{{Short description|Works by Aristotle on logic}} {{About|Aristotle's works on logic|other uses|Organon (disambiguation)}} {{redirect|Aristotle's logic|a discussion of the logic system|Aristotelian logic}} {{italic title}} [[file:Aristotele, organon, XIII secolo (bml, pluteo 11 sin 1) 01.jpg|thumb|Organon]] [[File:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg|thumb|Roman copy in marble of a Greek bronze bust of Aristotle by [[Lysippos]], c. 330 BC, with modern alabaster mantle]] The '''''Organon''''' ({{langx|grc|Ὄργανον}}, meaning "instrument, tool, organ") is the standard collection of [[Aristotle]]'s six works on [[logic|logical]] analysis and [[dialectic]]. The six works of Organon are as follows: {{Corpus Aristotelicum table |logic |key=omit}} {{Br}} == Constitution of the texts == The order of the works is not chronological (which is now hard to determine) but was deliberately chosen by [[Theophrastus]] to constitute a well-structured system. Indeed, parts of them seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. The arrangement of the works was made by [[Andronicus of Rhodes]] around 40 BC.{{r|Oxford}} [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'']] has some points of overlap with the works making up the ''Organon'' but is not traditionally considered part of it; additionally, there are works on logic attributed, with varying degrees of plausibility, to Aristotle that were not known to the Peripatetics.{{cite web |title= Aristotle's Logic, < Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy>|date= 18 March 2000|url= https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2020/entries/aristotle-logic| editor1= Edward N. Zalta |access-date =2020-12-19 }} # The ''[[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]]'' (Latin: {{lang|la|Categoriae}}) introduces Aristotle's 10-fold classification of that which exists: [[Substance theory|substance]], quantity, quality, relation, place, time, situation, condition, action, and passion. # ''[[De Interpretatione|On Interpretation]]'' (Latin: {{lang|la|De Interpretatione}}) introduces Aristotle's conception of [[proposition]] and [[judgment|judgement]], and the various relations between affirmative, negative, universal, and particular propositions. Aristotle discusses the [[square of opposition]] or square of [[Apuleius]] in Chapter 7 and its appendix, Chapter 8. Chapter 9 deals with the [[problem of future contingents]]. # The ''[[Prior Analytics]]'' (Latin: {{lang|la|Analytica Priora}}) introduces his [[syllogism|syllogistic]] method (see [[term logic]]), argues for its correctness, and discusses inductive inference. # The ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' (Latin: {{lang|la|Analytica Posteriora}}) deals with [[definition]], [[Demonstration (teaching)|demonstration]], [[inductive reasoning]], and [[scientific knowledge]]. # The ''[[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]]'' (Latin: {{lang|la|Topica}}) treats issues in constructing valid arguments in [[dialectic]], and inference that is probable, rather than certain. It is in this treatise that Aristotle mentions the [[Predicables]], later discussed by [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] and the scholastic logicians. # ''[[On Sophistical Refutations]]'' (Latin: {{lang|la|De Sophisticis Elenchis}}) gives a treatment of [[Formal fallacy|logical fallacies]], and provides a key link to Aristotle's [[Treatise|tractate]] [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|on rhetoric]]. Whereas the ''Organon'' of the Latin [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] tradition comprises only the above six works, its independent reception in the Arabic medieval world saw appended to this list of works Aristotle's ''[[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]]'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''.See Black, Deborah L., ''Logic and Aristotle’s Rhetoric and Poetics in medieval Arabic philosophy'', p. 1. Also [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/#AriLogWorOrg the “Organon” entry] at the [[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|SEP]]. == Influence == The ''Organon'' was used in the school founded by Aristotle at the [[Lyceum (Classical)| Lyceum]], and some parts of the works seem to be a scheme of a lecture on logic. So much so that after Aristotle's death, his publishers ([[Andronicus of Rhodes]] in 50 BC, for example) collected these works. Following the collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]] in the fifth century, much of Aristotle's work was lost in the Latin West. The ''Categories'' and ''On Interpretation'' are the only significant logical works that were available in the early [[Middle Ages]]. These had been translated into [[Latin]] by [[Boethius]], along with Porphyry's [[Isagoge]], which was also translated into Arabic by [[Ibn al-Muqaffa']] via a Syriac intermediary. The other logical works were not available in Western Christendom until [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translated into Latin in the 12th century]]. However, the original Greek texts had been preserved in the [[Greek language|Greek]]-speaking lands of the [[Roman Empire]] (i.e., [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]]). In the mid-twelfth century, [[James of Venice]] translated into Latin the ''Posterior Analytics'' from Greek manuscripts found in Constantinople. The books of Aristotle were available in the early Muslim world, and after 750 AD Muslims had most of them{{Dubious|date=May 2022}}, including the ''Organon'', translated into Arabic, normally via earlier Syriac translations. They were studied by [[Islamic]] and [[Jewish]] scholars, including Rabbi [[Moses Maimonides]] (1135–1204) and the Muslim judge [[Ibn Rushd]], known in the West as Averroes (1126–1198); both were originally from [[Córdoba, Spain]], although the former left Iberia and by 1168 lived in [[Egypt]]. All the major scholastic philosophers wrote commentaries on the ''Organon''. [[Aquinas]], [[William of Ockham|Ockham]] and [[Duns Scotus|Scotus]] wrote commentaries on ''On Interpretation''. Ockham and Scotus wrote commentaries on the ''Categories'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''. [[Grosseteste]] wrote an influential commentary on the ''Posterior Analytics''. In the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] there was a revival of interest in logic as the basis of [[Rational inquiry|rational enquiry]], and a number of texts, most successfully the [[Port-Royal Logic]], polished [[Aristotelianism|Aristotelian]] term logic for [[pedagogy]]. During this period, while the logic certainly was based on that of Aristotle, Aristotle's writings themselves were less often the basis of study. There was a tendency in this period to regard the [[logical system]]s of the day to be complete, which in turn no doubt stifled innovation in this area. However, [[Francis Bacon]] published his ''[[Novum Organum]]'' ("The New ''Organon''") as a scathing attack in [[1620 in literature|1620]].{{r|teaching}} [[Immanuel Kant]] thought that there was nothing else to invent after the work of Aristotle,Alain Badiou, Theoretical Writings, p 172 and the famous logic historian [[Karl von Prantl]] claimed that any logician who said anything new about logic was "confused, stupid or perverse." These examples illustrate the force of influence which Aristotle's works on logic had. Indeed, he had already become known by the Scholastics (medieval Christian scholars) as "The Philosopher", due to the influence he had upon medieval theology and philosophy. His influence continued into the Early Modern period and ''Organon'' was the basis of school philosophy even in the beginning of the 18th century.{{Cite book | publisher = Cambridge University Press| isbn = 9780521822428| last = Rutherford| first = Donald| title = The Cambridge Companion to Early Modern Philosophy| year = 2006| page = 170ff}} Since the logical innovations of the 19th century, particularly the formulation of modern [[predicate logic]], Aristotelian logic had for a time fallen out of favor among many [[analytic philosophy|analytic philosophers]]. However, the logic historian [[John Corcoran (logician)|John Corcoran]] and others have shown that the works of [[George Boole]] and [[Gottlob Frege]]—which laid the groundwork for modern mathematical logic—each represent a continuation and extension to Aristotle's logic and in no way contradict or displace it.[[George Boole]]. 1854/2003. The Laws of Thought, facsimile of 1854 edition, with an introduction by J. Corcoran. Buffalo: Prometheus Books (2003). Reviewed by James van Evra in Philosophy in Review.24 (2004) 167–169.[[John Corcoran (logician)|John Corcoran]], Aristotle's Prior Analytics and Boole's Laws of Thought, History and Philosophy of Logic, vol. 24 (2003), pp. 261–288. Boole fully accepted and endorsed Aristotle's logic, and Frege included Aristotle's [[square of opposition]] at the end of his groundbreaking ''[[Begriffsschrift]]'' to show the harmony of his theory with the Aristotelian tradition.[[Jean-Yves Béziau]] “Is modern logic non-Aristotelian?”, in Vladimir Markin, Dmitry Zaitsev (eds.), ''The Logical Legacy of Nikolai Vasiliev and Modern Logic'', Cham, Springer, 2017, pp. 19-42. == See also == * ''[[Ignoratio elenchi]]'' == Notes == Hammond, p. 64, "Andronicus Rhodus" The Teaching Company — Birth of the Modern Mind == References == '''Primary sources''' {{refbegin}} * {{Citation |translator-last1 = Edghill |translator-first1 = E. M. |translator-link1 = Ella Mary Edghill |year = 2007 |title = Categories |publisher = eBooks @ Adelaide |place = The [[University of Adelaide]] |url = https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/categories/complete.html |access-date = 2019-01-26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181211082849/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/categories/ |archive-date = 2018-12-11 |url-status = dead }}. * {{Citation |translator-last1 = Edghill |translator-first1 = E. M. |translator-link1 = Ella Mary Edghill |year = 2007 |title = On Interpretation |publisher = eBooks @ Adelaide |place = The [[University of Adelaide]] |url = https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/interpretation/complete.html |access-date = 2019-01-26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180216025655/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/interpretation/ |archive-date = 2018-02-16 |url-status = dead }}. * {{Citation |translator-last1 = Jenkinson |translator-first1 = A. J. |year = 2007 |title = Prior Analytics |publisher = eBooks @ Adelaide |place = The [[University of Adelaide]] |url = https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8pra/complete.html |access-date = 2019-01-26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150907200852/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8pra/complete.html |archive-date = 2015-09-07 |url-status = dead }}. * {{Citation |translator-last1 = Mure |translator-first1 = G. R. G. |translator-link1 = Geoffrey Reginald Gilchrist Mure |year = 2007 |title = Posterior Analytics |publisher = eBooks @ Adelaide |place = The [[University of Adelaide]] |url = https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8poa/complete.html |access-date = 2019-01-26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20181210015810/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8poa/ |archive-date = 2018-12-10 |url-status = dead }}. * {{Citation |translator-last1 = Pickard-Cambridge |translator-first1 = W. A. |year = 2007 |title = Topics |publisher = eBooks @ Adelaide |place = The [[University of Adelaide]] |url = https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8t/complete.html |access-date = 2019-01-26 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160304202155/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/a8t/complete.html |archive-date = 2016-03-04 |url-status = dead }}. * {{Citation |translator-last1 = Pickard-Cambridge |translator-first1 = W. A. |year = 2007 |title = On Sophistical Refutations |publisher = eBooks @ Adelaide |place = The [[University of Adelaide]] |url = https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/sophistical/complete.html |access-date = 2015-04-21 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150907114759/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/sophistical/complete.html |archive-date = 2015-09-07 |url-status = dead }}. '''Studies''' * Bocheński, I. M., 1951. ''Ancient Formal Logic''. Amsterdam: North-Holland. *[[Jan Łukasiewicz]], 1951. ''Aristotle's Syllogistic, from the Standpoint of Modern Formal Logic''. Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Lea, Jonathan 1980. ''Aristotle and Logical Theory'', Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * Monteil, Jean-François ''La transmission d’Aristote par les Arabes à la chrétienté occidentale: une trouvaille relative au De Interpretatione'', Revista Española de Filosofia Medieval 11: 181-195 * Monteil, Jean-François ''Isidor Pollak et les deux traductions arabes différentes du De interpretatione d’Aristote'', Revue d’Études Anciennes 107: 29-46 (2005). * Monteil, Jean-François ''Une exception allemande: la traduction du De Interpretatione par le Professeur Gohlke: la note 10 sur les indéterminées d’Aristote'', Revues de Études Anciennes 103: 409–427 (2001). * Parry and Hacker, 1991. ''Aristotelian Logic''. Albany: State University of New York Press. * Rose, Lynn E., 1968. ''Aristotle's Syllogistic''. Springfield, Ill.: Clarence C. Thomas. * Whitaker, C.W.A. 1996. ''Aristotle's De interpretatione. Contradiction and Dialectic'', Oxford: Clarendon Press. * Veatch, Henry B., 1969. ''Two Logics: The Conflict between Classical and Neo-Analytic Philosophy.'' Evanston: Northwestern University Press. {{refend}} == External links == {{commons category|Organon (Aristotle)}} {{Wikisource}} {{EB1911 poster|Organon}} * {{cite SEP |url-id=aristotle-logic |title=Aristotle's Logic |last=Smith |first=Robin}}. * {{cite SEP |url-id=square |title=Traditional Square of Opposition |last=Parsons |first=Terence}}. * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/aris-log.htm Aristotle: Logic] entry by [[Louis Groarke]] in the [[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]. * Turner, W., 1903. '[https://web.archive.org/web/20050908014723/http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/hop.htm History of Philosophy]'. Ginn and Co, Boston. All references in this article are to [https://web.archive.org/web/20050829000817/http://www.nd.edu/Departments/Maritain/etext/hop11.htm Chapter nine on 'Aristotle']. * [https://archive.org/details/AristotleOrganon ''Aristotle Organon And Other Works'' e-book] at archive.org. * [http://www.thefirstscience.org/syllogistic/ Interactive Syllogistic Machine for Aristotle's Logic], a web-based syllogistic machine for exploring fallacies, figures, terms, and modes of syllogisms. {{Aristotelianism}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Works by Aristotle|*]] [[Category:History of logic]] [[Category:Logic literature]] [[Category:Term logic]] [[Category:Ancient Greek logic]] [[Category:Philosophy of Aristotle]]