualties,[{{Cite book |title=Revival: A History of the Art of War in the Sixteenth Century (1937) |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge}}] but [[Republic of Venice|Venice]] agreed to terms in 1540, surrendering most of its empire in the [[Aegean Sea|Aegean]] and the [[Morea]]. [[Early Modern France|France]] and the Ottoman Empire, united by mutual opposition to [[Habsburg]] rule,[{{Cite book |last=Aksan |first=Virginia |title=Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged |date=2007 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-30807-7 |pages=130–135}}] became allies. The French conquests of [[Siege of Nice|Nice]] (1543) and [[Invasion of Corsica (1553)|Corsica]] (1553) occurred as a joint venture between French king [[Francis I of France|Francis I]] and Suleiman, and were commanded by the Ottoman admirals [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] and [[Dragut]].[{{Cite book |last=Imber |first=Colin |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |date=2002 |isbn=978-0-333-61386-3 |page=53}}] France supported the Ottomans with an artillery unit during the 1543 Ottoman [[siege of Esztergom (1543)|conquest of Esztergom]] in northern Hungary. After further advances by the Turks, the Habsburg ruler [[Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor|Ferdinand]] officially recognised Ottoman ascendancy in Hungary in 1547. Suleiman died of natural causes during the [[siege of Szigetvár]] in 1566. Following his death, the Ottomans were said to be declining, although this has been rejected by many scholars.[{{Cite book |last=Hathaway |first=Jane |title=The Arab Lands under Ottoman Rule, 1516–1800 |date=2008 |publisher=Pearson Education Ltd. |isbn=978-0-582-41899-8 |page=8 |quote=historians of the Ottoman Empire have rejected the narrative of decline in favor of one of crisis and adaptation}}; {{Cite book |last=Tezcan |first=Baki |title=The Second Ottoman Empire: Political and Social Transformation in the Early Modern Period |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-41144-9 |page=9 |quote=Ottomanist historians have produced several works in the last decades, revising the traditional understanding of this period from various angles, some of which were not even considered as topics of historical inquiry in the mid-twentieth century. Thanks to these works, the conventional narrative of Ottoman history – that in the late sixteenth century the Ottoman Empire entered a prolonged period of decline marked by steadily increasing military decay and institutional corruption – has been discarded.}}; {{Cite book |last=Woodhead |first=Christine |title=The Ottoman World |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-44492-7 |editor=Christine Woodhead |page=5 |chapter=Introduction |quote=Ottomanist historians have largely jettisoned the notion of a post-1600 'decline'}}] By the end of Suleiman's reign, the Empire spanned approximately {{Cvt|877888|mi2}}, extending over three continents.[{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Masters |editor-first=Bruce |chapter=Süleyman I}}]{{rp|545}}
[[File:IAN_0137_Urrabieta_y_Ortiz_1859_Preveza.jpg|thumb|Ottoman admiral [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha]] defeated the [[Holy League (1538)|Holy League]] of [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] under the command of [[Andrea Doria]] at the [[Battle of Preveza]] in 1538.]]
The Empire became a dominant naval force, controlling much of the [[Mediterranean Sea]].[{{Cite book |last=Mansel |first=Philip |title=[[Constantinople: City of the World's Desire, 1453–1924]] |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-14-026246-9 |location=London |author-link=Philip Mansel}}]{{rp|61}} The Empire was now a major part of European politics. The Ottomans became involved in multi-continental religious wars when Spain and Portugal were united under the [[Iberian Union]]. The Ottomans were holders of the Caliph title, meaning they were the leaders of Muslims worldwide. The Iberians were leaders of the Christian crusaders, and so the two fought in a worldwide conflict. There were zones of operations in the Mediterranean[Crowley, Roger [https://books.google.com/books?id=Y7RuHr4wP3AC Empires of the Sea: The siege of Malta, the battle of Lepanto and the contest for the center of the world] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141246/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Empires_of_the_Sea/Y7RuHr4wP3AC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}, Random House, 2008] and [[Indian Ocean]],[{{Cite web |title=The Ottoman 'Discovery' of the Indian Ocean in the Sixteenth Century: The Age of Exploration from an Islamic Perspective |url=https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729152826/https://historycooperative.org/journal/the-ottoman-discovery-of-the-indian-ocean-in-the-sixteenth-century-the-age-of-exploration-from-an-islamic-perspective |archive-date=29 July 2019 |access-date=11 September 2019 |website=historycooperative.org}}] where Iberians circumnavigated Africa to reach India and, on their way, wage war upon the Ottomans and their local Muslim allies. Likewise, the Iberians passed through newly-Christianised [[Latin America]] and [[Juan de Salcedo|had sent expeditions]] that traversed the Pacific to Christianise the formerly Muslim Philippines and use it as a base to attack the Muslims in the [[Far East]].[Charles A. Truxillo (2012), Jain Publishing Company, [https://books.google.com/books?id=prA99TUDgKQC "Crusaders in the Far East: The Moro Wars in the Philippines in the Context of the Ibero-Islamic World War"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141253/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Crusaders_in_the_Far_East/prA99TUDgKQC?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }}.] In this case, the Ottomans [[Ottoman expeditions to Aceh|sent armies]] to aid its easternmost vassal and territory, the [[Sultanate of Aceh]] in Southeast Asia.[{{cite book |last=Palabiyik |first=Hamit |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |publisher=Ankara |date=2008}}]{{rp|84}}[{{Cite book |last=İsmail Hakkı Göksoy |url=http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |title=''Ottoman-Aceh Relations According to the Turkish Sources'' |access-date=16 December 2018 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080119135247/http://www.ari.nus.edu.sg/docs/Aceh-project/full-papers/aceh_fp_ismailhakkigoksoy.pdf |archive-date=19 January 2008 |url-status=dead}}]
The [[Spanish–Ottoman wars]] took place primarily in the Mediterranean. [[Barbary corsairs]] from the North African cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, which were nominally part of the Ottoman Empire, captured thousands of merchant ships and raided coastal towns in Europe, [[Barbary slave trade|enslaving]] the people they captured.[[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/12/books/review/Toll-t.html Review of ''Pirates of Barbary''] by Ian W. Toll, ''The New York Times,'' 12 December 2010]
During the 1600s, the world conflict between the Ottoman Caliphate and Iberian Union was a stalemate since [[List of countries by population in 1600|both were at similar population]], technology and economic levels. Nevertheless, the success of the Ottoman political and military establishment was compared to the [[Roman Empire]], despite the difference in size, by the likes of contemporary Italian scholar [[Francesco Sansovino]] and French political philosopher [[Jean Bodin]].[{{Cite journal |last=Deringil |first=Selim |date=September 2007 |title=The Turks and 'Europe': The Argument from History |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=709–723 |doi=10.1080/00263200701422600 |s2cid=144606323}}]
=== Stagnation and reform (1566–1827) ===
==== Revolts, reversals, and revivals (1566–1683) ====
{{Main|Transformation of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Further|Ottoman decline thesis}}
[[File:IstanbulNavalMuseum38.JPG|thumb|Late 16th or early 17th century [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman]] [[galley]] known as ''[[Tarihi Kadırga]]'' at the [[Istanbul Naval Museum]], built in the period between the reigns of Sultan [[Murad III]] (1574–1595) and Sultan [[Mehmed IV]] (1648–1687)[{{Cite web |date=24 November 2021 |title=The Historical Galley |url=https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008120739/https://denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr/index.php/en/content/2 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |website=denizmuzesi.dzkk.tsk.tr}}][{{Cite web|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/304623376|title=Liphschitz, N., 2014. The Kadirga galley in Istanbul – The Turkish Sultan's Caique: A dendrohistorical research. In: Environment and Ecology in the Mediterranean Rgion II (eds. R. Efe and M. Ozturk). Cambridge Scholars Pub. Pp.39–48. Cambridge. | Request PDF}}]]]
In the second half of the 16th century, the Ottoman Empire came under increasing strain from inflation and the rapidly rising costs of warfare that were impacting both Europe and the Middle East.[{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |date=2009 |editor-last=Ágoston |editor-first=Gábor |page=xxxii |chapter=Introduction |editor-last2=Bruce Masters}}; {{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=553 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |quote=In the past fifty years, scholars have frequently tended to view this decreasing participation of the sultan in political life as evidence for "Ottoman decadence", which supposedly began at some time during the second half of the sixteenth century. But recently, more note has been taken of the fact that the Ottoman Empire was still a formidable military and political power throughout the seventeenth century, and that noticeable though limited economic recovery followed the crisis of the years around 1600; after the crisis of the 1683–1699 war, there followed a longer and more decisive economic upswing. Major evidence of decline was not visible before the second half of the eighteenth century. |editor2=Donald Quataert}}] These pressures led to a series of crises around the year 1600, placing great strain upon the Ottoman system of government.[{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}]{{rp|413–414}} The empire underwent a series of transformations of its political and military institutions in response to these challenges, enabling it to successfully adapt to the new conditions of the 17th century and remain powerful, both militarily and economically.[{{Cite book |last=Şahin |first=Kaya |title=Empire and Power in the Reign of Süleyman: Narrating the Sixteenth-Century Ottoman World |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03442-6}}]{{rp|10}} Historians of the mid-20th century once characterised this period as one of stagnation and decline, but this view is now rejected by the majority of academics.[
The discovery of new maritime trade routes by Western European states allowed them to avoid the Ottoman trade monopoly. The [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portuguese]] discovery of the [[Cape of Good Hope]] in 1488 initiated [[Ottoman naval expeditions in the Indian Ocean|a series of Ottoman-Portuguese naval wars]] in the [[Indian Ocean]] throughout the 16th century. Despite the growing European presence in the Indian Ocean, Ottoman trade with the east continued to flourish. Cairo, in particular, benefitted from the rise of Yemeni coffee as a popular consumer commodity. As coffeehouses appeared in cities and towns across the empire, Cairo developed into a major centre for its trade, contributing to its continued prosperity throughout the seventeenth and much of the 18th century.][{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |chapter=Crisis and Change, 1590–1699 |editor-last2=Quataert |editor-first2=Donald}}]{{rp|507–508}}
Under [[Ivan IV]] (1533–1584), the [[Tsardom of Russia]] expanded into the Volga and Caspian regions at the expense of the [[Tatars|Tatar]] [[khanate]]s. In 1571, the Crimean khan [[Devlet I Giray]], commanded by the Ottomans, [[Russo-Crimean Wars|invaded Russia]] and [[Fire of Moscow (1571)|burned Moscow]].[{{Cite book |last=Davies |first=Brian L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |title=Warfare, State and Society on the Black Sea Steppe: 1500–1700 |publisher=Routledge |date=2007 |isbn=978-0-415-23986-8 |page=16 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=XH4hghHo1qoC&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }}] The next year, the invasion was repeated but repelled at the [[Battle of Molodi]]. The Ottoman Empire and its vassal, the Crimean Khanate, continued to invade Eastern Europe in a series of [[Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe|slave raids]],[{{Cite book |last=Orest Subtelny |url=https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0 |title=Ukraine |publisher=University of Toronto Press |date=2000 |isbn=978-0-8020-8390-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/ukrainehistory00subt_0/page/106 106] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}] and remained a significant power in Eastern Europe until the end of the 17th century.[{{Cite web |last=Matsuki |first=Eizo |title=The Crimean Tatars and their Russian-Captive Slaves |url=http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115170654/http://www.econ.hit-u.ac.jp/~areastd/mediterranean/mw/pdf/18/10.pdf |archive-date=15 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Mediterranean Studies Group at Hitotsubashi University }}] The Crimean cavalry became indispensable for the Ottomans' campaigns against Russia, [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth|Poland]], [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]], and [[Safavid Iran|Persia]].[{{cite web |author=Brian Glyn Williams |title=The Sultan's Raiders: The Military Role of the Crimean Tatars in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |website=[[The Jamestown Foundation]] |date=2013 |page=27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131021092115/http://www.jamestown.org/uploads/media/Crimean_Tatar_-_complete_report_01.pdf |archive-date=21 October 2013 }}]
[[File:Giorgio-vasari-battle-of-lepanto.jpg|thumb|Order of battle of the two fleets in the [[Battle of Lepanto]], with an allegory of the three powers of the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] in the foreground, fresco by [[Giorgio Vasari]]]]
The Ottomans decided to conquer [[Venetian Cyprus]] and on 22 July 1570, Nicosia was besieged; 50,000 Christians died, and 180,000 were enslaved.[{{Cite book |title=Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History. Volume 10 Ottoman and Safavid Empires (1600–1700) |publisher=BRILL}}]{{rp|67}} On 15 September 1570, the Ottoman cavalry appeared before the last Venetian stronghold in Cyprus, Famagusta. The Venetian defenders held out for 11 months against a force that at its peak numbered 200,000 men with 145 cannons; 163,000 cannonballs struck the walls of Famagusta before it fell to the Ottomans in August 1571. The [[Siege of Famagusta]] claimed 50,000 Ottoman casualties.[{{Cite book |last=Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |date=2019}}]{{rp|328}} Meanwhile, the [[Holy League (1571)|Holy League]] consisting of mostly Spanish and Venetian fleets won a victory over the Ottoman fleet at the [[Battle of Lepanto]] (1571), off southwestern Greece; Catholic forces killed over 30,000 Turks and destroyed 200 of their ships.[{{Cite book |last=Hanlon |first=Gregory |title=The Twilight Of A Military Tradition: Italian Aristocrats And European Conflicts, 1560–1800 |publisher=Routledge}}]{{rp|24}} It was a startling, if mostly symbolic,{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=272}} blow to the image of Ottoman invincibility, an image which the victory of the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]] over the Ottoman invaders in the 1565 [[Great Siege of Malta|siege of Malta]] had recently set about eroding.[{{cite book |last=Braudel |first=Fernand Braudel |title=The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II |volume=II |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |date=1995}}] The battle was far more damaging to the Ottoman navy in sapping experienced manpower than the loss of ships, which were rapidly replaced.[{{Cite book |last1=Kunt |first1=Metin |title=Süleyman the Magnificent and His Age: the Ottoman Empire in the Early Modern World |last2=Woodhead |first2=Christine |publisher=Longman |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-582-03827-1}}]{{rp|53}} The Ottoman navy recovered quickly, persuading Venice to sign a peace treaty in 1573, allowing the Ottomans to expand and consolidate their position in North Africa.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=67}}
By contrast, the [[Ottoman–Habsburg wars|Habsburg frontier]] had settled somewhat, a stalemate caused by a stiffening of the [[Military Frontier|Habsburg defences]].{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=71}} The [[Long Turkish War]] against Habsburg Austria (1593–1606) created the need for greater numbers of Ottoman infantry equipped with firearms, resulting in a relaxation of recruitment policy. This contributed to problems of indiscipline and outright rebelliousness within the corps, which were never fully solved.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=90–92}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} Irregular sharpshooters ([[Sekban]]) were also recruited, and on demobilisation turned to [[brigandage]] in the [[Celali rebellions]] (1590–1610), which engendered widespread anarchy in [[Anatolia]] in the late 16th and early 17th centuries.[{{Cite book |last=Halil İnalcık |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |title=An Economic And Social History of the Ottoman Empire, Vol. 1 1300–1600 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151035/https://books.google.com/books?id=1j-AtkBmn78C&pg=PA24 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|24}} With the Empire's population reaching 30 million people by 1600, the shortage of land placed further pressure on the government.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=281}}{{Obsolete source|date=September 2016}} In spite of these problems, the Ottoman state remained strong, and its army did not collapse or suffer crushing defeats. The only exceptions were campaigns against the [[Safavid dynasty]] of Persia, where many of the Ottoman eastern provinces were lost, some permanently. This [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)|1603–1618 war]] eventually resulted in the [[Treaty of Nasuh Pasha]], which ceded the entire Caucasus, except westernmost Georgia, back into the possession of [[Safavid Iran]].[Gábor Ágoston, Bruce Alan Masters [https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 ''Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA23 |date=1 November 2022 }} pp. 23 Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 {{ISBN|1-4381-1025-1}}] The treaty ending the [[Cretan War (1645–1669)|Cretan War]] cost Venice much of [[Venetian Dalmatia|Dalmatia]], its Aegean island possessions, and [[Kingdom of Candia|Crete]].[{{Cite book |last=Paoletti |first=Ciro |title=A Military History of Italy |date=2008}}]{{rp|33}}
During his brief majority reign, [[Murad IV]] (1623–1640) reasserted central authority and [[Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–1639)|recaptured Iraq]] (1639) from the Safavids.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=73}} The resulting [[Treaty of Zuhab]] of that same year decisively divided the Caucasus and adjacent regions between the two neighbouring empires as it had already been defined in the 1555 Peace of Amasya.[{{Cite book |last1=Herzig |first1=Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |title=Armenians: Past and Present in the Making of National Identity |last2=Kurkchiyan |first2=Marina |date=10 November 2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-79837-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=B8WRAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA47 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Rubenstein |first=Richard L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |title=Genocide and the Modern Age: Etiology and Case Studies of Mass Death |date=2000 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-2828-6 |access-date=30 December 2014 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151037/https://books.google.com/books?id=yED-aVDCbycC&pg=PA228 |url-status=live }}]
The [[Sultanate of Women]] (1533–1656) was a period during which imperial women, especially the consorts and mothers of sultans, exercised significant political influence in the Ottoman Empire. The most prominent women of this period were [[Hürrem Sultan]], [[Kösem Sultan]] and her daughter-in-law [[Turhan Hatice]], whose political rivalry culminated in Kösem's murder in 1651.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=74–75}} During the [[Köprülü era]] (1656–1703), effective control of the Empire was exercised by a sequence of [[grand vizier]]s from the Köprülü family. The Köprülü Vizierate saw renewed military success with authority restored in Transylvania, the conquest of [[Crete]] completed in 1669, and [[Polish–Ottoman War (1672–1676)|expansion]] into [[History of Ukraine#Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth|Polish southern Ukraine]], with the strongholds of [[Khotyn]], and [[Kamianets-Podilskyi]] and the territory of [[Podolia]] ceding to an Ottoman controlled [[Podolia Eyalet]] in 1676.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=80–81}}
[[File:Vienna Battle 1683.jpg|thumb|The [[Battle of Vienna|Second Siege of Vienna]] in 1683, by [[Frans Geffels]] (1624–1694)]]
This period of renewed assertiveness came to a calamitous end in 1683 when Grand Vizier [[Kara Mustafa Pasha]] led a huge army to attempt a second Ottoman siege of [[History of Vienna|Vienna]] in the [[Great Turkish War]] of 1683–1699. The final assault being fatally delayed, the Ottoman forces were swept away by allied Habsburg, German, and Polish forces spearheaded by the Polish king [[John III Sobieski]] at the [[Battle of Vienna]]. The alliance of the [[Holy League (1684)|Holy League]] pressed home the advantage of the defeat at Vienna, culminating in the [[Treaty of Karlowitz]] (26 January 1699), which ended the Great Turkish War.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|p=357}} The Ottomans surrendered control of significant territories, many permanently.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|p=84}} [[Mustafa II]] (1695–1703) led the counterattack of 1695–1696 against the Habsburgs in Hungary, but was undone at the disastrous defeat at [[Battle of Zenta|Zenta]] (in modern Serbia), 11 September 1697.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|pp=83–84}}
==== Military defeats ====
Aside from the loss of the [[Banat]] and the temporary loss of [[History of Belgrade|Belgrade]] (1717–1739), the Ottoman border on the [[Danube]] and [[Sava]] remained stable during the 18th century. [[Expansion of Russia 1500–1800|Russian expansion]], however, presented a large and growing threat.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Accordingly, King [[Charles XII of Sweden]] was welcomed as an ally in the Ottoman Empire following his defeat by the Russians at the [[Battle of Poltava]] of 1709 in central Ukraine (part of the [[Great Northern War]] of 1700–1721).{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=371}} Charles XII persuaded the Ottoman Sultan [[Ahmed III]] to declare war on Russia, which resulted in an Ottoman victory in the [[Pruth River Campaign]] of 1710–1711, in Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=372}}
[[File:1720 Huchtenburg Eroberungs Belgrads 1717 anagoria.JPG|thumb|Austrian troops led by [[Prince Eugene of Savoy]] capture [[Belgrade]] in 1717. Austrian control in Serbia lasted until the Turkish victory in the [[Russo-Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)]]. With the 1739 [[Treaty of Belgrade]], the Ottoman Empire regained northern [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]], [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), [[Oltenia]] and the southern parts of the [[Banat of Temeswar]].]]
After the [[Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718)|Austro-Turkish War]], the [[Treaty of Passarowitz]] confirmed the loss of the Banat, Serbia, and "Little Walachia" ([[Oltenia]]) to Austria. The Treaty also revealed that the Ottoman Empire was on the defensive and unlikely to present any further aggression in Europe.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=376}} The [[Austro-Russian–Turkish War (1735–1739)|Austro-Russian–Turkish War]] (1735–1739), which was ended by the [[Treaty of Belgrade]] in 1739, resulted in the Ottoman recovery of northern [[Bosnia]], [[Kingdom of Serbia (1718–1739)|Habsburg Serbia]] (including Belgrade), Oltenia and the southern parts of the [[Banat of Temeswar]]; but the Empire lost the port of [[Azov]], north of the Crimean Peninsula, to the Russians. After this treaty the Ottoman Empire was able to enjoy a generation of peace in Europe, as Austria and Russia were forced to deal with the rise of [[Prussia]].{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=392}}
[[Science and Technology in the Ottoman Empire#Education|Educational and technological reforms]] came about, including the establishment of higher education institutions such as the [[Istanbul Technical University]].[{{Cite web |title=History |url=http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about/history |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120618160944/http://www.itu.edu.tr/en/?about%2Fhistory |archive-date=18 June 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Technical University}}] In 1734 an artillery school was established to impart Western-style artillery methods, but the Islamic clergy successfully objected under the grounds of [[theodicy]].[{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=97 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}] In 1754 the artillery school was reopened on a semi-secret basis.[{{Cite web |date=5 May 2009 |title=Presentation of Katip Çelebi, Kitâb-i Cihân-nümâ li-Kâtib Çelebi |url=http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130212030334/http://vitrine.library.uu.nl/en/texts/Rarqu54.htm |archive-date=12 February 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Utrecht University Library}}] Muteferrika's press published its first book in 1729 and, by 1743, issued 17 works in 23 volumes, each having between 500 and 1,000 copies.[{{Cite journal |last=Watson |first=William J. |date=1968 |title=Ibrahim Muteferrika and Turkish Incunabula |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=435–441 |doi=10.2307/596868 |jstor=596868}}]
In North Africa, Spain [[Spanish conquest of Oran (1732)|conquered Oran]] from the autonomous [[Deylik of Algiers]]. The [[Beylik of Oran|Bey of Oran]] received an army from Algiers, but it failed to recapture [[Oran]]; the siege caused the deaths of 1,500 Spaniards, and even more Algerians. The Spanish also massacred many Muslim soldiers.[{{Cite book |title=Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |page=559}}] In 1792, Spain abandoned Oran, selling it to the Deylik of Algiers.
[[File:January Suchodolski - Ochakiv siege.jpg|thumb|Ottoman troops attempting to halt the advancing Russians during the [[Siege of Ochakov (1788)|Siege of Ochakov]] in 1788]]
In 1768 Russian-backed Ukrainian [[Haidamaka]]s, pursuing Polish confederates, entered [[Balta, Ukraine|Balta]], an Ottoman-controlled town on the border of Bessarabia in Ukraine, massacred its citizens, and burned the town to the ground. This action provoked the Ottoman Empire into the [[Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)|Russo-Turkish War of 1768–1774]]. The [[Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca]] of 1774 ended the war and provided freedom of worship for the Christian citizens of the Ottoman-controlled provinces of Wallachia and Moldavia.{{Sfn|Kinross|1979|page=405}} By the late 18th century, after a number of defeats in the wars with Russia, some people in the Ottoman Empire began to conclude that the reforms of [[Peter the Great]] had given the Russians an edge, and the Ottomans would have to keep up with Western technology in order to avoid further defeats.[{{Cite web |title=Liberation, Independence And Union of Serbia And Montenegro |url=http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Serb Land of Montenegro |archive-date=5 February 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010205052700/http://www.njegos.org/past/liunion.htm |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Berend |first=Tibor Iván |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |title=History Derailed: Central and Eastern Europe in the Long 19th Century |publisher=University of California Press |date=2003 |isbn=978-0-520-93209-8 |page=127 |author-link=Iván T. Berend |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9csmhIT_BQC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }}] In 1821, the [[Ottoman Greece|Greeks]] [[Greek War of Independence|declared war]] on the Sultan. A rebellion that originated in Moldavia as a diversion was followed by the main revolution in the [[Peloponnese]], which, along with the northern part of the [[Gulf of Corinth]], became the first parts of the Ottoman Empire to achieve independence (in 1829). In 1830, the French invaded the [[Deylik of Algiers]]. [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|The campaign]] took 21 days, and resulted in over 5,000 Algerian military casualties,[De Quatrebarbes, Théodore (1831). ''Souvenirs de la campagne d'Afrique''. Dentu. p. 35.] and about 2,600 French ones.[{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |title=Conquête d'Alger ou pièces sur la conquête d'Alger et sur l'Algérie |date=1831 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=vfxltIAnVecC&q=%22Alger%22+2160+bless%C3%A9s&pg=PA286 |url-status=live }}] Before the French invasion the total population of Algeria was most likely between 3,000,000 and 5,000,000.[{{Cite book |last=Kateb |first=Kamel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yEvQZ7bdybgC&pg=PA11 |title=Européens, "indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830–1962): représentations et réalités des populations |date=2001 |publisher=INED |isbn=978-2-7332-0145-9 |language=fr}}] By 1873, the population of Algeria (excluding several hundred thousand newly arrived French settlers) had decreased to 2,172,000.[{{Cite book |last=Guyot |first=Yves |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |title=Lettres sur la politique coloniale |date=1885 |publisher=C. Reinwald |isbn=9798862369458 |language=fr |access-date=8 September 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151115/https://books.google.com/books?id=K4M5rK-mWFoC&dq=2%2C172%2C000+alg%C3%A9rie&pg=PA41-IA2 |url-status=live }}] In 1831, Muhammad Ali of Egypt revolted against Sultan [[Mahmud II]] due to the latter's refusal to grant him the governorships of [[Syria (region)|Greater Syria]] and [[Crete]], which the Sultan had promised him in exchange for sending military assistance to put down the [[Greek Revolt|Greek revolt]] (1821–1829) that ultimately ended with the formal [[London Protocol (1830)|independence of Greece]] in 1830. It was a costly enterprise for Muhammad Ali, who had lost his fleet at the [[Battle of Navarino]] in 1827. Thus began the first [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–1833)]], during which the French-trained army of Muhammad Ali, under the command of his son [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], defeated the Ottoman Army as it marched into [[Anatolia]], reaching the city of [[Kütahya]] within {{cvt|200|mi|km|order=flip}} of the capital, Constantinople.[{{cite book |last=Karsh |first=Effraim |title=Islamic Imperialism A History |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |date=2006}}]{{rp|95}} In desperation, Sultan Mahmud II appealed to the empire's traditional arch-rival Russia for help, asking Emperor [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] to send an expeditionary force to assist him.[{{rp|96}} As the Sublime Porte had proved itself incapable of defeating Muhammad Ali,][{{Cite web |title=Battle of Konya {{!}} Summary |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019135832/https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Konya |archive-date=19 October 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 |website=Britannica |language=en}}][{{Cite book |last=Fahmy |first=Khaled |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |title=All The Pasha's Men: Mehmed Ali, Hisarmy And The Making Of Modern Egypt |date=2002 |publisher=American Univ in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-424-696-8 |language=en |access-date=21 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231024034304/https://books.google.com/books?id=ID7-26p9G78C&dq=Khaled+Fahmy.+All+the+Pasha%27s+Men%3A+Mehmed+Ali%2C+His+Army+and+the+Making+of+Modern+Egypt.+Cairo%3A+The+American+University+in+Cairo+Press%2C+2002&pg=PR3 |archive-date=24 October 2023 |url-status=live}}] the [[British Empire]] and [[Austrian Empire]] provided military assistance, and the second [[Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841)]] ended with Ottoman victory and the restoration of Ottoman suzerainty over Egypt Eyalet and the Levant.[{{rp|96}}
By the mid-19th century, the Ottoman Empire was called the "[[sick man of Europe]]". Three suzerain states – the [[Principality of Serbia]], [[Wallachia]] and [[Moldavia]] – moved towards ''de jure'' independence during the 1860s and 1870s.
=== Decline and modernisation (1828–1908) ===
{{Main|Decline and modernization of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Opening ceremony of the First Ottoman Parliament at the Dolmabahce Palace in 1876.jpg|thumb|Opening ceremony of the First [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Parliament]] at the [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] in 1876. The [[First Constitutional Era]] lasted only two years until 1878. The Ottoman Constitution and Parliament were [[Second Constitutional Era|restored 30 years later]] with the [[Young Turk Revolution]] in 1908.]]
During the [[Tanzimat]] period (1839–1876), the government's series of constitutional reforms led to a fairly modern [[Conscription in the Ottoman Empire|conscripted army]], banking system reforms, the decriminalisation of homosexuality, the replacement of religious law with secular law,][{{Cite web |last=Ishtiaq |first=Hussain |title=The Tanzimat: Secular Reforms in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |publisher=Faith Matters |access-date=11 October 2011 |archive-date=17 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161017061131/http://faith-matters.org/images/stories/fm-publications/the-tanzimat-final-web.pdf |url-status=live }}] and guilds with modern factories. The Ottoman Ministry of Post was established in Istanbul in 1840. American inventor [[Samuel Morse]] received an Ottoman patent for the telegraph in 1847, issued by Sultan [[Abdülmecid I|Abdülmecid]], who personally tested the invention.[Yakup Bektas, [https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas%2C%20Ott%20Telegraphy%2C%201847-1880%20%282000%29.pdf "The sultan's messenger: Cultural constructions of ottoman telegraphy, 1847–1880."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909033749/https://psi427.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Bektas,%20Ott%20Telegraphy,%201847-1880%20(2000).pdf |date=9 September 2021 }} ''Technology and Culture'' 41.4 (2000): 669–696.] The reformist period peaked with the Constitution, called the ''[[Kanûn-u Esâsî]]''. The empire's [[First Constitutional Era (Ottoman Empire)|First Constitutional era]] was short-lived. The parliament survived for only two years before the sultan suspended it.
The empire's Christian population, owing to their higher educational levels, started to pull ahead of the Muslim majority, leading to much resentment.[{{Cite book |last=Stone |first=Norman |title=Russia War, Peace And Diplomacy: Essays in Honour of John Erickson |publisher=Weidenfeld & Nicolson |date=2005 |isbn=978-0-297-84913-1 |editor-last=Mark Erickson, Ljubica Erickson |page=95 |chapter=Turkey in the Russian Mirror |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151034/https://books.google.com/books?id=xM9wQgAACAAJ |url-status=live }}] In 1861, there were 571 primary and 94 secondary schools for Ottoman Christians, with 140,000 pupils in total, a figure that vastly exceeded the number of Muslim children in school at the time, who were further hindered by the amount of time spent learning Arabic and Islamic theology.[{{Cite web |title=Sursock House |url=https://sursockhouse.com/ |access-date=29 May 2018 |archive-date=25 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180525062827/https://sursockhouse.com/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=V. Necla Geyikdagi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |title=Foreign Investment in the Ottoman Empire: International Trade and Relations 1854–1914 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2011 |isbn=978-1-84885-461-1 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151118/https://books.google.com/books?id=fGRMOzJZ4aEC&pg=PA32 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|32}}[{{Cite book |last=Douglas Arthur Howard |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug |title=The History of Turkey |publisher=Greenwood Publishing Group |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-313-30708-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofturkey00doug/page/71 71] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}]{{rp|71}} The war caused an exodus of the [[Crimean Tatars]], about 200,000 of whom moved to the Ottoman Empire in continuing waves of emigration.[{{Cite journal |last=Williams |first=Bryan Glynn |date=2000 |title=Hijra and forced migration from nineteenth-century Russia to the Ottoman Empire |journal=Cahiers du Monde Russe |volume=41 |issue=1 |pages=79–108 |doi=10.4000/monderusse.39 |doi-access=free}}]{{rp|79–108}} Toward the end of the [[Caucasian War]]s, 90% of the [[Circassians]] were [[Ethnic cleansing of Circassians|ethnically cleansed]][Memoirs of Miliutin, "the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population", per Richmond, W. ''The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, and Future''. Routledge. 2008.] and exiled from their homelands in the Caucasus, fleeing to the Ottoman Empire,[{{Cite book |last=Richmond |first=Walter |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |title=The Northwest Caucasus: Past, Present, Future |publisher=Taylor & Francis US |date=2008 |isbn=978-0-415-77615-8 |page=79 |quote=the plan of action decided upon for 1860 was to cleanse [ochistit'] the mountain zone of its indigenous population |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151038/https://books.google.com/books?id=LQJyLvMWB8MC&pg=PA79 |url-status=live }}] resulting in the settlement of 500,000 to 700,000 Circassians in the Ottoman Empire.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=49}} Crimean Tatar refugees in the late 19th century played an especially notable role in seeking to modernise Ottoman education and in first promoting both [[Pan-Turkism]] and a sense of Turkish nationalism.[Stone, Norman "Turkey in the Russian Mirror" pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 p. 95.]
[[File:Charles Porion - The kings of Europe in Paris for the opening of the Exposition of 1867.jpg|thumb|The monarchs of Europe in [[Paris]] ([[Napoleon III]] is at the centre, Sultan [[Abdulaziz]] is second from right), fictional representation of the opening of the [[Exposition Universelle (1867)|Universal Exposition of 1867]].|left|upright=1.3]]
In this period, the Ottoman Empire spent only small amounts of public funds on education; for example, in 1860–1861 only 0.2% of the total budget was invested in education.[{{Cite book |last=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-50718-0}}]{{rp|50}} As the Ottoman state attempted to modernise its infrastructure and army in response to outside threats, it opened itself up to a different kind of threat: that of creditors. As the historian Eugene Rogan has written, "the single greatest threat to the independence of the Middle East" in the 19th century "was not the armies of Europe but its banks".{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=105}} The Ottoman state, which had begun taking on debt with the Crimean War, was forced to declare bankruptcy in 1875.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}} By 1881, the Ottoman Empire agreed to have its debt controlled by the [[Ottoman Public Debt Administration]], a council of European men with presidency alternating between France and Britain. The body controlled swaths of the Ottoman economy, and used its position to ensure that European capital continued to penetrate the empire, often to the detriment of local Ottoman interests.{{Sfn|Rogan|2011|page=106}}
[[File:Ottomans 1875.png|thumb|The Ottoman Empire in 1875 under Sultan [[Abdulaziz]]]]
The Ottoman [[bashi-bazouk]]s suppressed the [[April Uprising|Bulgarian uprising]] of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process.[{{Cite book |last1=Jelavich |first1=Charles |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |title=The Establishment of the Balkan National States, 1804–1920 |last2=Jelavich |first2=Barbara |date=1986 |publisher=University of Washington Press |isbn=978-0-295-80360-9 |access-date=18 November 2020 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151039/https://books.google.com/books?id=LBYriPYyfUoC&q=massacre+bulgarians++1876&pg=PA139 |url-status=live }}]{{rp|139}} The [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]] ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: [[Principality of Bulgaria|Bulgaria]] was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; [[United Principalities|Romania]] achieved full independence; and [[History of Serbia|Serbia]] and [[Montenegro]] finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, [[Austria-Hungary]] unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of [[Bosnia Vilayet|Bosnia-Herzegovina]] and [[Sanjak of Novi Pazar|Novi Pazar]].
British Prime Minister [[Benjamin Disraeli]] advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the [[Congress of Berlin]], and in return, Britain assumed the administration of [[Cyprus]] in 1878.[{{Cite book |last=Taylor |first=A.J.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/struggleformaste00ajpt/page/228 |title=The Struggle for Mastery in Europe, 1848–1918 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1955 |isbn=978-0-19-822101-2 |location=Oxford |author-link=A. J. P. Taylor}}]{{rp|228–254}} Britain later sent troops to [[Egypt]] in 1882 to put down the [[Urabi Revolt]] (Sultan [[Abdul Hamid II]] was too paranoid to mobilise his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilisation. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron [[Colmar Freiherr von der Goltz|Colmar von der Goltz]] arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years.[{{cite book |last=Akmeșe |first=Handan Nezir |title=The Birth of Modern Turkey The Ottoman Military and the March to World I |location=London |publisher=I.B Tauris}}]{{rp|24}}
From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the [[Hamidian massacres]].[{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/42 |author-link=Taner Akçam}}]{{rp|42}}
In 1897 the population was 19{{nbsp}}million, of whom 14{{nbsp}}million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20{{nbsp}}million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon.[Shaw, ''History of the Ottoman Empire'' 2:236.]
As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9{{nbsp}}million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, [[Crimea]], Balkans, and the [[Mediterranean]] islands migrated to Anatolia and [[Eastern Thrace]].[{{Cite book |last=Kemal H Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC |title=Studies on Turkish politics and society: selected articles and essays |publisher=Brill |date=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-13322-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150514194407/https://books.google.com/books?id=cL4Ua6gGyWUC |archive-date=14 May 2015 |access-date=20 June 2015 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-57456-3 |editor-last=İnalcık |editor-first=Halil |volume=2 |page=762 |chapter=The Age of Reforms, 1812–1914 |editor-last2=Donald Quataert}}][{{Cite web |last=Shams El-Din |first=Osama |title=A Military History of Modern Egypt from the Ottoman Conquest to the Ramadan War |url=https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106154526/https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a479427.pdf |archive-date=6 November 2023 |access-date=17 October 2023 }}][{{Cite book |last=Trevor N. Dupuy |title=The Harper Encyclopedia of Military History |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers |year=1993 |isbn=978-0062700568 |pages=851}}] After the Empire lost the [[First Balkan War]] (1912–1913), it lost all its [[Balkan peninsula|Balkan]] territories except [[East Thrace]] (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from [[cholera]] brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule.[{{Cite web |last1=Zürcher |first1=Erik-Jan |title=Greek and Turkish refugees and deportees 1912–1924 |url=http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |url-status=dead |website=Turkology Update Leiden Project Working Papers Archive |publisher=[[Universiteit Leiden]] |date=January 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070716155929/http://tulp.leidenuniv.nl/content_docs/wap/ejz18.pdf |archive-date=16 July 2007 |location=Leiden, Netherlands |access-date=21 June 2009 }}] [[Justin McCarthy (American historian)|Justin McCarthy]] estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5{{nbsp}}million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5{{nbsp}}million.[{{Cite book |last=Justin McCarthy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ZntAAAAMAAJ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Carmichael |first=Cathie |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |title=Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans: Nationalism and the Destruction of Tradition |publisher=Routledge |date=2012 |isbn=978-1-134-47953-5 |page=21 |quote=During the period from 1821 to 1922 alone, Justin McCarthy estimates that the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims led to the death of several million individuals and the expulsion of a similar number. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151042/https://books.google.com/books?id=ybORI4KWwdIC |url-status=live }}] In addition the Ottoman state encouraged transnational migration, including Circassians, Bosnians, and Russian Jews resettled in the [[southern Levant]]. These communities, alongside internal Arab resettlement, reshaped rural society and land use in ways that reflected broader imperial patterns of demographic engineering and agrarian expansion.[{{cite journal |last=Marom |first=Roy |author-link=Roy Marom |year=2024 |title=Transnational Migrations from Eastern Europe to Ottoman Palestine and the Glocal Origins of the Zionist–Arab Conflict |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/00263206.2023.2183499 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=250–270 |doi=10.1080/00263206.2023.2183499 }}][{{Cite book |last=Buturovic |first=Amila |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |title=Islam in the Balkans: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-19-980381-1 |page=9 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kck_-B7MubIC |url-status=live }}]
=== Defeat and dissolution (1908–1922) ===
{{Main|Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Empire in World War I}}
==== Young Turk movement ====
[[File:Declaration of the 1908 Revolution in Ottoman Empire.png|thumb|Declaration of the [[Young Turk Revolution]] by the leaders of the Ottoman [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millets]] in 1908]]
The defeat and [[dissolution of the Ottoman Empire]] (1908–1922) began with the [[Second Constitutional Era]], a moment of hope and promise established with the [[Young Turk Revolution]]. It restored the [[Constitution of the Ottoman Empire]] and brought in [[List of political parties in the Ottoman Empire|multi-party politics]] with a [[Elections in the Ottoman Empire|two-stage electoral system]] ([[Ottoman electoral law|electoral law]]) under the [[General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman parliament]]. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place.[{{cite book|last=Reynolds|first=Michael A.|title=Shattering Empires: The Clash and Collapse of the Ottoman and Russian Empires 1908–1918 |date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0521149167|pages=1, 324}}] Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire.
Members of [[Young Turks]] movement who had once gone underground now established their parties.[{{cite book |first=Edward |last=Erickson |title=Ottomans and Armenians: A Study in Counterinsurgency |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |year=2013 |isbn=978-1137362209 | page=32 }}] Among them the [[Committee of Union and Progress]] and the [[Freedom and Accord Party]] were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included [[Jewish Social Democratic Labour Party in Palestine (Poale Zion)|Poale Zion]], [[Al-Fatat]], and [[Armenian national movement]] organised under [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]]. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] in 1908. The last of the [[Census in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman censuses]] was performed in [[1914 population statistics for the Ottoman Empire|1914]]. Despite [[Ottoman military reforms|military reforms]] which reconstituted the [[Ottoman Modern Army]], the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the [[Italo-Turkish War]] (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the [[Balkan Wars]] (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to [[World War I]], including the [[31 March Incident]] and two further coups in [[1912 Ottoman coup d'état|1912]] and [[1913 Ottoman coup d'état|1913]].
==== World War I ====
{{Main|Ottoman entry into World War I|Ottoman Empire in World War I}}
[[File:M 113 5 amiral Souchon et ses officiers.jpg|thumb|Admiral [[Wilhelm Souchon]], who commanded the [[Black Sea raid]] on 29 October 1914, and his officers in Ottoman naval uniforms]]
The Ottoman Empire entered [[World War I]] on the side of the [[Central Powers]] and was ultimately defeated.[{{Cite book |last=Findley |first=Carter Vaughn |title=Turkey, Islam, Nationalism and Modernity: A History, 1789–2007 |date=2010 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-15260-9 |location=New Haven |page=200}}] The Ottoman participation in the war began with the combined [[Black Sea Raid|German-Ottoman surprise attack]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast of the [[Russian Empire]] on 29 October 1914. Following the attack, the Russian Empire (2 November 1914)[{{Cite book |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |title=Timeline: Ottoman Empire (c. 1285 – 1923) |date=2012 |publisher=[[Oxford Reference]] |isbn=978-0-19-173764-0 |access-date=7 June 2021 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514171439/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780191737640.timeline.0001 |url-status=live }}] and its allies [[French Third Republic|France]] (5 November 1914)[{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|title=Armenian Genocide|access-date=28 January 2023|archive-date=1 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101025841/https://www.britannica.com/event/Armenian-Genocide/Genocide|url-status=live}}] to more than 1 million,[{{cite web|url=http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|title=Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide|publisher=University of Michigan|access-date=15 July 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818233348/http://www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/genocide.html|archive-date=18 August 2010|url-status=dead}}][{{cite book|last=Freedman|first=Jeri|title=The Armenian genocide|year=2009|publisher=Rosen Pub. Group|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4042-1825-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|edition=1st|access-date=2 June 2021|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151655/https://books.google.com/books?id=cuqxYldvClQC|url-status=live}}][Totten, Samuel, Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs (eds.) ''Dictionary of Genocide''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2008, p. 19. {{ISBN|0-313-34642-9}}.] people were killed.]]
In 1915 the Ottoman government and Kurdish tribes in the region started the extermination of its ethnic Armenian population, resulting in the deaths of up to 1.5{{nbsp}}million Armenians in the [[Armenian genocide]].[{{Cite book |last1=Bijak |first1=Jakub |title=The Armenian Genocide Legacy |last2=Lubman |first2=Sarah |date=2016 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK |isbn=978-1-137-56163-3 |page=39 |language=en |chapter=The Disputed Numbers: In Search of the Demographic Basis for Studies of Armenian Population Losses, 1915–1923}}][{{Cite book |last=Peter Balakian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |title=The Burning Tigris |publisher=HarperCollins |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-06-186017-1 |page=xvii |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrYoyAM3PBYC&pg=PR17 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Quataert |first=Donald |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1700–1922 |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press (Kindle edition) |page=186}}; {{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |s2cid=71515470}}] The genocide was carried out during and after World War I and implemented in two phases: the wholesale killing of the able-bodied male population through massacre and subjection of army conscripts to forced labour, followed by the deportation of women, children, the elderly and infirm on [[death march]]es leading to the [[Syrian desert]]. Driven forward by military escorts, the deportees were deprived of food and water and subjected to periodic robbery, [[Rape during the Armenian Genocide|rape]], and systematic massacre.[{{Cite book |last=Walker |first=Christopher J. |title=Armenia: The Survival of A Nation |pages=200–203 |date=1980 |place=London |publisher=Croom Helm}}][{{Cite book |last1=Bryce |first1=Viscount James |title=The Treatment of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire, 1915–1916: Documents Presented to Viscount Grey of Falloden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H0mfmdThGLAC&pg=PA636 |pages=635–649 |date=2000 |editor-last=Sarafian |editor-first=Ara |edition=uncensored |place=Princeton |publisher=[[Gomidas Institute]] |isbn=978-0-9535191-5-6 |last2=Toynbee |first2=Arnold |author-link=James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce}}] Large-scale massacres were also committed against the Empire's [[Greek genocide|Greek]] and [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] minorities as part of the same campaign of ethnic cleansing.[{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Dominik J |last2=Zimmerer |first2=Jürgen |date=2008 |title=Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction |url=http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Journal of Genocide Research |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=7–14 |doi=10.1080/14623520801950820 |via=Bridging the Divide |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131103172211/http://bridging-the-divide.org/sites/default/files/files/Late%20Ottoman%20genocides-%20the%20dissolution%20of%20the%20Ottoman%20Empire%20and%20Young%20Turkish%20population%20and%20extermination%20policies%281%29.pdf |archive-date=3 November 2013 |quote=The genocidal quality of the murderous campaigns against Greeks and Assyrians is obvious |s2cid=71515470 |accessdate=6 June 2013 }}]
==== Arab Revolt ====
{{Main|Middle Eastern theatre of World War I|Arab Revolt}}
The [[Arab Revolt]] began in 1916 with British support. It turned the tide against the Ottomans on the Middle Eastern front, where they seemed to have the upper hand during the first two years of the war. On the basis of the [[McMahon–Hussein Correspondence]], an agreement between the British government and [[Hussein bin Ali, Sharif of Mecca]], the revolt was officially initiated at Mecca on 10 June 1916.{{efn|Though the revolt was officially initiated on 10 June, bin Ali's sons [[Ali of Hejaz|'Ali]] and [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]] had already initiated operations at Medina starting on 5 June.[Eliezer Tauber, ''The Arab Movements in World War I,'' Routledge, 2014 {{ISBN|978-1-135-19978-4}} p. 80-81]}} The Arab nationalist goal was to create a single unified and independent [[Arab state]] stretching from [[Aleppo]], Syria, to [[Aden]], Yemen, which the British promised to recognise.
The [[Sharifian Army]], led by Hussein and the [[Hashemites]], with military backing from the British [[Egyptian Expeditionary Force]], successfully fought and expelled the Ottoman military presence from much of the [[Hejaz]] and [[Transjordan (region)|Transjordan]]. The rebellion eventually took [[Damascus]] and set up a short-lived monarchy led by [[Faisal I of Iraq|Faisal]], a son of Hussein.
Following the terms of the 1916 [[Sykes–Picot Agreement]], the British and French later partitioned the Middle East into [[League of Nations mandate|mandate territories]]. There was no unified Arab state, much to Arab nationalists' anger. Palestine, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria became British and French mandates.[{{Cite web |title=Sykes-Picot Agreement {{!}} Map, History, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |access-date=22 May 2024 |website=Britannica |language=en |archive-date=22 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240522080149/https://www.britannica.com/event/Sykes-Picot-Agreement |url-status=live }}]
==== Treaty of Sèvres and Turkish War of Independence ====
[[File:Sultanvahideddin.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mehmed VI]], the last Sultan of the Ottoman Empire, leaving the country after the abolition of the Ottoman sultanate, 17 November 1922]]
Defeated in World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed the [[Armistice of Mudros]] on 30 October 1918. [[Occupation of Istanbul|Istanbul was occupied]] by combined British, French, Italian, and Greek forces. In May 1919, Greece also [[Occupation of Smyrna|took control of the area around Smyrna]] (now İzmir).
The [[partition of the Ottoman Empire]] was finalised under the terms of the 1920 [[Treaty of Sèvres]]. This treaty, as designed in the [[Conference of London (1920)|Conference of London]], allowed the Sultan to retain his position and title. Anatolia's status was problematic given the occupied forces.
A nationalist opposition arose in the [[Turkish national movement]]. It won the [[Turkish War of Independence]] (1919–1923) under the leadership of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal]] (later given the surname "Atatürk"). The sultanate was abolished on 1 November 1922, and the last sultan, [[Mehmed VI]] (reigned 1918–1922), left the country on 17 November 1922. The [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]] was [[History of Turkey#Republic of Turkey|established]] in its place on 29 October 1923, in the new capital city of [[Ankara]]. The [[Ottoman Caliphate|caliphate]] was abolished on 3 March 1924.[{{Cite book |last=Hakan Özoğlu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |title=From Caliphate to Secular State: Power Struggle in the Early Turkish Republic |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-313-37957-4 |page=8 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=Cw5V1c1ej_cC&pg=PA8 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Howard |first=Douglas A. |title=A History of the Ottoman Empire |date=2016b |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-10747-1 |page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e57eDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 318]}}]
== Historiographical debate on the Ottoman state ==
{{See also|Ghaza thesis}}{{History of Turkey}}
Several historians, such as British historian [[Edward Gibbon]] and the Greek historian [[Dimitri Kitsikis]], have argued that after the fall of Constantinople, the Ottoman state took over the machinery of the Byzantine (Roman) state and that the Ottoman Empire was in essence a continuation of the Byzantine Empire under a [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[Muslims|Muslim]] guise.[Norman Stone, "Turkey in the Russian Mirror", pp. 86–100 from ''Russia War, Peace and Diplomacy'' edited by Mark & Ljubica Erickson, Weidenfeld & Nicolson: London, 2004 pp. 92–93] The American historian [[Speros Vryonis]] writes that the Ottoman state centred on "a Byzantine-Balkan base with a veneer of the Turkish language and the Islamic religion".[Stone, pp. 86–100] Kitsikis and the American historian [[Heath Lowry]] posit that the early Ottoman state was a predatory confederacy open to both Byzantine Christians and Turkish Muslims whose primary goal was attaining booty and slaves, rather than spreading Islam, and that Islam only later became the empire's primary characteristic.[{{cite book |last=Lowry |first=Heath W. |title=The nature of the early Ottoman state |publisher=SUNY Press |date=2003}}][Dariusz Kołodziejczyk, "Khan, caliph, tsar and imperator: the multiple identities of the Ottoman sultan" in Peter Fibiger Bang, and Dariusz Kolodziejczyk, eds. ''Universal Empire: A Comparative Approach to Imperial Culture and Representation in Eurasian History'' (Cambridge University Press, 2012) pp. 175–193.][Sinan Ed Kuneralp, ed. ''A Bridge Between Cultures'' (2006) p. 9.] Other historians have followed the lead of the Austrian historian [[Paul Wittek]], who emphasises the early Ottoman state's Islamic character, seeing it as a "[[jihad]] state" dedicated to expanding the [[Muslim world]].[Ronald C. Jennings, "Some thoughts on the Gazi-thesis." ''Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes'' 76 (1986): 151–161 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782 online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200328042350/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23868782 |date=28 March 2020 }}.]
The British historian [[Norman Stone]] suggests many continuities between the Byzantine and Ottoman empires, such as that the ''zeugarion'' tax of Byzantium became the Ottoman ''[[Resm-i çift]]'' tax, that the ''[[pronoia]]'' land-holding system that linked the amount of land one owned with one's ability to raise cavalry became the Ottoman ''[[timar]]'' system, and that the Ottoman land measurement the ''[[dönüm]]'' was the same as the Byzantine ''[[stremma]]''. Stone also argues that although Sunni Islam was the state religion, the Ottoman state supported and controlled the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], which in return for accepting that control became the Ottoman Empire's largest land-holder. Despite the similarities, Stone argues that a crucial difference is that the land grants under the ''timar'' system were not hereditary at first. Even after they became inheritable, land ownership in the Ottoman Empire remained highly insecure, and the sultan revoked land grants whenever he wished. Stone argued this insecurity in land tenure strongly discouraged ''[[Timariot]]s'' from seeking long-term development of their land, and instead led them to adopt a strategy of short-term exploitation, which had deleterious effects on the Ottoman economy.[Stone, pp. 94–95.]
== Government ==
{{Main|State organisation of the Ottoman Empire}}
{{Multiple image
| width = 220px
| align = right
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| image1 = Topkapı - 01.jpg
| image2 = Dolmabahçe_Palace,_Istanbul_cropped.jpg
| caption2 = [[Topkapı Palace]] and [[Dolmabahçe Palace]] were the primary residences of the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman sultans]] in [[Istanbul]] between 1465 and 1856[{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|title=Center of Ottoman Power|work=[[The New York Times]]|last=Simons|first=Marlise|access-date=4 June 2009|date=22 August 1993|archive-date=12 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180712043016/https://www.nytimes.com/1993/08/22/travel/center-of-ottoman-power.html|url-status=live}}] and 1856 to 1922,[{{cite web|title=Dolmabahce Palace|url=http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|website=dolmabahcepalace.com|access-date=4 August 2014|archive-date=16 March 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160316140350/http://www.dolmabahcepalace.com/listingview.php?listingID=3|url-status=live}}] respectively.
}}
Before the reforms of the 19th and 20th centuries, the [[state organisation of the Ottoman Empire]] was a system with two main dimensions, the military administration, and the civil administration. The Sultan was in the highest position in the system. The civil system was based on local administrative units based on the region's characteristics. The state had control over the clergy. Certain pre-Islamic Turkish traditions that had survived the adoption of administrative and legal practices from Islamic [[Iran]] remained important in Ottoman administrative circles.{{Sfn|Itzkowitz|1980|page=38}} According to Ottoman understanding, the state's primary responsibility was to defend and extend the land of the Muslims and to ensure security and harmony within its borders in the overarching context of [[Sunni|orthodox]] Islamic practice and dynastic sovereignty.[{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n71 77] |access-date=11 February 2013}}]
The Ottoman Empire, or as a dynastic institution, the House of Osman, was unprecedented and unequalled in the Islamic world for its size and duration.[{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199 |title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present |publisher=Psychology Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-93243-1 |page=199 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA199 |url-status=live }}] In Europe, only the [[House of Habsburg]] had a similarly unbroken line of sovereigns (kings/emperors) from the same family who ruled for so long, and during the same period, between the late 13th and early 20th centuries. The Ottoman dynasty was Turkish in origin. On eleven occasions, the sultan was deposed (replaced by another sultan of the Ottoman dynasty, who were either the former sultan's brother, son or nephew) because he was perceived by his enemies as a threat to the state. There were only two attempts in Ottoman history to unseat the ruling Ottoman dynasty, both failures, which suggests a political system that for an extended period was able to manage its revolutions without unnecessary instability.[{{Cite book |last1=Lambton |first1=Ann |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |title=The Cambridge History of Islam: The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia, Africa and the Muslim west |last2=Lewis |first2=Bernard |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-521-22310-2 |volume=2 |page=320 |author-link=Ann Lambton |author-link2=Bernard Lewis |access-date=25 July 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=4AuJvd2Tyt8C |url-status=live }}] which was established as the Ottoman Caliphate. The Ottoman sultan, ''[[Padishah|pâdişâh]]'' or "lord of kings", served as the Empire's sole regent and was considered to be the embodiment of its government, though he did not always exercise complete control. The Imperial Harem was one of the most important powers of the Ottoman court. It was ruled by the [[valide sultan]]. On occasion, the valide sultan became involved in state politics. For a time, the women of the Harem effectively controlled the state in what was termed the "[[Sultanate of the women|Sultanate of Women]]". New sultans were always chosen from the sons of the previous sultan.{{Dubious|reason=this is demonstrably not true, just look at any list of sultans |date=September 2016}} The strong educational system of the [[palace school]] was geared towards eliminating the unfit potential heirs and establishing support among the ruling elite for a successor. The palace schools, which also educated the future administrators of the state, were not a single track. First, the [[Madrasa]] ({{Lang|ota|Medrese}}) was designated for the Muslims, and educated scholars and state officials according to Islamic tradition. The financial burden of the Medrese was supported by ''[[Waqf|vakif]]''s, allowing children of poor families to move to higher social levels and income.[{{Cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern |title=Istanbul and the Civilization of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |date=1963 |isbn=978-0-8061-1060-8 |page=[https://archive.org/details/istanbulciviliza00bern/page/151 151] |access-date=11 February 2013 |url-access=registration}}] The second track was a free [[boarding school]] for the Christians, the ''[[Enderûn]]'',[{{Cite journal |date=March 2010 |title=The Ottoman Palace School Enderun and the Man with Multiple Talents, Matrakçı Nasuh |url=https://tamu.academia.edu/SencerCorlu/Papers/471488/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh |journal=Journal of the Korea Society of Mathematical Education, Series D |series=Research in Mathematical Education |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=19–31 |access-date=29 January 2018 |archive-date=11 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130111105849/http://www.academia.edu/480968/The_Ottoman_Palace_School_Enderun_and_the_Man_with_Multiple_Talents_Matrakci_Nasuh |url-status=live }}] which recruited 3,000 students annually from Christian boys between eight and twenty years old from one in forty families among the communities settled in [[Rumelia]] or the Balkans, a process known as [[Devshirme in the Ottoman Palace School|Devshirme]] ({{Lang|ota|Devşirme}}).[{{Cite book |last=Karpat |first=Kemal H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204 |title=Social Change and Politics in Turkey: A Structural-Historical Analysis |publisher=Brill |date=1973 |isbn=978-90-04-03817-2 |page=204 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151657/https://books.google.com/books?id=rlhD9SjavRcC&pg=PA204 |url-status=live }}] The Devshirme falls within modern definitions of [[genocide]].[{{cite book | last=Baer | first=M.D. | title=The Ottomans: Khans, Caesars, and Caliphs | publisher=Basic Books | year=2021 | isbn=978-1-5416-7377-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RSAbEAAAQBAJ | access-date=17 January 2025 | page=47}}][{{cite book | last1=Totten | first1=S. | last2=Theriault | first2=H. | last3=von Joeden-Forgey | first3=E. | title=Controversies in the Field of Genocide Studies | publisher=Taylor & Francis | year=2017 | isbn=978-1-351-29499-7 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZmRQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 | access-date=18 January 2025 | page=99 | quote=Lemkin specifically cited the Ottoman Turkish Empire to illustrate another recurring theme in the history of genocide: "The children can be taken away from a given group for the purpose of educating them within the framework of another human group, racial, national or ethnical" (quoted in Docker, 2008, 12).}}]
Though the sultan was the supreme monarch, the sultan's political and executive authority was delegated. The politics of the state had a number of advisors and ministers gathered around a council known as [[Divan]]. The Divan, in the years when the Ottoman state was still a ''[[Bey]]lik'', was composed of the elders of the tribe. Its composition was later modified to include military officers and local elites (such as religious and political advisors). Later still, beginning in 1320, a Grand Vizier was appointed to assume certain of the sultan's responsibilities. The Grand Vizier had considerable independence from the sultan with almost unlimited powers of appointment, dismissal, and supervision. Beginning with the late 16th century, sultans withdrew from politics and the Grand Vizier became the ''de facto'' head of state.[{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n72 78] |access-date=12 February 2013}}]
The [[Tughra]] were calligraphic monograms, or signatures, of the Ottoman Sultans, of which there were 35. Carved on the Sultan's seal, they bore the names of the Sultan and his father. The statement and prayer, "ever victorious", was also present in most. The earliest belonged to Orhan Gazi. The ornately stylised ''Tughra'' spawned a branch of Ottoman-Turkish [[calligraphy]].
=== Law ===
{{Main|Law of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Zibik.jpg|thumb|An unhappy wife complaining to the [[Qadi]] about her husband's [[erectile dysfunction|impotence]], as depicted in an Ottoman miniature. [[Divorce]] is [[Religion and divorce#Islam|allowed]] in [[Sharia|Islamic law]] and [[Divorce in Islam|can be initiated by either the husband or the wife]].[{{cite web|url=http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage&divorce/divorce.html|title=Islamic Perspective on Divorce|website=Mwlusa.org|access-date=24 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190304141319/http://www.mwlusa.org/topics/marriage%26divorce/divorce.html|archive-date=4 March 2019|url-status=dead}}]|upright=.75]]
The Ottoman legal system accepted the [[religious law]] over its subjects. At the same time the ''[[Qanun (law)|Qanun]]'' (or ''Kanun''), dynastic law, co-existed with religious law or [[Sharia]].[{{Cite web |title=Balancing Sharia: The Ottoman Kanun |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009012204/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/0/24365067 |archive-date=9 October 2013 |access-date=5 October 2013 |publisher=BBC}}][Washbrook, D. and Cohn, H., Law in the Ottoman Empire: Shari'a Law, Dynastic Law, Legal Institutions.] The Ottoman Empire was always organised around a system of local [[jurisprudence]]. Legal administration in the Ottoman Empire was part of a larger scheme of balancing central and local authority.[{{Cite book |last=Benton |first=Lauren |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109 |title=Law and Colonial Cultures: Legal Regimes in World History, 1400–1900 |date=3 December 2001 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-00926-3 |pages=109–110 |access-date=11 February 2013 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151659/https://books.google.com/books?id=rZtjR9JnwYwC&pg=109 |url-status=live }}] Ottoman power revolved crucially around the administration of the rights to land, which gave a space for the local authority to develop the needs of the local [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]].[{{Cite book |last=Streusand |first=Douglas E. |title=Islamic Gunpowder Empires Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals. |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-96813-6 |location=Milton |oclc=1202464532 }}][{{Cite book |title=The Ashgate research companion to Islamic law |author1=P. J. Bearman |author2=Rudolph Peters |publisher=Routledge |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-315-61309-3 |location=London |pages=109 |oclc=1082195426}}]
These court categories were not, however, wholly exclusive; for instance, the Islamic courts, which were the Empire's primary courts, could also be used to settle a trade conflict or disputes between litigants of differing religions, and Jews and Christians often went to them to obtain a more forceful ruling on an issue. The Ottoman state tended not to interfere with non-Muslim religious law systems, despite legally having a voice to do so through local governors. The Islamic ''Sharia'' law system had been developed from a combination of the [[Qur'an]]; the [[Hadith|Hadīth]], or words of [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]]; ''[[ijma|ijmā']]'', or consensus of the members of the [[Ummah|Muslim community]]; [[qiyas]], a system of analogical reasoning from earlier precedents; and local customs. Both systems were taught at the Empire's law schools, which were in [[Istanbul]] and [[Bursa]].
The Ottoman Islamic legal system was set up differently from traditional European courts. Presiding over Islamic courts was a ''Qadi'', or judge. Since the closing of the ''[[ijtihad]]'', or 'Gate of Interpretation', ''Qadi''s throughout the Ottoman Empire focused less on legal precedent, and more with local customs and traditions in the areas that they administered.[{{Cite web |last=Selçuk Akşin Somel |title=Review of "Ottoman Nizamiye Courts. Law and Modernity" |url=http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf |publisher=Sabancı Üniversitesi |page=2 |access-date=15 February 2013 |archive-date=12 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012013518/http://research.sabanciuniv.edu/19475/1/Avi_Rubin_Ottoman_Nizamiye_Courts_Somel.pdf |url-status=live }}] These reforms included the "fair and public trial[s] of all accused regardless of religion", the creation of a system of "separate competences, religious and civil", and the validation of testimony on non-Muslims.[{{Cite web |last1=Epstein |first1=Lee |last2=O'Connor |first2=Karen |last3=Grub |first3=Diana |title=Middle East |url=http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525015655/http://epstein.usc.edu/research/MiddleEast.pdf |archive-date=25 May 2013 |website=Legal Traditions and Systems: an International Handbook |publisher=Greenwood Press |pages=223–224 |access-date=15 February 2013 }}]
These reforms were based heavily on French models, as indicated by the adoption of a three-tiered court system. Referred to as [[Nizamiye]], this system was extended to the local magistrate level with the final promulgation of the [[Mecelle]], a civil code that regulated marriage, divorce, alimony, will, and other matters of personal status.[{{Cite book |last=Milner |first=Mordaunt |title=The Godolphin Arabian: The Story of the Matchem Line |publisher=Robert Hale Limited |date=1990 |isbn=978-0-85131-476-1 |pages=3–6}}][{{Cite book |last=Wall |first=John F |title=Famous Running Horses: Their Forebears and Descendants |date=September 2010 |isbn=978-1-163-19167-5 |page=8|publisher=Kessinger }}] and often applied tactics similar to those of the [[Mongol Empire]], such as pretending to retreat while surrounding the enemy forces inside a crescent-shaped formation and then making the real attack. The Ottoman army continued to be an effective fighting force throughout the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,[{{Cite book |last=Murphey |first=Rhoads |title=Ottoman Warfare, 1500–1700 |date=1999 |publisher=UCL Press |page=10}}][{{Cite book |last=Ágoston |first=Gábor |title=Guns for the Sultan: Military Power and the Weapons Industry in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2005 |pages= 200–02}}] falling behind the empire's European rivals only during a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768.[
[[File:The_Ertugrul_Cavalry_Regiment_crossing_the_Galata_Bridge.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Modernised [[Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye|Ertugrul Cavalry Regiment]] crossing the [[Galata Bridge]] in 1901|left]]
The modernisation of the Ottoman Empire in the 19th century started with the military. In 1826 Sultan Mahmud II abolished the Janissary corps and established the modern Ottoman army. He named them as the [[Nizam-ı Cedid]] (New Order). The Ottoman army was also the first institution to hire foreign experts and send its officers for training in western European countries. Consequently, the Young Turks movement began when these relatively young and newly trained men returned with their education.
[[File:OttomanNavy.jpg|thumb|The [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] in the [[Bosporus|Bosphorous]] near [[Ortaköy]]]]
The [[Ottoman Navy]] vastly contributed to the expansion of the Empire's territories on the European continent. It initiated the conquest of North Africa, with the addition of [[Algeria]] and Egypt to the Ottoman Empire in 1517. Starting with the loss of Greece in 1821 and Algeria in 1830, Ottoman naval power and control over the Empire's distant overseas territories began to decline. Sultan [[Abdülaziz]] (reigned 1861–1876) attempted to reestablish a strong Ottoman navy, building the largest fleet after those of Britain and France. The shipyard at Barrow, England, built its first [[submarine]] in 1886 for the Ottoman Empire.][{{Cite web |title=Petition created for submarine name |url=http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080423225019/http://www.ellesmereportstandard.co.uk/latest-north-west-news/Petition-created-for-submarine-name.4001190.jp |archive-date=23 April 2008 |access-date=11 February 2013 |website=Ellesmere Port Standard }}]
However, the collapsing Ottoman economy could not sustain the fleet's strength for long. Sultan [[Abdülhamid II]] distrusted the admirals who sided with the reformist [[Midhat Pasha]] and claimed that the large and expensive fleet was of no use against the Russians during the Russo-Turkish War. He locked most of the fleet inside the [[Golden Horn]], where the ships decayed for the next 30 years. Following the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, the Committee of Union and Progress sought to develop a strong Ottoman naval force. The ''Ottoman Navy Foundation'' was established in 1910 to buy new ships through public donations.
[[File:Turkish pilots in 1912.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman Aviation Squadrons|Ottoman pilots]] in early 1912]]
The establishment of [[Ottoman Air Force|Ottoman military aviation]] dates back to between June 1909 and July 1911.[{{Cite web |title=Story of Turkish Aviation |url=http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120512225046/http://www.turkeyswar.com/aviation/aviation.htm |archive-date=12 May 2012 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Turkey in the First World War }}][{{Cite web |title=Founding |url=http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111007104345/http://www.hvkk.tsk.tr/EN/IcerikDetay.aspx?ID=19 |archive-date=7 October 2011 |access-date=6 November 2011 |publisher=Turkish Air Force}}] The Ottoman Empire started preparing its first pilots and planes, and with the founding of the Aviation School (''Tayyare Mektebi'') in [[Yeşilköy]] on 3 July 1912, the Empire began to tutor its own flight officers. The founding of the Aviation School quickened advancement in the military aviation programme, increased the number of enlisted persons within it, and gave the new pilots an active role in the Ottoman Army and Navy. In May 1913, the world's first specialised Reconnaissance Training Program was started by the Aviation School, and the first separate reconnaissance division was established.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}} In June 1914 a new military academy, the Naval Aviation School (''Bahriye Tayyare Mektebi'') was founded. With the outbreak of World War I, the modernisation process stopped abruptly. The [[Ottoman Aviation Squadrons]] fought on many fronts during World War I, from [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] in the west to the Caucasus in the east and [[Yemen]] in the south.
== Administrative divisions ==
{{Main|Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Ottoman Empire Administrative Divisions.png|thumb|Administrative divisions of the Ottoman Empire in 1899 (year 1317 Hijri)]]
The Ottoman Empire was first subdivided into provinces, in the sense of fixed territorial units with governors appointed by the sultan, in the late 14th century.[{{Cite web |last=Imber |first=Colin |date=2002 |title=The Ottoman Empire, 1300–1650: The Structure of Power |url=http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~ayasar/HIST236/Colin%20_Imber.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140726115700/http://www.fatih.edu.tr/~ayasar/HIST236/Colin%20_Imber.pdf |archive-date=26 July 2014 |pages=177–200}}]
The [[eyalet]] (also ''pashalik'' or ''beylerbeylik'') was the territory of office of a [[beylerbey]] ("lord of lords" or governor), and was further subdivided into [[Sanjak]]s.[{{Cite book |last1=Raymond Detrez |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167 |title=Europe and the historical legacies in the Balkans |last2=Barbara Segaert |publisher=Peter Lang |date=2008 |isbn=978-90-5201-374-9 |page=167 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=htMUx8qlWCMC&pg=PA167 |url-status=live }}]
The [[vilayets]] were introduced with the promulgation of the "Vilayet Law" ({{Lang|tr|Teskil-i Vilayet Nizamnamesi}})[{{Cite book |last1=Naim Kapucu |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC |title=Turkish Public Administration: From Tradition to the Modern Age |last2=Hamit Palabiyik |publisher=USAK Books |date=2008 |isbn=978-605-4030-01-9 |page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_DWceNjwTggUC/page/n153 164] |access-date=1 June 2013}}] in 1864, as part of the Tanzimat reforms.[{{Cite book |last=Maḥmūd Yazbak |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DPseCvbPsKsC&pg=PA28 |title=Haifa in the Late Ottoman Period 1864–1914: A Muslim Town in Transition |publisher=BRILL |date=1998 |isbn=978-90-04-11051-9 |page=28 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Haifa_in_the_Late_Ottoman_Period_1864_19/DPseCvbPsKsC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA28&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}] Unlike the previous eyalet system, the 1864 law established a hierarchy of administrative units: the vilayet, [[liva (sanjak)|liva]]/[[sanjak]]/[[mutasarrifate]], [[kaza]] and [[Town council|village council]], to which the 1871 Vilayet Law added the [[nahiye]].[{{Cite book |last1=Mundy |first1=Martha |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50 |title=Governing Property, Making the Modern State: Law, Administration and Production in Ottoman Syria |last2=Smith |first2=Richard Saumarez |publisher=I.B.Tauris |date=2007 |isbn=978-1-84511-291-2 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=thUKJ53-yyQC&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}]
== Economy ==
{{Main|Economic history of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:AydınArchaeologicalMuseum (117).JPG|thumb|Coins of the Sultanate of Rûm and the Ottoman Empire at [[Aydın Archaeological Museum]]|upright=.75]]
The Ottoman government deliberately pursued a policy for the development of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul, successive Ottoman capitals, into major commercial and industrial centres, considering that merchants and artisans were indispensable in creating a new metropolis.[{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=209 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}] To this end, Mehmed and his successor Bayezid, also encouraged and welcomed migration of the Jews from different parts of Europe, who were settled in Istanbul and other port cities like Salonica. In many places in Europe, Jews were suffering persecution at the hands of their Christian counterparts, such as in Spain, after the conclusion of the [[Reconquista]]. The tolerance displayed by the Turks was welcomed by the immigrants.
[[File:Mehmed the Conqueror (1432 –1481).jpg|thumb|A European bronze medal from the period of [[Mehmed II|Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror]], 1481|upright=.75]]
The Ottoman economic mind was closely related to the basic concepts of state and society in the Middle East in which the ultimate goal of a state was consolidation and extension of the ruler's power, and the way to reach it was to get rich resources of revenues by making the productive classes prosperous.[{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=217 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}] The ultimate aim was to increase the state revenues without damaging the prosperity of subjects to prevent the emergence of social disorder and to keep the traditional organisation of the society intact. The Ottoman economy greatly expanded during the early modern period, with particularly high growth rates during the first half of the 18th century. The empire's annual income quadrupled between 1523 and 1748, adjusted for inflation.[{{Cite book |last=Darling |first=Linda |title=Revenue-Raising and Legitimacy: Tax Collection and Finance Administration in the Ottoman Empire, 1560–1660. |publisher=E.J. Brill |date=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10289-7 |pages=238–239}}]
The organisation of the treasury and chancery were developed under the Ottoman Empire more than any other Islamic government and, until the 17th century, they were the leading organisation among all their contemporaries.[{{Cite book |last=Black |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197 |title=The History of Islamic Political Thought: From the Prophet to the Present |publisher=Psychology Press |date=2001 |isbn=978-0-415-93243-1 |page=197 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151700/https://books.google.com/books?id=nspmqLKPU-wC&pg=PA197 |url-status=live }}] This organisation developed a scribal bureaucracy (known as "men of the pen") as a distinct group, partly highly trained ulama, which developed into a professional body.[{{Cite book |last1=İnalcık |first1=Halil |title=An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire, 1300–1914 |last2=Quataert |first2=Donald |date=1971 |page=120}}]
[[File:Ottoman_Banks_Archives_and_Research_Centre.jpg|thumb|The [[Ottoman Bank]] was founded in 1856 in Constantinople. On 26 August 1896, the bank was [[Occupation of the Ottoman Bank|occupied]] by members of the [[Armenian Revolutionary Federation]].|upright=.75]]
Modern Ottoman studies indicate that the change in relations between the Ottoman Turks and central Europe was caused by the opening of the new sea routes. It is possible to see the decline in the significance of the land routes to the East as Western Europe opened the ocean routes that bypassed the Middle East and the Mediterranean as parallel to the decline of the Ottoman Empire itself.[Donald Quataert, ''The Ottoman Empire 1700–1922'' (2005) p 24]{{Failed verification|date=September 2016}} The [[Anglo-Ottoman Treaty]], also known as the [[Treaty of Balta Liman]] that opened the Ottoman markets directly to English and French competitors, can be seen as one of the staging posts along with this development.
By developing commercial centres and routes, encouraging people to extend the area of cultivated land in the country and international trade through its dominions, the state performed basic economic functions in the Empire. But in all this, the financial and political interests of the state were dominant. Within the social and political system they were living in, Ottoman administrators could not see the desirability of the dynamics and principles of the capitalist and mercantile economies developing in Western Europe.[{{Cite book |last=İnalcık |first=Halil |title=Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East: from the Rise of Islam to the Present Day |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1970 |isbn=978-0-19-713561-7 |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=M. A. |page=218 |chapter=The Ottoman Economic Mind and Aspects of the Ottoman Economy |author-link=Halil İnalcık}}]
Economic historian [[Paul Bairoch]] argues that [[free trade]] contributed to [[deindustrialisation]] in the Ottoman Empire. In contrast to the [[protectionism]] of China, Japan, and Spain, the Ottoman Empire had a [[Economic liberalism|liberal trade]] policy, open to foreign imports. This has origins in [[capitulations of the Ottoman Empire]], dating back to the first commercial treaties signed with France in 1536 and taken further with [[Capitulation (treaty)|capitulations]] in 1673 and 1740, which lowered [[Duty (economics)|duties]] to 3% for imports and exports. The liberal Ottoman policies were praised by British economists, such as [[John Ramsay McCulloch]] in his ''Dictionary of Commerce'' (1834), but later criticised by British politicians such as Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli, who cited the Ottoman Empire as "an instance of the injury done by unrestrained competition" in the 1846 [[Corn Laws]] debate.[{{Cite book |last=Paul Bairoch |title=Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |date=1995 |pages=31–32 |author-link=Paul Bairoch}}]
== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Ottoman Smyrna.jpg|thumb|[[İzmir]] under Ottoman rule in 1900]]
A population estimate for the empire of 11,692,480 for the 1520–1535 period was obtained by counting the households in Ottoman tithe registers, and multiplying this number by 5.[{{Cite journal |last=Leila Erder and Suraiya Faroqhi |date=October 1979 |title=Population Rise and Fall in Anatolia 1550–1620 |journal=Middle Eastern Studies |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=322–345 |doi=10.1080/00263207908700415}}] An estimate of 7,230,660 for the first census held in 1831 is considered a serious undercount, as this census was meant only to register possible conscripts.[{{Cite web |last=Kabadayı |first=M. Erdem |date=28 October 2011 |title=Inventory for the Ottoman Empire / Turkish Republic |url=http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111028114335/http://www.iisg.nl/research/labourcollab/turkey.pdf |archive-date=28 October 2011 |publisher=Istanbul Bilgi University}}] For earlier periods estimates of size and distribution of the population are based on observed demographic patterns.[{{Cite journal |last=Shaw |first=S. J. |title=The Ottoman Census System and Population, 1831–1914 |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1978 |volume=9 |issue=3 |page=325 |doi=10.1017/S0020743800033602 |s2cid=161326705 |quote=The Ottomans developed an efficient system for counting the empire's population in 1826, a quarter of a century after such methods were introduced in Britain, France and America.}}]
[[File:Aerial view of the Galata Bridge, Istanbul LCCN2003677084.jpg|thumb|View of [[Galata]] ([[Karaköy]]) and the [[Galata Bridge]] on the [[Golden Horn]], {{circa|1880–1893}}]]
However, it began to rise to reach 25–32 million by 1800, with around 10 million in the European provinces (primarily in the Balkans), 11 million in the Asiatic provinces, and around 3 million in the African provinces. Population densities were higher in the European provinces, double those in Anatolia, which in turn were triple the population densities of Iraq and [[Syria]] and five times the population density of Arabia.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|pages=110–111}}
Towards the end of the empire's existence life expectancy was 49 years, compared to the mid-twenties in Serbia at the beginning of the 19th century.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=112}} Epidemic diseases and famine caused major disruption and demographic changes. In 1785 around one-sixth of the Egyptian population died from the plague and Aleppo saw its population reduced by twenty percent in the 18th century. Six famines hit Egypt alone between 1687 and 1731 and the last famine to hit Anatolia was four decades later.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=113}} The [[1812–1819 Ottoman plague epidemic]] would cost the lives of at least 300,000 individuals.[{{cite book |last1=Chase-Levenson |first1=Alex |title=The Yellow Flag: Quarantine and the British Mediterranean World, 1780–1860 |date=2020 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-108-48554-8 |page=31 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zHzUDwAAQBAJ&q=1812++ottoman+plague&pg=PA31 |access-date=15 March 2020 |language=en}}]
The rise of port cities saw the clustering of populations caused by the development of steamships and railroads. Urbanisation increased from 1700 to 1922, with towns and cities growing. Improvements in health and sanitation made them more attractive to live and work in. Port cities like Salonica, in Greece, saw its population rise from 55,000 in 1800 to 160,000 in 1912 and İzmir which had a population of 150,000 in 1800 grew to 300,000 by 1914.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=114}}[{{Cite journal |last=Pamuk |first=S |date=August 1991 |title=The Ottoman Empire and the World Economy: The Nineteenth Century |journal=International Journal of Middle East Studies |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=23 |issue=3}}] Some regions conversely had population falls—Belgrade saw its population drop from 25,000 to 8,000 mainly due to political strife.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|page=114}}
[[File:20180107_Safranbolu_1945_(39101010504).jpg|thumb|The town of [[Safranbolu]] is one of the best-preserved Ottoman villages.]]
Economic and political migrations made an impact across the empire. For example, the [[Russian Empire|Russian]] and Austria-Habsburg annexation of the Crimean and Balkan regions respectively saw large influxes of Muslim refugees—200,000 Crimean Tatars fleeing to Dobruja.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|p=115}} Between 1783 and 1913, approximately 5–7 million refugees arrived into the Ottoman Empire. Between the 1850s and World War I, about a million North Caucasian Muslims arrived in the Ottoman Empire as refugees.{{sfn|Hamed-Troyansky|2024|p=49}} Some migrations left indelible marks such as political tension between parts of the empire (e.g., Turkey and Bulgaria), whereas centrifugal effects were noticed in other territories, simpler demographics emerging from diverse populations. Economies were also impacted by the loss of artisans, merchants, manufacturers, and agriculturists.{{Sfn|Quataert|Spivey|2000|p=116}} Since the 19th century, a large proportion of Muslim peoples from the Balkans emigrated to present-day Turkey. These people are called ''[[Muhacir]]''.[{{Cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Justin |title=Death and exile: the ethnic cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821–1922 |publisher=Darwin Press |date=1995 |isbn=978-0-87850-094-9 |page={{Page needed|date=February 2013}}}}] By the time the Ottoman Empire came to an end in 1922, half of the urban population of Turkey was descended from Muslim refugees from Russia.[{{Cite constitution|article=18|polity=the Ottoman Empire|date=1876}}] It was an [[Oghuz languages|Oghuz]] [[Turkic languages|Turkic language]] highly influenced by [[Persian language|Persian]] and [[Arabic]], though lower registries spoken by the common people had fewer influences from other languages compared to higher varieties used by upper classes and governmental authorities.[{{Cite book |last=Davison |first=Roderic H. |date=31 December 1964 |title=Reform in the Ottoman Empire, 1856–1876 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9781400878765 |doi=10.1515/9781400878765 |isbn=978-1-4008-7876-5 |quote=There was the ruling Ottoman group, now largely concentrated in the bureaucracy centered on the Sublime Porte, and the mass of the people, mostly peasants. The efendi looked down on "the Turk," which was a term of opprobrium indicating boorishness, and preferred to think of himself as an Osmanli. His country was not Turkey, but the Ottoman State. His language was also "Ottoman"; though he might also call it "Turkish," in such a case he distinguished it from ''kaba türkçe'', or coarse Turkish, the common speech. His writing included a minimum of Turkish words, except for particles and auxiliary verbs. |access-date=22 July 2021 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151544/https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400878765/html |url-status=live }}] Turkish, in its Ottoman variation, was a language of military and administration since the nascent days of the Ottomans. The Ottoman constitution of 1876 did officially cement the official imperial status of Turkish.[{{Cite journal |date=1908 |title=The Ottoman Constitution, promulgated the seventh Zilbridge, 1293 (11/23 December 1876) |journal=The American Journal of International Law |volume=2 |issue=4 |page=376 |doi=10.2307/2212668 |jstor=2212668|s2cid=246006581 }}]
The Ottomans had several influential languages: Turkish, spoken by the majority of the people in Anatolia and by the majority of Muslims of the Balkans except some regions such as [[History of Albania|Albania]], [[History of Bosnia|Bosnia]][{{Cite book |last=Bertold Spuler |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69 |title=Persian Historiography And Geography |publisher=Pustaka Nasional Pte Ltd |date=2003 |isbn=978-9971-77-488-2 |page=69 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=rD1vvympVtsC&pg=PA69 |url-status=live }}] and the [[Megleno-Romanians|Megleno-Romanian]]-inhabited [[Nânti]];[{{Cite journal |last=Kahl |first=Thede |author-link=Thede Kahl |date=2006 |title=The Islamisation of the Meglen Vlachs (Megleno-Romanians): The Village of Nânti (Nótia) and the "Nântinets" in Present-Day Turkey |volume=34 |pages=71–90 |journal=[[Nationalities Papers]] |issue=1 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384 |doi=10.1080/00905990500504871 |s2cid=161615853 |access-date=19 May 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415153900/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/nationalities-papers/article/abs/islamisation-of-the-meglen-vlachs-meglenoromanians-the-village-of-nanti-notia-and-the-nantinets-in-presentday-turkey/5F6519A83C83DD0B9728A22F58100384 |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}] Persian, only spoken by the educated;[{{Cite book |last=Kemal H. Karpat |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266 |title=Studies on Ottoman Social and Political History: Selected Articles and Essays |publisher=Brill |date=2002 |isbn=978-90-04-12101-0 |page=266 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151701/https://books.google.com/books?id=082osLxyBDgC&pg=PA266 |url-status=live }}] Some ethnic groups continued to speak within their families and neighbourhoods ([[mahalle]]s) with their own languages, though many non-Muslim minorities such as Greeks and Armenians only spoke Turkish.{{Sfn|Davison|1964|p=62|ps=It was true also that there was a partial linguistic amalgam of the peoples in the empire. Many Greeks and Armenians did not know their national languages and spoke Turkish alone, though they wrote it in Greek and Armenian characters.}} In villages where two or more populations lived together, the inhabitants often spoke each other's language. In cosmopolitan cities, people often spoke their family languages; in some cities, many of those who were not ethnic [[Turkish people|Turks]] spoke Turkish as a second language. However, not all cities used Turkish as a lingua franca.[{{cite journal|last=Strauss|first=Johann|date=January 3, 2012|title=Linguistic diversity and everyday life in the Ottoman cities of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Balkans(late 19th–early 20th century)|url=https://www.academia.edu/81119204|journal=The History of the Family|volume=16|issue=2|publisher=Informa UK Limited|pages=126–141|doi=10.1016/j.hisfam.2011.04.002|access-date=December 13, 2025}}]
=== Religion ===
{{See also|Millet (Ottoman Empire)}}
[[File:Portrait Caliph Abdulmecid II.jpg|thumb|[[Abdulmejid II|Abdülmecid II]] was the last [[Caliphate|caliph]] of Islam and a member of the [[Ottoman dynasty]].]]
[[Sunni Islam]] was the prevailing ''[[Din (Arabic)|Dīn]]'' (customs, legal traditions, and religion) of the Ottoman Empire; the official ''[[Madhhab|Madh'hab]]'' (school of Islamic [[jurisprudence]]) was ''[[Hanafi]].''[Gunduz, Sinasi [https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104 Change And Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change And Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v |date=1 November 2022 }} Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, pp. 104–05] From the early 16th century until the early 20th century, the Ottoman sultan also served as the [[Caliphate|caliph]], or politico-religious leader, of the [[Muslim world]]. Most of the Ottoman Sultans adhered to [[Sufism]] and followed [[Sufi orders]], and believed Sufism was the correct way to reach God.[{{Cite book |last=Yılmaz |first=Hüseyin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ |title=Caliphate Redefined: The Mystical Turn in Ottoman Political Thought |date=8 January 2018 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-4008-8804-7 |language=en |access-date=16 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151656/https://books.google.com/books?id=KvbWDgAAQBAJ |archive-date=14 January 2023 |url-status=live}}]
Non-Muslims, particularly Christians and Jews, were present throughout the empire's history. The Ottoman imperial system was charactised by an intricate combination of official Muslim hegemony over non-Muslims and a wide degree of religious tolerance. While religious minorities were never equal under the law, they were granted recognition, protection, and limited freedoms under both Islamic and Ottoman tradition.[{{Cite journal |last1=İçduygu |first1=Ahmet |last2=Toktaş |first2=Şule |last3=Ali Soner |first3=B. |date=1 February 2008 |title=The politics of population in a nation-building process: emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey |journal=Ethnic and Racial Studies |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=358–389 |doi=10.1080/01419870701491937 |hdl=11729/308 |s2cid=143541451}}]
==== Islam ====
{{Main|Islam in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Caliphate|Ottoman persecution of Alevis}}
{{See also|Islam in Turkey}}[[Turkic peoples]] practiced a form of [[shamanism]] before adopting Islam. The [[Muslim conquest of Transoxiana]] under the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]] facilitated the spread of Islam into the Turkic heartland of Central Asia. Many Turkic tribes—including the [[Oghuz Turks]], who were the ancestors of both the Seljuks and the Ottomans—gradually converted to Islam and brought religion to Anatolia through their migrations beginning in the 11th century. From its founding, the Ottoman Empire officially supported the [[Maturidi|Maturidi school of]] [[Schools of Islamic theology|Islamic theology]], which emphasised [[Reason|human reason]], [[rationality]], the pursuit of science and [[Islamic philosophy|philosophy]] (''falsafa'').[Alpyağıl, Recep (28 November 2016). "[https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780195390155/obo-9780195390155-0232.xml Māturīdī]". ''Oxford Bibliographies – Islamic Studies''. [[Oxford]]: [[Oxford University Press]]. {{doi|10.1093/obo/9780195390155-0232}}. Archived from the original on 18 March 2017.][{{cite web |url=http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412 |website=The National Interest |title=Turkey's 200-Year War against 'ISIS' |first1=Selim |last1=Koru |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180206131711/http://nationalinterest.org/feature/turkeys-200-year-war-against-isis-13412 |archive-date=6 February 2018 |date= 24 July 2015 }}] The Ottomans were among the earliest and most enthusiastic adopters of the [[Hanafi]] school of Islamic jurisprudence,[{{cite book |first=John L. |last=Esposito |date=1999 |title=The Oxford History of Islam |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510799-9 |pages=112–14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112 |access-date=16 November 2023 |archive-date=21 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231121145710/https://books.google.com/books?id=imw_KFD5bsQC&pg=PA112 |url-status=live }}] which was comparatively more flexible and discretionary in its rulings.[[https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104 Change And Essence: Dialectical Relations Between Change And Continuity in the Turkish Intellectual Traditions] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141240/https://books.google.com/books?id=4BXsV0_qhs4C&pg=PA104&lpg#v |date=1 November 2022 }} Cultural Heritage and Contemporary Change. Series IIA, Islam, V. 18, p.104-105][[http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse Middle East Institute: "Salafism Infiltrates Turkish Religious Discourse" by Andrew Hammond], 22 July 2015. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180807091143/http://www.mei.edu/content/map/salafism-infiltrates-turkish-religious-discourse |date=7 August 2018 }}.]
[[File:Istanbul asv2021-10 img15 Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque.jpg|thumb|The [[Yıldız Hamidiye Mosque]] in [[Istanbul]], Turkey]]
The Ottoman Empire had a wide variety of Islamic sects, including [[Druze]], [[Isma'ilism|Ismailis]], [[Alevism|Alevis]], and [[Alawites]].[{{Cite news |title=Why there is more to Syria conflict than sectarianism |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219 |date=4 June 2013 |first1= Mark |last1=Urban |access-date=5 June 2013 |archive-date=6 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606173420/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-22770219 |url-status=live }}] [[Sufism]], a diverse body of Islamic [[mysticism]], found fertile ground in Ottoman lands; many Sufi religious orders (''[[tariqa]]''), such as the [[Bektashi Order|Bektashi]] and [[Mevlevi Order|Mevlevi]], were either established, or saw significant growth, throughout the empire's history.[{{Cite web |title=Sufism in the Ottoman Empire Research Papers |url=https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire |access-date=23 March 2022 |website=Academia.edu |archive-date=23 March 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220323021442/https://www.academia.edu/Documents/in/Sufism_in_the_Ottoman_Empire |url-status=live }}] However, some heterodox Muslim groups were viewed as heretical and even ranked below Jews and Christians in terms of legal protection; Druze were frequent targets of persecution,[{{Cite book |last=C. Tucker |first=Spencer C. |title=Middle East Conflicts from Ancient Egypt to the 21st Century: An Encyclopedia and Document Collection [4 volumes] |publisher=ABC-CLIO |date=2019 |isbn=978-1-4408-5353-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364 |pages=364–366 |access-date=13 February 2024 |archive-date=23 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240423220418/https://books.google.com/books?id=PkTPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA364 |url-status=live }}] with Ottoman authorities often citing the controversial rulings of [[Ibn Taymiyyah|Ibn Taymiyya]], a member of the conservative [[Hanbali|Hanbali school]].[{{Cite book |last=S. Swayd |first=Samy |title=The Druzes: An Annotated Bibliography |publisher=University of Michigan Press |date=2009 |isbn=978-0-9662932-0-3 |page=25}}] In 1514, Sultan Selim I ordered the massacre of 40,000 Anatolian Alevis (''[[Qizilbash]]''), whom he considered a [[fifth column]] for the rival [[Safavid Iran|Safavid Empire]].
During Selim's reign, the Ottoman Empire saw an unprecedented and rapid expansion into the Middle East, particularly the [[Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517)|conquest of the entire Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt]] on the early 16th century. These conquests further solidified the Ottoman claim of being an [[Caliphate|Islamic caliphate]], although Ottoman sultans had been claiming the title of caliph since the reign of Murad I (1362–1389).[Peri, Oded (1990). "The Muslim waqf and the collection of jizya in late eighteenth-century Jerusalem". In Gilbar, Gad (ed.). ''Ottoman Palestine, 1800–1914 : Studies in economic and social history''. Leiden: E.J. Brill. p. 287. {{ISBN|978-90-04-07785-0}}. ]the ''jizya'' was one of the main sources of revenue accruing to the Ottoman state treasury as a whole.
[{{Cite book |last=Akçam |first=Taner |title=A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility |title-link=A shameful act: the Armenian genocide and the question of Turkish responsibility |publisher=Metropolitan Books |date=2006 |isbn=978-0-8050-7932-6 |location=New York |page=[https://archive.org/details/shamefulactarmen00ak/page/24 24] |author-link=Taner Akçam}}] Many Christians and Jews converted to Islam to secure full social and legal status, though most continued to practice their faith without restriction.
The Ottomans developed a unique sociopolitical system known as the [[Millet (Ottoman Empire)|millet]], which granted non-Muslim communities a large degree of political, legal, and religious autonomy; in essence, members of a millet were subjects of the empire but not subject to the Muslim faith or Islamic law. A millet could govern its own affairs, such as raising taxes and resolving internal legal disputes, with little or no interference from Ottoman authorities, so long as its members were loyal to the sultan and adhered to the rules concerning ''dhimmi.'' A quintessential example is the ancient Orthodox community of [[Mount Athos]], which was permitted to retain its autonomy and was never subject to occupation or forced conversion; even special laws were enacted to protect it from outsiders.[{{Cite news |agency=Associated Press |date=21 October 2022 |title=Greek monastery manuscripts tell new story of Ottoman rule |language=en |work=NPR |url=https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule |access-date=24 October 2022 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024010806/https://www.npr.org/2022/10/21/1130424515/greek-monastery-manuscripts-tell-new-story-of-ottoman-rule |url-status=live }}]
The [[Rum Millet|''Rum'' Millet]], which encompassed most Eastern Orthodox Christians, was governed by the Byzantine-era {{Lang|la|[[Corpus Juris Civilis]]}} (Code of Justinian), with the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople|Ecumenical Patriarch]] designated the highest religious and political authority (''millet-bashi'', or [[ethnarch]]). Likewise, [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Jews]] came under the authority of the ''[[Hakham Bashi|Haham Başı]],'' or Ottoman [[Chief Rabbi]], while [[Armenians]] were under the authority of the [[Catholicos of All Armenians|chief bishop]] of the [[Armenian Apostolic Church]].[{{Cite book |last=Syed |first=Muzaffar Husain |title=A Concise History of Islam |date=2011 |publisher=Vij Books India |isbn=978-93-81411-09-4 |location=New Delhi |page=97}}] As the largest group of non-Muslim subjects, the Rum Millet enjoyed several special privileges in politics and commerce; however, Jews and Armenians were also well represented among the wealthy merchant class, as well as in public administration.[{{Cite journal |last=Krummerich |first=Sean |date=1998–1999 |title=The Divinely-Protected, Well-Flourishing Domain: The Establishment of the Ottoman System in the Balkan Peninsula |url=http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm |url-status=dead |journal=The Student Historical Journal |publisher=Loyola University New Orleans |volume=30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610014150/http://www.loyno.edu/history/journal/1998-9/Krummerich.htm |archive-date=10 June 2009 |access-date=11 February 2013 }}][{{Cite web |title=Turkish Toleration |url=http://www.globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010320091629/http://globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html |archive-date=20 March 2001 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=The American Forum for Global Education}}]
Some modern scholars consider the millet system to be an early example of [[religious pluralism]], as it accorded minority religious groups official recognition and tolerance.[{{Cite book |last=Sachedina |first=Abdulaziz Abdulhussein |url=https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172/page/96 |title=The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism |date=2001 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=978-0-19-513991-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/islamic_sac_2001_00_4172/page/96 96–97] |quote=The millet system in the Muslim world provided the pre-modern paradigm of a religiously pluralistic society by granting each religious community an official status and a substantial measure of self-government.}}]
=== Social-political-religious structure ===
{{See also|Social class in the Ottoman Empire|Rayah}}
[[File:Subject Nationalities of the German Alliance (1917) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Ethnic map of the Ottoman Empire in 1917. Black = Bulgars and Turks, Red = Greeks, Light yellow = Armenians, Blue = Kurds, Orange = [[Laz people|Lazes]], Dark Yellow = Arabs, Green = [[Church of the East|Nestorians]]]]
Beginning in the early 19th century, society, government, and religion were interrelated in a complex, overlapping way that was deemed inefficient by Atatürk, who systematically dismantled it after 1922.[Philip D. Curtin, ''The World and the West: The European Challenge and the Overseas Response in the Age of Empire'' (2002), pp. 173–192.][Fatma Muge Gocek, ''Rise of the Bourgeoisie, Demise of Empire: Ottoman Westernization and Social Change'' (1996) pp 138–42] In Constantinople, the Sultan ruled two distinct domains: the secular government and the religious hierarchy. Religious officials formed the Ulama, who had control of religious teachings and theology, and also the Empire's judicial system, giving them a major voice in day-to-day affairs in communities across the Empire (but not including the non-Muslim millets). They were powerful enough to reject the military reforms proposed by Sultan [[Selim III]]. His successor Sultan [[Mahmud II]] (r. 1808–1839) first won ulama approval before proposing similar reforms.[Kemal H. Karpat, "The transformation of the Ottoman State, 1789–1908." ''International Journal of Middle East Studies'' 3#3 (1972): 243–281. [http://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Karpat,%20Transformation%20of%20the%20Ott%20State,%201789-1908%20(1972).pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417032011/http://psi424.cankaya.edu.tr/uploads/files/Karpat,%20Transformation%20of%20the%20Ott%20State,%201789-1908%20(1972).pdf |date=17 April 2018 }}] The secularisation programme brought by Atatürk ended the ulema and their institutions. The caliphate was abolished, madrasas were closed down, and the sharia courts were abolished. He replaced the Arabic alphabet with Latin letters, ended the religious school system, and gave women some political rights. Many rural traditionalists never accepted this secularisation, and by the 1990s they were reasserting a demand for a larger role for Islam.[{{Cite book |last=Amit Bein |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141 |title=Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=2011 |isbn=978-0-8047-7311-9 |page=141 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151702/https://books.google.com/books?id=D1xfDfgPJr8C&pg=PA141 |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Istanbul asv2021-11 img71 StAnthony of Padua Church.jpg|thumb|The original [[Church of St. Anthony of Padua, Istanbul]] was built in 1725 by the local Italian community of Istanbul.]]
The Janissaries were a highly formidable military unit in the early years, but as Western Europe modernised its military organisation technology, the Janissaries became a reactionary force that resisted all change. Steadily the Ottoman military power became outdated, but when the Janissaries felt their privileges were being threatened, or outsiders wanted to modernise them, or they might be superseded by the cavalrymen, they rose in rebellion. The rebellions were highly violent on both sides, but by the time the Janissaries were suppressed, it was far too late for Ottoman military power to catch up with the West.[Peter Mansfield, ''A History of the Middle East'' (1991) p. 31.][Oleg Benesch, "Comparing Warrior Traditions: How the Janissaries and Samurai Maintained Their Status and Privileges During Centuries of Peace." ''Comparative Civilizations Review'' 55.55 (2006): 6:37–55 [https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1669&context=ccr Online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191109153441/https://scholarsarchive.byu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1669&context=ccr |date=9 November 2019 }}.] The political system was transformed by the destruction of the [[Janissary|Janissaries]], a powerful military/governmental/police force, which revolted in the [[Auspicious Incident]] of 1826. Sultan Mahmud II crushed the revolt, executed the leaders and disbanded the large organisation. That set the stage for a slow process of modernisation of government functions, as the government sought, with mixed success, to adopt the main elements of Western bureaucracy and military technology.
The Janissaries had been recruited from Christians and other minorities; their abolition enabled the emergence of a Turkish elite to control the Ottoman Empire. A large number of ethnic and religious minorities were tolerated in their own separate segregated domains called millets.[Karen Barkey, and George Gavrilis, "The Ottoman millet system: non-territorial autonomy and its contemporary legacy." ''Ethnopolitics'' 15.1 (2016): 24–42.] They were primarily [[Ottoman Greeks|Greek]], [[Armenians in the Ottoman Empire|Armenian]], or [[History of the Jews in the Ottoman Empire|Jewish]]. In each locality, they governed themselves, spoke their own language, ran their own schools, cultural and religious institutions, and paid somewhat higher taxes. They had no power outside the millet. The Imperial government protected them and prevented major violent clashes between ethnic groups.
Ethnic nationalism, based on distinctive religion and language, provided a centripetal force that eventually destroyed the Ottoman Empire.{{Sfn|Quataert|1983}} In addition, Muslim ethnic groups, which were not part of the millet system, especially the Arabs and the Kurds, were outside the Turkish culture and developed their own separate nationalism. The British sponsored Arab nationalism in the First World War, promising an independent Arab state in return for Arab support. Most Arabs supported the Sultan, but those near Mecca believed in and supported the British promise.[Youssef M. Choueiri, ''Arab Nationalism: A History: Nation and State in the Arab World'' (2001), pp. 56–100.]
[[File:Istanbul_asv2021-11_img03_Hemdat_Israel_Synagogue.jpg|thumb|[[Hemdat Israel Synagogue]] of [[Istanbul]]]]
At the local level, power was held beyond the control of the Sultan by the [[Ayan (class)|ayans]] or local notables. The ayan collected taxes, formed local armies to compete with other notables, took a reactionary attitude toward political or economic change, and often defied policies handed down by the Sultan.[{{Cite book |last=Gábor Ágoston and Bruce Alan Masters |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA64 |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |publisher=Infobase |date=2010 |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=64 |access-date=15 May 2018 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151704/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Encyclopedia_of_the_Ottoman_Empire/QjzYdCxumFcC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=PA64&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}]
After the 18th century, the Ottoman Empire was shrinking, as Russia put on heavy pressure and expanded to its south; Egypt became effectively independent in 1805, and the British later took it over, along with Cyprus. Greece became independent, and Serbia and other Balkan areas became highly restive as the force of nationalism pushed against imperialism. The French took over Algeria and Tunisia. The Europeans all thought that the empire was a sick man in rapid decline. Only the Germans seemed helpful, and their support led to the Ottoman Empire joining the central powers in 1915, with the result that they came out as one of the heaviest losers of the First World War in 1918.[Naci Yorulmaz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=2-eKDwAAQBAJ ''Arming the Sultan: German Arms Trade and Personal Diplomacy in the Ottoman Empire Before World War I''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141247/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Arming_the_Sultan/2-eKDwAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1 |date=1 November 2022 }} (IB Tauris, 2014).]
== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:WaldmeierLebanon.gif|thumb|Depiction of a [[hookah]] shop in [[Lebanon]]]]
The Ottomans absorbed some of the traditions, art, and institutions of cultures in the regions they conquered and added new dimensions to them. Numerous traditions and cultural traits of previous empires (in fields such as architecture, cuisine, music, leisure, and government) were adopted by the Ottoman Turks, who developed them into new forms, resulting in a new and distinctively Ottoman cultural identity. Although the predominant literary language of the Ottoman Empire was Turkish, Persian was the preferred vehicle for the projection of an imperial image.[{{Cite encyclopedia |title=HISTORIOGRAPHY xiv. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE |encyclopedia=Iranica |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |access-date=25 December 2020 |archive-date=17 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201117192349/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/historiography-xiv |url-status=live }}]
[[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|Slavery]] was part of Ottoman society,[{{Cite web |last=Halil Inalcik |title=Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire |url=http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html |archive-date=11 September 2009 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Michigan State University}}] with most slaves employed as domestic servants or in the case of female slaves as [[concubinage in Islam|concubin]]es ([[Sexual slavery|sexual slave]]s).
Agricultural slavery, such as that [[Slavery in the United States|in the Americas]], was relatively rare.
The child of a slave was born a slave, unless the male slave owner acknowledged the child of his female slave as his, in which case the child would be automatically free by law.[Erdem, Y. Hakan. Slavery in the Ottoman Empire and its Demise, 1800–1909. London: Macmillan Press, 1996.]
Female slaves were still sold in the Empire as late as 1908.[{{Cite web |title=Islam and slavery: Sexual slavery |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=BBC |archive-date=21 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521234122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_7.shtml |url-status=live }}]
During the 19th century the Empire came under pressure from Western European countries to outlaw the practice. Policies developed by various sultans throughout the 19th century attempted to curtail the [[Ottoman slave trade]] but slavery had centuries of religious backing and sanction and so was never abolished in the Empire.[''[[Halil İnalcık]], [https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_İnalcık_-_Has_Bağçede_Ayş_u_Tarab.pdf "Has-bahçede 'Ayş u Tarab"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726055101/https://www.academia.edu/38228665/Halil_%C4%B0nalc%C4%B1k_-_Has_Ba%C4%9F%C3%A7ede_Ay%C5%9F_u_Tarab.pdf |date=26 July 2019 }}, İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları (2011)'']
Language was not an obvious sign of group connection and identity in the 16th century among the rulers of the Ottoman Empire, [[Safavid Iran]] and [[Shaybanids|Abu'l-Khayrid Shibanids]] of [[Central Asia]].[{{cite book |last1=Comstock-Skipp |first1=Jaimee |editor1-last=Paskaleva |editor1-first=Elena |editor2-last=van den Berg |editor2-first=Gabrielle |title=Memory and Commemoration across Central Asia |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-54099-6 |page=54 |chapter=Turk amongst Tajiks: The Turkic ''Shāhnāma'' Translation Located in Tajikistan and Manuscript Production during the Abuʾl-Khayrid Annexation of Khurasan (1588–1598)}}] Hence the ruling classes of all three polities were bilingual in varieties of Persian and Turkic.[Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the Late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. [[Google Books]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 PT194] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141741/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT194 |date=1 November 2022 }}-[https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 PT195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.] Education was therefore largely divided on ethnic and religious lines: few non-Muslims attended schools for Muslim students, and vice versa. Most institutions that served all ethnic and religious groups taught in French or other languages.[Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule'' (Volume 18 of Birmingham Byzantine and Ottoman Studies). Routledge, 7 July 2016. {{ISBN|1-317-11844-8}}, 9781317118442. [[Google Books]] [https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 PT195] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101141742/https://books.google.com/books?id=gY-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PT195 |date=1 November 2022 }}.]
Several "foreign schools" (''Frerler mektebleri'') operated by religious clergy primarily served Christians, although some Muslim students attended.[[[Lucy Garnett|Garnett, Lucy Mary Jane]]. ''Turkish Life in Town and Country''. [[G.P. Putnam's Sons]], 1904. p. [https://archive.org/details/turkishlifeinto00garngoog/page/n259 205].]
=== Literature ===
{{Main|Ottoman literature}}
The two primary streams of Ottoman written literature are poetry and [[prose]]. Poetry was by far the dominant stream. The earliest work of Ottoman historiography for example, the [[Iskendername|''İskendernâme'']], was composed by the poet [[Taceddin Ahmedi]].[{{Cite book |last=Kastritsis |first=Dimitris J. |title=The sons of Bayezid: empire building and representation in the Ottoman civil war of 1402–1413 |date=2007 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-15836-8 |series=The Ottoman empire and its heritage |location=Leiden; Boston |pages=33–37}}] Until the 19th century, Ottoman prose did not contain any examples of fiction: there were no counterparts to, for instance, the European [[Chivalric romance|romance]], short story, or novel. Analog genres did exist, though, in both [[Turkish folk literature]] and in [[Diwan (poetry)|Divan poetry]].
Ottoman Divan poetry was a highly ritualised and symbolic art form. From the [[Persian literature|Persian poetry]] that largely inspired it, it inherited a wealth of symbols whose meanings and interrelationships—both of similitude ({{lang|ota|مراعات نظير}} {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|mura'ât-i nazîr}} / {{lang|ota|تناسب}} {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|tenâsüb}}) and opposition ({{lang|ota|تضاد}} {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|tezâd}}) were more or less prescribed. Divan poetry was composed through the constant juxtaposition of many such images within a strict metrical framework, allowing numerous potential meanings to emerge. The vast majority of Divan poetry was [[Lyric poetry|lyric]] in nature: either [[gazel]]s (which make up the greatest part of the repertoire of the tradition), or kasîdes. But there were other common genres, especially the mesnevî, a kind of [[Courtly romance|verse romance]] and thus a variety of [[narrative poetry]]; the two most notable examples of this form are the [[Leyli and Majnun (Fuzuli)|Leyli and Majnun]] of [[Fuzuli (poet)|Fuzuli]] and the [[Hüsn ü Aşk]] of [[Şeyh Gâlib]]. The [[Seyahatnâme]] of [[Evliya Çelebi]] (1611–1682) is an outstanding example of travel literature.
[[File:Nedim (divan edb.şairi).JPG|thumb|[[Nedîm|Ahmet Nedîm Efendi]], one of the most celebrated Ottoman poets|upright]]
Until the 19th century, [[Prose of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman prose]] did not develop to the extent that contemporary Divan poetry did. A large part of the reason was that much prose was expected to adhere to the rules of {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|sec}} ({{lang|ota|سجع}}, also transliterated as {{transliteration|engvar=gb|ota|seci}}), or [[rhymed prose]],[{{Cite book |last=Murat Belge |title=Osmanlı'da kurumlar ve kültür |publisher=İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları |date=2005 |isbn=978-975-8998-03-6 |page=389}}] a type of writing descended from the Arabic [[saj']] that prescribed that between each adjective and noun in a string of words, such as a sentence, there must be a rhyme. Nevertheless, there was a tradition of prose in the literature of the time, though it was exclusively nonfictional. One apparent exception was Muhayyelât (''Fancies'') by [[Giritli Ali Aziz Efendi]], a collection of stories of the fantastic written in 1796, though not published until 1867. The first novel published in the Ottoman Empire was [[Vartan Pasha]]'s 1851 ''The Story of Akabi'' (Turkish: ''Akabi Hikyayesi''). It was written in Turkish but with [[Armenian language|Armenian]] script.[{{Cite book |last=Mignon |first=Laurent |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |title=Neither Shiraz nor Paris: papers on modern Turkish literature |date=2005 |publisher=ISIS |isbn=978-975-428-303-7 |location=Istanbul |page=20 |quote=Those words could have been readily adopted by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), the author, who preferred to remain anonymous, of The Story of Akabi (Akabi Hikyayesi), the first novel in Turkish, published with Armenian characters in the same year as [[Hovhannes Hisarian|Hisarian]]'s novel. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=AbQZAQAAIAAJ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last1=Masters |first1=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |last2=Ágoston |first2=Gábor |date=2009 |publisher=Facts On File |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |location=New York |page=440 |quote=Written in Turkish using the Armenian alphabet, the Akabi History (1851) by Vartan Pasha is considered by some to be the first Ottoman novel. |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last=Pultar |first=Gönül |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |title=Imagined identities: identity formation in the age of globalism |date=2013 |publisher=Syracuse University Press |isbn=978-0-8156-3342-6 |edition=First |location=[S.l.] |page=329 |quote=In fact, one of the first Turkish works of fiction in Western-type novel form, Akabi Hikayesi (Akabi's Story), was written in Turkish by Vartan Pasha (born Osep/Hovsep Vartanian/Vartanyan, 1813–1879) and published in Armenian characters in 1851. |access-date=17 January 2016 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=KhiQAwAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |last1=Gürçaglar |first1=Şehnaz |title=Tradition, Tension, and Translation in Turkey |last2=Paker |first2=Saliha |last3=Milton |first3=John |date=2015 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company |isbn=978-90-272-6847-1 |page=5 |quote=It is interesting that the first Ottoman novel in Turkish, Akabi Hikayesi (1851, Akabi's Story), was written and published in Armenian letters (for Armenian communities who read in Turkish) by Hovsep Vartanyan (1813–1879), known as Vartan Paşa, a leading Ottoman man of letters and journalist.}}]
Due to historically close ties with France, [[French literature]] constituted the major Western influence on Ottoman literature in the latter half of the 19th century. As a result, many of the same movements prevalent in France during this period had Ottoman equivalents; in the developing Ottoman prose tradition, for instance, the influence of [[Romanticism]] can be seen during the Tanzimat period, and that of the [[Realism (arts)|Realist]] and [[Naturalism (literature)|Naturalist]] movements in subsequent periods; in the poetic tradition, on the other hand, the influence of the [[Symbolism (movement)|Symbolist]] and [[Parnassianism|Parnassian]] movements was paramount.
Many of the writers in the Tanzimat period wrote in several different genres simultaneously. This diversity was, in part, due to Tanzimat writers' wish to disseminate as much of the new literature as possible, in the hopes that it would contribute to a revitalisation of Ottoman [[social structure]]s.[{{Cite book |last=Moran |first=Berna |title=Türk Romanına Eleştirel Bir Bakış Vol. 1 |date=1997 |isbn=978-975-470-054-1 |page=19|publisher=İletişim Yayınları }}]
=== Media ===
{{Main|Media of the Ottoman Empire}}
The media of the Ottoman Empire was diverse, with newspapers and journals published in languages including [[French (language)|French]],[{{cite web|author=Baruh, Lorans Tanatar|author2=Sara Yontan Musnik|url=https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|title=Francophone press in the Ottoman Empire|publisher=[[French National Library]]|access-date=13 July 2019|archive-date=16 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180416115120/https://heritage.bnf.fr/bibliothequesorient/en/francophone-press-ottoman-art|url-status=live}}] [[Greek (language)|Greek]],[Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 32 (PDF p. 34)] and [[German (language)|German]].[Kendall, p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 339] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=TOp7a8GtqQoC&pg=PA339 |date=14 January 2023 }}.] but there were also French-language newspapers produced in [[Beirut]], [[Salonika]], and [[Smyrna]].[Strauss, Johann. "Language and power in the late Ottoman Empire" (Chapter 7). In: Murphey, Rhoads (editor). ''Imperial Lineages and Legacies in the Eastern Mediterranean: Recording the Imprint of Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman Rule''. Routledge, 7 July 2016. ({{ISBN|978-1-317-11845-9}}), p. [https://books.google.com/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151548/https://books.google.ca/books?id=XI-kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 |date=14 January 2023 }}.] Non-Muslim ethnic minorities in the empire used French as a [[lingua franca]] and used French-language publications,[ while some provincial newspapers were published in [[Arabic]].][Strauss, "A Constitution for a Multilingual Empire," p. 25 (PDF p. 27)] The use of French in the media persisted until the [[Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire|end of the empire]] in 1923 and for a few years thereafter in the [[Turkey|Republic of Turkey]].[
=== Architecture ===
{{Main|Ottoman architecture}}
[[File:Cour_mosquee_Suleymaniye_Istanbul.jpg|thumb|[[Süleymaniye Mosque]] in Istanbul, designed by [[Mimar Sinan]] in the 16th century and a major example of the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical Ottoman style]]]]
The architecture of the empire developed from earlier [[Anatolian Seljuk architecture|Seljuk Turkish architecture]], with influences from [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] and [[Iranian architecture|Iranian]] architecture and other architectural traditions in the Middle East.]["Seljuk architecture", ''Illustrated Dictionary of Historic Architecture'', ed. Cyril M. Harris, (Dover Publications, 1977), 485.][{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last=M. Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan |location= |pages= |chapter=Ottoman |quote=Throughout their history the Ottomans remained supporters of art and artists. Under their patronage a distinctive architectural style developed that combined the Islamic traditions of Anatolia, Iran and Syria with those of the Classical world and Byzantium. The result was a rationalist monumentality that favored spatial unity and architectonic expression. |editor-last2=S. Blair |editor-first2=Sheila}}][{{Harvnb|Freely|2011|p=35}} "The mosques of the classical period are more elaborate than those of earlier times. They derive from a fusion of a native Turkish tradition with certain elements of the plan of Haghia Sophia, the former cathedral of Constantinople, converted into a mosque in 1453 by Mehmet the Conqueror."] [[Early Ottoman architecture]] experimented with multiple building types over the course of the 13th to 15th centuries, progressively evolving into the [[Classical Ottoman architecture|classical Ottoman style]] of the 16th and 17th centuries, which was also strongly influenced by the [[Hagia Sophia]].[{{cite book |last=Goodwin |first=Godfrey |title=Sinan: Ottoman Architecture & its Values Today |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-86356-172-6 |location=London}}] The most important architect of the Classical period is [[Mimar Sinan]], whose major works include the [[Şehzade Mosque]], [[Süleymaniye Mosque]], and [[Selimiye Mosque, Edirne|Selimiye Mosque]].[{{cite book |author1=Gábor Ágoston |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |title=Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire |author2=Bruce Alan Masters |date=21 May 2010 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1025-7 |page=50 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151705/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |editor-last1=M. Bloom |editor-first1=Jonathan |chapter=Ottoman |editor-last2=Blair |editor-first2=Sheila S.}}] The second half of the 16th century also saw the apogee of some [[Ottoman decoration|types of decoration]], most notably in the production of [[Iznik pottery|Iznik tiles]].[{{Cite book |last=Carswell |first=John |title=Iznik Pottery |publisher=British Museum Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7141-2441-4 |edition=Second |pages=75}}]
[[File:Mihrisah Sultan Complex Eyup DSCF7829.jpg|thumb|[[Sebil]] (water distribution kiosk) of the [[Mihrişah Sultan Complex]] in Istanbul, from the late 18th century, an example of the [[Ottoman Baroque style]]]]
Beginning in the 18th century, Ottoman architecture was opened to external influences, particularly from [[Baroque architecture]] in Western Europe, which eventually gave rise to the [[Ottoman Baroque architecture|Ottoman Baroque]] style that emerged in the 1740s.{{Sfn|Rüstem|2019|pp=21–70 (see chapters 1 and 2 generally)}} The [[Nuruosmaniye Mosque]] is one of the most important examples from this period.{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=355}}{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=526}} During the 19th century, influences from Western Europe became more prominent, brought in by architects such as those from the [[Balyan family]].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}} [[Empire style]] and [[Neoclassical architecture|Neoclassical]] motifs were introduced and a trend towards [[Eclecticism in architecture|eclecticism]] was evident in many types of buildings, such as the [[Dolmabahçe Palace|Dolmabaçe Palace]].{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|pp=605–606}} The last decades of the Ottoman Empire also saw the development of a new architectural style called neo-Ottoman or Ottoman [[Revivalism (architecture)|revivalism]], also known as the [[First national architectural movement|First National Architectural Movement]],[{{cite book |author1=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=un4WcfEASZwC&pg=RA1-PA379 |title=Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art & Architecture: Three-Volume Set |author2=Blair |author3=Sheila S. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-530991-1 |pages=379 |chapter=Kemalettin |access-date=9 March 2022 |archive-date=14 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114151707/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Grove_Encyclopedia_of_Islamic_Art_Archit/un4WcfEASZwC?hl=en&gbpv=1&pg=RA1-PA379&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}] by architects such as [[Mimar Kemaleddin]] and [[Vedat Tek]].{{Sfn|Freely|2011|p=393}}
Ottoman dynastic patronage was concentrated in the historic capitals of Bursa, Edirne, and Istanbul (Constantinople), as well as in several other important administrative centres such as [[Amasya]] and [[Manisa]]. It was in these centres that most important developments in Ottoman architecture occurred and that the most monumental Ottoman architecture can be found.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=679}} Major religious monuments were typically architectural complexes, known as a ''[[külliye]]'', that had multiple components providing different services or amenities. In addition to a mosque, these could include a [[madrasa]], a [[hammam]], an [[imaret]], a [[Sebil (fountain)|sebil]], a market, a [[caravanserai]], a [[Kuttab|primary school]], or others.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} These complexes were governed and managed with the help of a ''[[vakıf]]'' agreement (Arabic ''waqf'').{{Sfn|Kuban|2010}} Ottoman constructions were still abundant in Anatolia and in the Balkans (Rumelia), but in the more distant Middle Eastern and North African provinces older [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] styles continued to hold strong influence and were sometimes blended with Ottoman styles.{{Sfn|Kuban|2010|p=|pp=571–596}}{{Sfn|Blair|Bloom|1995|p=251}}
=== Decorative arts ===
{{further|Ottoman illumination|Ottoman miniature}}
[[File:Topkapi_Sarayi_in_time_of_Selim_I_-_left.jpg|thumb|[[Ottoman miniature]] lost its function with the Westernisation of Ottoman culture.|upright]]
The tradition of [[Ottoman miniature]]s, painted to illustrate manuscripts or used in dedicated albums, was heavily influenced by the [[Persian miniature|Persian]] art form, though it also included elements of the [[Byzantine art|Byzantine]] tradition of [[Illuminated manuscript|illumination]] and painting.[{{Cite journal |last=Atil |first=Esin |date=1973 |title=Ottoman Miniature Painting under Sultan Mehmed II |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |journal=Ars Orientalis |volume=9 |pages=103–120 |jstor=4629273 |issn=0571-1371 |access-date=12 August 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221101140443/https://www.jstor.org/stable/4629273 |url-status=live }}] A Greek academy of painters, the ''Nakkashane-i-Rum'', was established in the [[Topkapı Palace|Topkapi Palace]] in the 15th century, while early in the following century a similar Persian academy, the ''Nakkashane-i-Irani'', was added. [[Surname-i Hümayun]] (Imperial Festival Books) were albums that commemorated celebrations in the Ottoman Empire in pictorial and textual detail.
[[Ottoman illumination]] covers non-figurative painted or drawn decorative art in books or on sheets in ''[[muraqqa]]'' or albums, as opposed to the figurative images of the [[Ottoman miniature]]. It was a part of the Ottoman Book Arts together with the Ottoman miniature (''taswir''), calligraphy (''hat''), [[Islamic calligraphy]], bookbinding (''cilt'') and [[paper marbling]] (''ebru''). In the Ottoman Empire, [[Illuminated manuscript|illuminated and illustrated manuscripts]] were commissioned by the Sultan or the administrators of the court. In Topkapi Palace, these manuscripts were created by the artists working in ''Nakkashane'', the atelier of the miniature and illumination artists. Both religious and non-religious books could be illuminated. Also, sheets for albums ''levha'' consisted of illuminated calligraphy (''hat'') of ''[[tughra]]'', religious texts, verses from poems or proverbs, and purely decorative drawings.
The art of carpet [[weaving]] was particularly significant in the Ottoman Empire, carpets having an immense importance both as decorative furnishings, rich in religious and other symbolism and as a practical consideration, as it was customary to remove one's shoes in living quarters.[{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=152}}] The weaving of such carpets originated in the [[nomad]]ic cultures of central Asia (carpets being an easily transportable form of furnishing), and eventually spread to the settled societies of Anatolia. Turks used carpets, rugs, and [[kilim]]s not just on the floors of a room but also as a hanging on walls and doorways, where they provided additional insulation. They were also commonly donated to mosques, which often amassed large collections of them.[{{Cite book |last=Faroqhi |first=Suraiya |title=Subjects of the Sultan: culture and daily life in the Ottoman Empire |publisher=I.B. Tauris |date=2005 |isbn=978-1-85043-760-4 |edition=New |location=London |page=153}}]
=== Music and performing arts ===
{{further|Ottoman music}}
[[File:Musicians and dancers from ottoman empire.jpg|thumb|Musicians and dancers entertaining the crowds, from the [[Surname-i Hümayun]], 1720|upright=.75]]
[[Ottoman music|Ottoman classical music]] was an important part of the education of the Ottoman elite. A number of the Ottoman sultans have accomplished musicians and composers themselves, such as [[Selim III]], whose compositions are often still performed today. Ottoman classical music arose largely from a confluence of [[Byzantine music]], [[Music of Armenia|Armenian music]], [[Arabic music]], and [[Persian traditional music|Persian music]]. Compositionally, it is organised around rhythmic units called [[Usul (music)|usul]], which are somewhat similar to [[Metre (music)|metre]] in Western music, and [[Melody|melodic]] units called [[Turkish makam|makam]], which bear some resemblance to Western [[Mode (music)|musical modes]].
The [[Musical instrument|instruments]] used are a mixture of Anatolian and Central Asian instruments (the [[Bağlama|saz]], the [[bağlama]], the [[Kemenche|kemence]]), other Middle Eastern instruments (the [[Oud|ud]], the [[tanbur]], the [[Qanun (instrument)|kanun]], the [[ney]]), and—later in the tradition—Western instruments (the violin and the piano). Because of a geographic and cultural divide between the capital and other areas, two broadly distinct styles of music arose in the Ottoman Empire: Ottoman classical music and folk music. In the provinces, several different kinds of [[folk music]] were created. The most dominant regions with their distinguished musical styles are Balkan-Thracian Türküs, North-Eastern ([[Laz people|Laz]]) Türküs, Aegean Türküs, Central Anatolian Türküs, Eastern Anatolian Türküs, and Caucasian Türküs. Some of the distinctive styles were: [[Ottoman military band|Janissary music]], [[Romani music|Roma music]], [[Belly dance]], [[Turkish folk music]].
The traditional [[shadow play]] called [[Karagöz and Hacivat]] was widespread throughout the Ottoman Empire and featured characters representing all of the major ethnic and social groups in that culture.[{{Cite web |date=20 November 2006 |title=Karagöz and Hacivat, a Turkish shadow play |url=http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |access-date=20 August 2012 |publisher=All About Turkey |archive-date=24 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190824133707/http://www.allaboutturkey.com/karagoz.htm |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |last=Emin Şenyer |title=Karagoz, Traditional Turkish Shadow Theatre |url=http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130131082003/http://www.karagoz.net/english/shadowplay.htm |archive-date=31 January 2013 |access-date=11 February 2013 |publisher=Karagoz.net}}] It was performed by a single puppet master, who voiced all of the characters, and accompanied by [[tambourine]] (''def''). Its origins are obscure, deriving perhaps from an older Egyptian tradition, or possibly from an Asian source.
=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Ottoman cuisine}}
[[File:François-Marie Rosset - Femmes Turcs turques de Serquin, leur manière de faire leur pain - Syrie - 1790.jpg|thumb|upright|Turkish women baking bread, 1790]]
[[Ottoman cuisine]] is the cuisine of the capital, Constantinople ([[Istanbul]]), and the regional capital cities, where the melting pot of cultures created a common cuisine that most of the population regardless of ethnicity shared. This diverse cuisine was honed in the Imperial Palace's kitchens by chefs brought from certain parts of the Empire to create and experiment with different ingredients. The creations of the Ottoman Palace's kitchens filtered to the population, for instance through [[Ramadan]] events, and through the cooking at the [[Yalı]]s of the [[Pasha]]s, and from there on spread to the rest of the population.
Much of the cuisine of former Ottoman territories today is descended from a shared Ottoman cuisine, especially [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]], and including [[Greek cuisine|Greek]], [[Balkan cuisine|Balkan]], [[Armenian cuisine|Armenian]], and [[Middle Eastern cuisine|Middle Eastern]] cuisines.[Bert Fragner, "From the Caucasus to the Roof of the World: a culinary adventure", in Sami Zubaida and Richard Tapper, ''A Taste of Thyme: Culinary Cultures of the Middle East'', London, [[Prague]] and New York, p. 52]
=== Sports ===
[[File:MedyaBJK.jpg|thumb|Members of [[Beşiktaş J.K.]] in 1903]]
The main sports Ottomans were engaged in were [[Wrestling in Turkey|Turkish wrestling]], hunting, [[Turkish archery]], horseback riding, [[Jereed|equestrian javelin throw]], arm wrestling, and swimming. European model sports clubs were formed with the spreading popularity of [[association football|football]] matches in 19th-century Constantinople. The leading clubs, according to timeline, were [[Beşiktaş J.K.|Beşiktaş Gymnastics Club]] (1903), [[Galatasaray S.K.|Galatasaray Sports Club]] (1905), [[Fenerbahçe S.K.|Fenerbahçe Sports Club]] (1907), [[MKE Ankaragücü|MKE Ankaragücü (formerly Turan Sanatkarangücü)]] (1910) in Constantinople. Football clubs were formed in other provinces too, such as [[Karşıyaka S.K.|Karşıyaka Sports Club]] (1912), [[Altay S.K.|Altay Sports Club]] (1914) and Turkish Fatherland Football Club (later [[Ülküspor]]) (1914) of [[İzmir]].
== Science and technology ==
{{Main|Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire}}
[[File:Istambul observatory in 1577.jpg|thumb|The [[Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din]] in 1577]]
Over the course of Ottoman history, the Ottomans managed to build a large collection of libraries complete with translations of books from other cultures, as well as original manuscripts.[{{Cite journal |last=Ragep |first=F. J. |date=2005 |title=Ali Qushji and Regiomontanus: eccentric transformations and Copernican Revolutions |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |publisher=Science History Publications Ltd. |volume=36 |issue=125 |pages=359–371 |bibcode=2005JHA....36..359R |doi=10.1177/002182860503600401 |s2cid=119066552}}]
[[Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf|Taqi al-Din]] built the [[Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din]] in 1577, where he carried out observations until 1580. He calculated the [[Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] of the Sun's orbit and the annual motion of the [[Apsis|apogee]].[{{Cite encyclopedia |date=1997 |title=Encyclopaedia of the history of science, technology and medicine in non-western cultures |publisher=Kluwer |bibcode=2008ehst.book.....S |isbn=978-0-7923-4066-9 |author=Sevim Tekeli |entry=Taqi al-Din }}] However, the observatory's primary purpose was almost certainly [[astrology|astrological]] rather than astronomical, leading to its destruction in 1580 due to the rise of a clerical faction that opposed its use for that purpose.[{{Cite book |last=El-Rouayheb |first=Khaled |title=Islamic Intellectual History in the Seventeenth Century: Scholarly Currents in the Ottoman Empire and the Maghreb |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=2015 |isbn=978-1-107-04296-4 |pages=18–19}}] He also experimented with [[Steam engine|steam power]] in [[Egypt Eyalet|Ottoman Egypt]] in 1551, when he described a [[Roasting jack|steam jack]] driven by a rudimentary [[steam turbine]].[[[Ahmad Y Hassan]] (1976), ''Taqi al-Din and Arabic Mechanical Engineering'', p. 34–35, Institute for the History of Arabic Science, [[University of Aleppo]]]
[[File:Young woman reading (1880), by Osman Hamdi Bey.jpg|thumb|''Girl Reciting the Qurān'' (''Kuran Okuyan Kız''), an 1880 painting by the Ottoman polymath [[Osman Hamdi Bey]], whose works often showed women engaged in educational activities[{{Cite web |date=27 April 2017 |title=Artist Feature: Who Was Osman Hamdi Bey? |url=http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey |access-date=13 June 2018 |website=How To Talk About Art History |archive-date=13 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613084633/http://www.howtotalkaboutarthistory.com/artist-feature/artist-feature-osman-hamdi-bey/ |url-status=live }}]]]
[[Sabuncuoğlu Şerafeddin|Şerafeddin Sabuncuoğlu]] was the author of the first surgical atlas and the last major [[Medicine in the medieval Islamic world|medical encyclopaedia from the Islamic world]].[{{Cite journal |last=Bademci |first=G. |date=2006 |title=First illustrations of female Neurosurgeons in the fifteenth century by Serefeddin Sabuncuoglu |journal=Neurocirugía |volume=17 |issue=2 |pages=162–165 |doi=10.4321/S1130-14732006000200012 |pmid=16721484 |doi-access=free}}] The Ottoman Empire is credited with the invention of several surgical instruments in use such as [[forceps]], [[catheter]]s, [[Scalpel|scalpels and lancets]] as well as [[Pincers (tool)|pincers]].[{{Cite web |title=Ottoman Empire |url=https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire |quote=Additionally, some of the greatest advances in medicine were made by the Ottomans. They invented several surgical instruments that are still used today, such as forceps, catheters, scalpels, pincers and lancets |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=[[History (American TV network)|History]] |date=3 November 2017 |archive-date=25 January 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190125011425/https://www.history.com/topics/middle-east/ottoman-empire |url-status=live }}]{{better source needed|date=April 2022}}
In the early 19th century, [[History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty|Egypt under Muhammad Ali]] began using [[steam engine]]s for industrial manufacturing, with industries such as [[ironworks]], [[textile manufacturing]], [[paper mill]]s and [[Husk|hulling]] mills moving towards steam power.[{{Cite book |last=Jean Batou |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HjD4SCOE6IgC&pg=PA193 |title=Between Development and Underdevelopment: The Precocious Attempts at Industrialization of the Periphery, 1800–1870 |publisher=Librairie Droz |date=1991 |isbn=978-2-600-04293-2 |pages=193–196}}] Economic historian Jean Batou argues that the necessary economic conditions existed in Egypt for the adoption of [[oil]] as a potential energy source for its steam engines later in the 19th century.