{{Short description|Country in West Asia}} {{about|the country}} {{Distinguish|Omen}} {{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}} {{Use British English|date=January 2025}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Sultanate of Oman | common_name = Oman | native_name = {{native name|ar|سَلْطَنَة عُمَانْ|italics=off}}
''Salṭanat ʿUmān'' | image_flag = Flag of Oman.svg | image_coat = National emblem of Oman.svg{{!}}class=skin-invert | symbol_type = Emblem | national_motto = {{native phrase|ar|ٱللَّهُ، ٱلْوَطَنُ، ٱلسُّلْطَانُ|paren=off}}
{{transliteration|ar|Allāh, al-Waṭan, as-Sulṭān}}
"[[God in Islam|God]], Nation, Sultan" | national_anthem = {{lang|ar|تَحِيَّة السُّلْطَانِ}}
''[[Salute to the Sultan|Taḥīyah al-Sulṭān]]''
"Salute to the Sultan"{{parabr}}{{center|[[File:Peace to the Sultan (نشيد السلام السلطاني).ogg]]}} | image_map2 = {{maplink |frame=yes | frame-width=250 |frame-height=250 |frame-align=center | text= '''Sultanate of Oman''' | type=line|id=Q842|stroke-width=1|zoom=5|stroke-colour=#0000ff|title=Oman }} | image_map = Oman (better) (orthographic projection).svg | capital = [[Muscat]] | coordinates = {{Coord|23|35|20|N|58|24|30|E|region:OM-MA_type:city}} | largest_city = capital | official_languages = [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]]{{cite web |title=Basic Statute of the State promulgated by Royal Decree 101/96 |url=https://mola.gov.om/eng/legislation/laws/details.aspx?id=1 |website=MINISTRY OF JUSTICE AND LEGAL AFFAIRS |access-date=31 August 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200707234954/http://mola.gov.om/eng/legislation/laws/details.aspx?id=1 }} | religion = {{tree list}} *95% [[Islam in Oman|Islam]] ([[State religion|official]]) **45% [[Sunni Islam]] **45% [[Ibadi Islam]] **5% [[Shia Islam]] *1.67% [[Christianity in Oman|Christianity]] *1.67% [[Hinduism in Oman|Hinduism]] *1.66% [[Religion in Oman#Other religions|other]] {{tree list/end}} | image_map_caption = {{map caption |location_color= green |region=the [[Arabian Peninsula]] |region_color= none}} | common_languages = [[Omani Arabic]] | religion_year = 2023 | religion_ref = {{cite web | url=https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/547499-OMAN-2023-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf | title=OMAN 2023 INTERNATIONAL RELIGIOUS FREEDOM REPORT |access-date=16 June 2026|archive-date=24 February 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250224075603/https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/04/547499-OMAN-2023-INTERNATIONAL-RELIGIOUS-FREEDOM-REPORT.pdf|url-status=live}}{{efn|For both Omani and foreign citizens.}} | demonym = [[Omanis|Omani]] | government_type = Unitary Islamic [[absolute monarchy]] | leader_title1 = [[List of rulers of Oman|Sultan]] and [[Prime Minister of Oman|Prime Minister]] | leader_name1 = [[Haitham bin Tariq]] | leader_title2 = [[Crown Prince of Oman|Crown Prince]] | leader_name2 = [[Theyazin bin Haitham]] | leader_title4 = [[Deputy Prime Minister of Oman|Deputy Prime Minister]] | leader_name4 = {{plainlist| * [[Asa'ad bin Tariq]]
[[Shihab bin Tariq]]
Theyazin bin Haitham }} | legislature = [[Council of Oman]] | upper_house = [[Council of State (Oman)|Council of State]] | lower_house = [[Consultative Assembly (Oman)|Consultative Assembly]] | sovereignty_type = [[History of Oman|Establishment]] | established_event1 = [[Magan (civilization)|Magan Civilization]] | established_date1 = 3000 BCE | established_event2 = [[Azd]] tribe migration | established_date2 = 130 | established_event3 = {{nowrap|[[Imamate of Oman|Imamate]] established{{cite encyclopedia|title=Oman|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561099_7/Oman.html|publisher=MSN Encarta|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091028154443/http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761561099_7/Oman.html|archive-date=28 October 2009|quote=In 751 Ibadi Muslims, established an imamate in Oman. Despite interruptions, the Ibadi imamate survived until the mid-20th century.|access-date=20 November 2008}}}} | established_date3 = 751 | established_event4 = [[Nabhani dynasty]] | established_date4 = 1154 | established_event5 = [[Portuguese Oman|Portuguese rule]] | established_date5 = 1507–1656 | established_event6 = [[Ya'rubids|Ya'rubi dynasty]] | established_date6 = 1624 | established_event7 = [[Omani Empire]] | established_date7 = 1696 | established_event8 = [[Al Bu Said dynasty]] | established_date8 = 20 November 1744 | established_event9 = [[Muscat and Oman]] | established_date9 = 8 January 1856 | established_event10 = Sultanate of Oman | established_date10 = 9 August 1970 | established_event11 = [[Basic Statute of Oman|Basic Statute]] | established_date11 = 6 November 1996 | area_km2 = 315,331 {{Efn|Al Wusta is approx. 82,471 which changed the amount to 315,331}} {{Cite web |title=Oman: Administrative Division (Governorates and Districts) - Population Statistics, Charts and Map |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/oman/admin/ |access-date=2025-12-08 |website=www.citypopulation.de}} | area_rank = 69th | area_sq_mi = 121,750 | percent_water = negligible | population_estimate = 5,398,645{{cite web |url=https://api.ncsi.gov.om/uploads/pdfs/monthly_statistical_bulletin___july_2026_1784544520.pdf |title=Monthly Statistical Bulletin: July 2026 |website=ncsi.gov.om |date= July 2026 |access-date=8 August 2026 }} | population_census = 4,471,148{{cite web |url=https://ecensus.gov.om/Reports/api/v2.0/Resources(2d05f29f-79ec-461b-b155-ec7228711cfb)/Content/$value |title=The Detailed Book of eCensus 2020 Results |publisher=National Center for Statistics & Information |date=January 2021 |access-date=8 August 2026 |lang=ar}} | population_estimate_year = 2026 | population_estimate_rank = 121st | population_census_year = 2020 | population_density_km2 = 17 | population_density_sq_mi = 44 | population_density_rank = 214th | GDP_PPP = {{increase}} $231.16 billion{{cite web |title=World Economic Outlook Database, April 2025 |url=https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/weo-database/2025/april |language=en}} | GDP_PPP_year = 2025 | GDP_PPP_rank = 76th | GDP_PPP_per_capita = {{increase}} $42,010 | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 53rd | GDP_nominal = {{increase}} $104.35 billion | GDP_nominal_year = 2025 | GDP_nominal_rank = 70th | GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $18,097 | GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 55th | Gini = 30.75 | Gini_year = 2018 | Gini_change = | Gini_ref = {{cite web |url= https://data.gov.om/wnewgpb/income-expenditure-statistics?tsId=1059020 |title=Urban – Gini index – Omani – Total |work=Knoema |publisher=The National Centre for Statistics and Information, Sultanate of Oman |access-date=20 May 2018 |archive-date=21 May 2018 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180521021256/https://data.gov.om/wnewgpb/income-expenditure-statistics?tsId=1059020 |url-status=live }} | Gini_rank = | HDI = 0.858 | HDI_year = 2023 | HDI_change = increase | HDI_ref = {{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]]}} | HDI_rank = 50th | currency = [[Omani rial]] ([[File:Omani rial black medium.svg |class=skin-invert-image|15px|link=Omani rial sign]]) | currency_code = OMR | time_zone = [[Gulf Standard Time|GST]] | utc_offset = +4 | DST_note = [[Daylight saving time|DST]] is not observed. | date_format = dd.mm.yyyy | drives_on = Right | calling_code = [[+968]] | cctld = [[.om]], [[عمان.]] | official_website = [https://gov.om/en gov.om] }} '''Oman''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-us-Oman.ogg|oʊ|ˈ|m|ɑː|n}} {{respell|oh|MAHN}}; {{langx|ar|عُمَان|ʿUmān|engvar=gb}}, {{IPA|ar|ʕʊˈmaːn|pron}}.}} officially the '''Sultanate of Oman''',{{efn|{{langx|ar|سَلْطَنَة عُمَانْ|Salṭanat ʿUmān|links=no|engvar=gb}}.}} is a country in the southeastern [[Arabian Peninsula]] in [[West Asia]]. It shares land borders with [[Saudi Arabia]], the [[United Arab Emirates]], and [[Yemen]], and maritime borders with [[Iran]] and [[Pakistan]]. Its coastline extends along the [[Arabian Sea]] to the southeast and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the northeast. The [[exclaves]] of [[Madha]] and [[Musandam Governorate|Musandam]] are surrounded by the United Arab Emirates on their land borders, while Musandam's coastal boundaries are formed by the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the Gulf of Oman. With an area of 315,331 km2 (121,750 sq mi) and a population of approximately 5.46 million, Oman is the third-largest country on the Arabian Peninsula. [[Muscat]] is the capital and largest city, [[Islam]] is the state religion, and [[Arabic]] is the official language. Oman is the oldest independent state in the [[Arab world]],{{cite news |date=11 September 2012 |title=Oman profile – Overview |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654150 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312141232/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654150 |archive-date=12 March 2020 |access-date=18 January 2013 |publisher=BBC News}}[[Royal Air Force Museum London|Royal Air Force Museum]], [https://web.archive.org/web/20201119092207/https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history/a-history-of-oman.aspx A History of Oman]. Retrieved 19 November 2020 and has been continuously ruled by the [[Al Bu Said dynasty]] since 1744.{{Cite news |last1=Barrington |first1=Lisa |last2=Barbuscia |first2=Davide |date=2020-01-11 |title=Sultan Qaboos ushered in Oman renaissance, quiet diplomacy |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/world/sultan-qaboos-ushered-in-oman-renaissance-quiet-diplomacy-idUSKCN1ZA0BM/ |access-date=2025-08-20 |work=Reuters |language=en-US}} Beginning in the 17th century, Oman emerged as a major [[regional power]], expelling the Portuguese from its coastal possessions and establishing [[Omani Empire|an empire]] that competed with the British and Portuguese for influence in the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean. At its peak in the 19th century, Omani influence and control extended across the Strait of Hormuz to what later became Iran and Pakistan, and as far south as [[Zanzibar]].{{Cite journal |doi=10.1177/1468796811432681 |title=The ethnic label Zinjibari: Politics and language choice implications among Swahili speakers in Oman |journal=Ethnicities |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=335–353 |year=2012 |last1=Kharusi |first1=N. S. |s2cid=145808915 |issn=1468-7968}} In the 20th century, Oman came under the influence of the British Empire while ''de jure'' remaining sovereign.{{Cite web |last=Owtram |first=Francis |date=2014-12-11 |title=A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman since 1750 |url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-oman-1750 |access-date=2025-08-20 |website=Qatar National Library |language=English}} Oman's oil reserves are ranked as the 22nd largest globally.{{cite web |url= http://gulfnews.com/business/economy/private-sector-gets-omanisation-targets-1.761024 |title=Private sector gets Omanisation targets |work=[[Gulf News]] |date=13 February 2011 |access-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191009110635/https://gulfnews.com/business/private-sector-gets-omanisation-targets-1.761024|archive-date=9 October 2019}} In 2010, the [[United Nations Development Programme]] recognised Oman as the most improved country in the world in terms of development during the preceding 40 years.{{cite web |url= http://hdr.undp.org/en/mediacentre/news/announcements/title,21573,en.html |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131109205813/http://hdr.undp.org/en/mediacentre/news/announcements/title,21573,en.html |archive-date= 9 November 2013 |title=Five Arab states among top leaders in long-term development gains |publisher= Hdr.undp.org |date= 4 November 2010 |access-date= 29 October 2011}} A portion of Oman's economy involves [[Tourism in Oman|tourism]], and trade of fish, [[Date palm|dates]] and other agricultural produce. The [[World Bank]] classifies Oman as a [[high-income economy]]. As of 2024, Oman ranks as the 42nd most peaceful country in the world in the [[Global Peace Index]] and the third-most peaceful country in the [[Middle East and North Africa]].{{cite web |url= https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/GPI-2021-web-1.pdf |title= Global Peace Index: 2021 |website= visionofhumanity.org |page= 9 |publisher= [[Global Peace Index]] and [[Institute for Economics and Peace]] |access-date=6 April 2022 |archive-date=24 March 2022 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220324204830/https://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/06/GPI-2021-web-1.pdf |url-status=live }} {{Cite web |title=Global Peace Index: 2026 |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2026/06/Global-Peace-Index-2026-Report.pdf |website=economicsandpeace.org}} Oman is an [[absolute monarchy]] ruled by a [[sultan]], who serves as both head of state and head of government. Executive authority is exercised through the [[Cabinet of Oman|Council of Ministers]], while the bicameral [[Council of Oman]] consists of the appointed [[Council of State (Oman)|Council of State]] and the elected [[Consultative Assembly (Oman)|Consultative Assembly]]. [[Qaboos bin Said]] served as sultan from 1970 until his death in 2020. His nearly five-decade reign marked the beginning of a period of rapid modernization now known as the [[Omani Renaissance]], which saw a rise in the country's living standards, the abolition of slavery, the end of the [[Dhofar Rebellion]], and the promulgation of [[Basic Statute of Oman|Oman's constitution]]. In 2020, [[Haitham bin Tariq]] succeeded Qaboos as the [[Sultan of Oman]].{{cite news|date=12 January 2020|title=Haitham bin Tariq sworn in as Oman's new sultan |publisher= Al Jazeera |url= https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/haitham-bin-tariq-named-successor-oman-sultan-qaboos-200111060309444.html|access-date=12 January 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200111074932/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/haitham-bin-tariq-named-successor-oman-sultan-qaboos-200111060309444.html|archive-date=11 January 2020}} Oman is a member of the [[United Nations]], the [[Arab League]], the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]], the [[Non-Aligned Movement]], and the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]]. == Etymology == The oldest known written mention of "Oman" is found on a tomb in the [[Mleiha Archaeological Centre|Mleiha Archeological Center]] in the [[United Arab Emirates]], dated to around 220 BCE, where it is written as {{lang|xsa|𐩲𐩣𐩬}} in [[Ancient South Arabian script|Ancient South Arabian]] and {{lang|arc|𐡏𐡌𐡍}} in [[Aramaic alphabet |Aramaic]].{{Cite web|url=https://saa.shj.ae/en/age-exc/pre-islamic/|title=Pre-Islamic – SAA|website=saa.shj.ae|access-date=6 October 2023|archive-date=8 October 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008161654/https://saa.shj.ae/en/age-exc/pre-islamic/|url-status=live}} The name "Oman" is believed to predate [[Pliny the Elder]]'s reference to "Omana"[[Pliny the Elder]]. ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]]'', VI.149. and [[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy]]'s reference to "Omanon". ({{lang|grc|Ὄμανον ἐμπόριον}} in [[Greek language|Greek]]).[[Claudius Ptolemy|Ptolemy, Claudius]]. ''[[Geography (Ptolemy)|Geography]]''. VI.7.36. Beginning in the 19th century, most writers localised Omana with [[Sohar]].{{Cite book |last=Brill |first=E. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9JQ3AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA976 |title=E.J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913-1936 |publisher=BRILL |year=1987 |isbn=978-90-04-08265-6 |location=Leiden |orig-date=1913}} This changed, however, with the advent of archaeology.Yule, P. & Mauro, F., ''At the dawn of history The late pre-Islamic age in south-eastern Arabia'', Archaeopress, 2025, {{ISBN|978-1-80327-993-0}}, Oxford, 2025, 25 fig. 1.22. The city or region is commonly etymologised in Arabic as deriving from {{Transliteration|ar|ʿāmin}} or {{Transliteration|ar|ʿamūn}}, meaning 'settled' people, in contrast to the nomadic [[Bedouin]]s. While some theories propose an eponymous founder—such as Oman bin Ibrahim al-Khalil, Oman bin Siba' bin Yaghthan bin Ibrahim, and Oman bin Qahtan—others suggest that "Oman" originates from a valley in [[Ma'rib]], [[Yemen]]. This valley is presumed to be the ancestral homeland of the [[Azd]], an ancient Bedouin tribe mentioned in [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|pre-Islamic]] inscriptions, particularly in [[Sabaic]] inscriptions from the reign of [[Sha'r Awtar]] ([[210]]–[[230]] CE).''Tarikh fi Uman'' [''Oman in History'']. Oman has been known by other names. The ancient [[Sumer]]ians and the [[Mesopotamia]]ns called it "Magan", a reference to the [[Magan (civilization)|Magan civilisation]], while the Persians called it Mazun, derived from the word "Muzn", meaning clouds and abundant flowing water, which explains the establishment and prosperity of agriculture in Oman since ancient times and the stability and civilisation that accompanied it. The name "Oman" is mentioned in Arabic sources as an independent region. [[Istakhri|Al-Istakhri]] and [[Ibn Hawqal]] referred to this in their sayings: "Oman is a region with independent regions with spacious people". [[Ibn Khaldun]] was more explicit in his definition of Oman. He mentioned it among the Arab regions that emerged as independent states in the Arabian Peninsula, namely Yemen, the Hijaz, Hadhramaut, Ash Shihr, and Oman. He described its system of government, saying that it was a "sole sultanic region."{{Cite web |title= التاريخ والجغرافيا|url=https://www.omaninfo.om/pages/161/show/572}} == History == {{main|History of Oman}} === Prehistory === [[File:World Heritage Grave Al Ayn Oman.JPG|thumb|250px|The [[Archaeological Sites of Bat, Al-Khutm and Al-Ayn]] in [[Ad Dhahirah Governorate|Ad Dhahirah]], built in the 3rd millennium [[BCE]] and a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]]]] [[File:Lia sites.JPG|thumb|upright=1|[[Late Iron Age]] sites in Oman]] Al Aybut Al Awal, in the [[Dhofar|Dhofar Governorate]] of Oman, a site was discovered in 2011 containing more than 100 surface scatters of stone tools, belonging to a regionally specific African [[lithic industry]]—the late [[Nubia]]n Complex—known previously only from the northeast and [[Horn of Africa]]. Two optically stimulated luminescence age estimates place the Arabian Nubian Complex at 106,000 years old. This supports the proposition that early human populations moved from Africa into Arabia during the [[Late Pleistocene]].{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0028239| pmid = 22140561| title = The Nubian Complex of Dhofar, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia| journal = PLOS ONE| volume = 6| issue = 11| article-number = e28239| year = 2011| last1 = Rose | first1 = J. I. | last2 = Usik | first2 = V. I. | last3 = Marks | first3 = A. E. | last4 = Hilbert | first4 = Y. H. | last5 = Galletti | first5 = C. S. | last6 = Parton | first6 = A. | last7 = Geiling | first7 = J. M. | last8 = Černý | first8 = V. | last9 = Morley | first9 = M. W. | last10 = Roberts | first10 = R. G. | pmc=3227647| bibcode = 2011PLoSO...628239R| doi-access = free}} In recent years{{when|date=April 2025}} surveys have uncovered Palaeolithic and Neolithic sites on the eastern coast. Main Palaeolithic sites include Saiwan-Ghunaim in the Barr al-Hikman.Jeffrey I. Rose et al., South Punjab, Oman: An African Middle Stone Age Industry in Southern Arabia, Plos 30 November 2011 {{doi|10.1371/journal.pone.0028239|doi-access=free}} Archaeological remains are particularly numerous for the Bronze Age [[Umm an-Nar]] and [[Wadi Suq culture|Wadi Suq]] periods. At the archaeological sites of Bat, Al-Janah, and Al-Ayn wheel-turned pottery, hand-made stone vessels, metals industry artifacts, and monumental architecture have been preserved.{{cite book|title=The Bronze Age Towers at Bat, Sultanate of Oman…2007–12|author1=Thornton, Christopher |author2=Cable, Charlotte |author3=Possehl, Gregory |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Museum |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-934536-06-3}} === Ancient history === ==== Magan civilisation ==== {{Main|Magan (civilization)}} [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] tablets referred to Oman as "Magan"{{cite web |title=Digging in the Land of Magan – Archaeology Magazine Archive |url=https://archive.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131023072850/http://archive.archaeology.org/9705/abstracts/magan.html |archive-date=23 October 2013 |access-date=14 January 2014 |publisher=Archive.archaeology.org}}{{cite magazine |date=March 1983 |title=Oman: The Lost Land |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-the.lost.land.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006085542/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-the.lost.land.htm |archive-date=6 October 2014 |access-date=14 January 2014 |magazine=Saudi Aramco World}} and in the [[Akkadian language]] "Makan",{{cite magazine |date=March 1983 |title=Oman: A History |url=http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-a.history.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228222525/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/198303/oman-a.history.htm |archive-date=28 December 2014 |access-date=14 January 2014 |magazine=Saudi Aramco World}} a name that links Oman's ancient copper resources.Gerd Weisgerber "Mehr als Kupfer in Oman" ''Anschnitt'' 5-6, 1981, 180–181 [[Archaeology of Oman]] This is a clear reference to the Magan civilisation, an ancient region in what is now modern day Oman and [[United Arab Emirates]], which was referred to in [[Sumer]]ian [[Cuneiform (script)|cuneiform]] texts of around 2300 BCE and existed until 550 BCE as a source of [[copper]] and [[diorite]] for [[Mesopotamia]]. There are six periods of human settlement with distinctive behaviours in Northern Oman before Islam, which include the [[Hafit period]] from 3,200 to 2,600 BCE, the [[Umm Al Nar culture]] from 2,600 to 2,000 BCE, and the [[Wadi Suq culture]] from 2,000 to 1,300 BCE. ==== Iron Age to pre-Islamic period ==== During the 8th century BCE, it is believed that the Yaarub, the descendant of [[Qahtanite|Qahtan]], ruled the entire region of Yemen, including Oman. Wathil bin Himyar bin [[Sheba|Abd-Shams (Saba)]] bin Yashjub ([[Yemen|Yaman]]) bin Yarub bin [[Joktan|Qahtan]] later ruled Oman. It is thus believed that the Yaarubah were the first settlers in Oman from Yemen. === Persian period === In the 1970s and 1980s, scholars like [[John C. Wilkinson]]{{cite book |title= Water and Tribal Settlement in South East Arabia – A Study of the Aflaj of Oman |author=Wilkinson, John |publisher=Clarendon Press |year= 1977 |pages=76, 85, 122, 126–130, 132 |isbn=0-19-823217-9}} believed by virtue of oral history that in the 6th century BCE, the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] exerted control over the Omani peninsula, most likely ruling from a coastal centre such as [[Suhar]].{{cite book |title=Cross-roads Early and Late Iron Age South-Eastern Arabia |author=Yule, Paul |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |year= 2014 |pages=15–18 |isbn=978-3-447-10127-1}} The northern half of Oman was presumably part of the [[Maka (satrapy)|Maka]]Dan Potts, The Booty of Magan, ''Oriens anticuus'' 25, 1986, 271-85 [[satrapy]] of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. By the time of the [[conquests of Alexander the Great]], the satrapy may have existed in some form. Central Oman has its own indigenous Samad Late Iron Age cultural assemblage named eponymously from [[Samad al-Shan]]. In the northern part of the Oman Peninsula the [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Recent Pre-Islamic Period]] begins in the 3rd century BCE and extends into the 3rd century CE. Whether or not Persians brought south-eastern Arabia under their control is a moot point, since the lack of Persian archaeological finds speak against this belief. [[Armand-Pierre Caussin de Perceval]] suggests that Shammir bin Wathil bin Himyar recognised the authority of [[Cyrus the Great]] over Oman in 536 BCE.[https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000028 British National Archive: Salîl-ibn-Razîk "History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707182006/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000028 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive page 39 QDL The Omani Kingdom was subdued by the [[Sasanian Empire]]'s forces under [[Vahrez]] during the [[Aksumite–Persian wars]]. The 4,000-strong Sasanian garrison was headquartered at Jamsetjerd/Jamshedgird (modern Jebel Gharabeh, also known as Felej al-Sook){{cite book |last1=Miles|first1=Samuel Barrett|title=The Countries and Tribes of the Persian Gulf|url=https://archive.org/details/countriestribeso01mileuoft|date=1919|publisher=Harrison and sons|pages=[https://archive.org/details/countriestribeso01mileuoft/page/26 26]–27|language=en}} ===Azd tribal migration=== Over centuries, From the 2nd half of the 1st millennium BCE, waves of Semitic speaking peoples migrated from central and western Arabia to the east. The most important of these migrating tribes are known as [[Azd]]. they made a living by fishing, farming, herding or stock breeding. Further, many present-day Omani families trace their ancestral roots to other parts of Arabia. Arab migration to Oman started from northern-western and south-western Arabia and those who chose to settle had to compete with the indigenous population for the best arable land. When Arab tribes started to migrate to Oman, there were two distinct groups. One group, a segment of the Azd tribe migrated from [[Yemen]] in 120/200 CE following the collapse of [[Marib Dam]], while the other group migrated a few centuries before the birth of Islam from [[Nejd]] (present-day Saudi Arabia), named [[Nizar ibn Ma'ad|Nizari]]. Other historians believe that the Yaarubah from Qahtan, which belong to an older branch, were the first settlers of Oman from Yemen, and then came the Azd. [[File:Ruins6.JPG|thumb|200px|right|upright|Ruins of [[Khor Rori]], built between 100 [[Before Common Era|BCE]] and 100 [[Common Era|CE]]]] The Azd settlers in Oman are descendants of Nasr bin Azd and were later known as "the Al-Azd of Oman". Seventy years after the first Azd migration, another branch of [[Azd|Alazdi]] under Malik bin Fahm, the founder of Kingdom of [[Tanukhids|Tanukhites]] on the west of [[Euphrates]], is believed to have settled in Oman.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000029 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân (40/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707163649/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000029 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. QDL. According to Al-Kalbi, Malik bin Fahm was the first settler of Alazd.Annals of 'Omān. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023925085.0x000015 British National Archive: Annals of 'Omān' [3] (20/112).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308135606/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023925085.0x000015 |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 20. QDL. He is said to have first settled in [[Qalhat]]. By this account, Malik, with an armed force of more than 6000 men and horses, fought against the [[Marzban]], who served an ambiguously named Persian king in the battle of Salut in Oman and eventually defeated the Persian forces.{{Cite journal|title=The Azd migrations reconsidered: narratives of ʿAmr Muzayqiya and Mālik b. Fahm in historiographic context by Brian Ulrich (21 July 2007)|journal = Proceedings of the Seminar for Arabian Studies|volume = 38|pages = 311–318|publisher=JSTOR|jstor = 41223958|last1 = Ulrich|first1 = Brian|year = 2008}}{{sfn|Maisel|Shoup|2009|p=193}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Uz3WCgAAQBAJ|title=Oman Since 1856 (1967)|author=Robert Geran Landen|publisher=Princeton Legacy Library|isbn=978-1-4008-7827-7|date=8 December 2015|access-date=8 May 2020|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035637/https://books.google.com/books?id=Uz3WCgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} This account is, however, semi-legendary and seems to condense multiple centuries of migration and conflict as well as an amalgamation of various traditions from not only the Arab tribes but also the region's original inhabitants.{{Cite book|last=Hopwood|first=Derek|title=The Arabian Peninsula: Society and Politics|publisher=Routledge|year=2016}}{{Cite book|last=Hawley|first=Donald|title=Oman and Its Renaissance|publisher=Humanities Press|year=1984|page=18}} === Islam === During the 7th century CE, Omanis came in contact with and accepted [[Islam]], with consolidation taking place in the [[Ridda wars#Oman|Ridda Wars]] in 632.{{cite web|url=http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad54|title=History of OMAN|publisher=Historyworld.net|access-date=17 April 2010|archive-date=2 August 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090802205607/http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ad54|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35834.htm |title=Oman |date=31 March 2010 |publisher=[[United States Department of State]] |access-date=9 July 2010 |quote=Oman adopted [[Islam]] in the seventh century A.D., during the lifetime of Muhammad. |archive-date=17 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817081901/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/35834.htm |url-status=live }} The conversion of Omanis to Islam is ascribed to [[Amr ibn al-As]], who was sent by the Islamic prophet [[Muhammad]] during the [[Expedition of Zaid ibn Haritha (Hisma)]]. Amr was dispatched to meet with Jaifer and Abd, the sons of Julanda who ruled Oman. They appear to have readily embraced Islam.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002d British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (44/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707193741/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002d |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 44. QDL. ==== Battle of Dibba ==== {{Main|Battle of Dibba}} Following the death of the prophet Muhammad in 632, a series of campaigns launched by the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] against tribes that had renounced their allegiance to Medina. In Oman, the rebellion was led by Laqit ibn Malik al-Azdi, known as ''Dhu al-Taj'' ("The Crowned One"), who seized control of much of the country. In response, the caliph [[Abu Bakr]] dispatched forces under [[Hudhayfah al-Bariqi|Hudhayfa ibn Mihsan]] and [[Arfajah|Arfaja ibn Harthama]], joined by the Omani rulers Jaifar and Abd. The opposing armies met at the [[Battle of Dibba]] (now [[Dibba Al-Hisn|Dibba Al-Hisn, United Arab Emirates]]) where the rebels were decisively defeated. The victory restored Rashidun authority over Oman and secured the region's incorporation into the expanding Islamic state. ===Imamate of Oman=== {{Main|Imamate of Oman}} Omani [[Azd]] used to travel to [[Basra]] for trade, which was a centre of Islam, during the [[Umayyad]] empire. Omani Azd were granted a section of Basra, where they could settle and attend to their needs. Many of the Omani Azd who settled in Basra became wealthy merchants and, under their leader [[al-Muhallab ibn Abi Sufra]], started to expand their influence of power eastwards towards [[Greater Khorasan|Khorasan]]. [[Ibadism]] originated in Basra through its founder, [[Abdallah ibn Ibad|Abd Allah ibn Ibad]],{{Cite journal |date=December 1980 |title=10th Congress, Union Européenne des Arabisants et Islamisants |journal=Middle East Studies Association Bulletin |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=101–103 |doi=10.1017/s0026318400009196 |issn=0026-3184}} as a moderate branch of the Kharijites, an Islamic sect that split from the [[Muhakkima]]. These groups initially supported Imam [[Ali]] during the [[First Fitna]] but turned away after rejecting arbitration at the [[Battle of Siffin]] in AD 657. around the year 650; the Omani Azd in Iraq would subsequently adopt this as their predominant faith. Later, [[Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf|al-Hajjaj]], the governor of Iraq, came into conflict with the Ibadis, which forced them back to Oman. Among those who returned was the scholar [[Jābir ibn Zayd|Jaber bin Zaid]]. His return (and the return of many other scholars) greatly enhanced the Ibadhi movement in Oman. Alhajjaj also made an attempt to subjugate Oman, then ruled by Suleiman and Said (the sons of Abbad bin Julanda). Alhajjaj dispatched Mujjaah bin Shiwah, who was confronted by Said bin Abbad. This confrontation devastated Said's army, after which he and his forces retreated to the [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]] (mountains). Mujjaah and his forces went after Said, successfully flushing them out from hiding in Wadi Mastall. Mujjaah later moved towards the coast, where he confronted Suleiman bin Abbad. The battle was won by Suleiman's forces. Alhajjaj, however, sent another force (under Abdulrahman bin Suleiman); he eventually won the war, taking over the governance of Oman.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a5 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (164/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707173534/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a5 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 164. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a6 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (165/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308223226/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a6 |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 165. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a7 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (166/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707160958/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a7 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 166. QDL. [[File:Bahla Fort-109699.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Bahla Fort]], a UNESCO World Heritage site, was built between 12th and 15th c. by the [[Nabhani dynasty]].]] The first elective [[Imamate of Oman]] is believed to have been established shortly after the fall of the [[Umayyad Caliphate|Umayyad Dynasty]] in 750/755 CE, when Janaħ bin ʕibadah Alħinnawi was elected.Hans kruse. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/002088176500700404 Notes and Memoranda of Oman ''Hans kruse''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710031532/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/002088176500700404 |date=10 July 2022 }} Disturbances in Oman: Notes and Memoranda of Oman. Sage Journals. 1 October 1965. Other scholars claim that Janaħ bin Ibadah served as a [[Wāli]] (governor) under the Umayyad dynasty (and later ratified the Imamate), and that Julanda bin Masud was the first elected Imam of Oman, in 751 CE.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002f British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân (46/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220709004046/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00002f |date=9 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 46. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a9 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (168/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707171313/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x0000a9 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 168. QDL. The first Imamate reached its peak power in the ninth century CE. The Imamate established a maritime empire whose fleet controlled the Gulf, during the time when trade with the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasid Dynasty]], the Far East, and Africa flourished.J. C. Wilkinson. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1797273?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A6b134b0a9b7cd25d12a24320dde2af3e&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616160345/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1797273?read-now=1&refreqid=excelsior%3A6b134b0a9b7cd25d12a24320dde2af3e&seq=8#page_scan_tab_contents |date=16 June 2022 }} The Oman Question: The Background to the Political Geography of South-East Arabia. Pages 361–371. The Geographical Journal. JSTOR. 1971. The authority of the Imams started to decline due to power struggles, the constant interventions of Abbasid, and the rise of the [[Seljuk Empire]]. ===Nabhani dynasty=== {{further|Nabhani dynasty}} [[File:Nabhanids Map.svg|thumb|Map showing the area under control of the Nabhanids.]] During the 11th and 12th centuries, the Omani coast was in the sphere of influence of the [[Seljuk Empire]]. They were expelled in 1154, when the Nabhani dynasty came to power.Uzi Rabi. [https://books.google.com/books?id=3rgOk3d8hhoC&pg=PA6 Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur.] Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur. The Nabhanis ruled as ''muluk'', or kings, while the Imams were reduced to largely symbolic significance. The capital of the dynasty was [[Bahla]].{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UtSAeuMq-VgC&pg=PA24|title=Emergence of States in a Tribal Society: Oman Under Sa'Id Bin Taymur, 1932–1970|first=Uzi|last=Rabi|date=11 March 2011|publisher=Apollo Books|isbn=978-1-84519-473-4|via=Google Books}} The Banu Nabhan controlled the trade in frankincense on the overland route via [[Sohar]] to the [[Yabrin]] oasis, and then north to Bahrain, Baghdad and Damascus.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eNXdeDu6h9gC&pg=PA78|title=Arab/American: Landscape, Culture, and Cuisine in Two Great Deserts|first=Gary Paul|last=Nabhan|date=11 March 2008|publisher=University of Arizona Press|isbn=978-0-8165-2658-1|via=Google Books}} The mango-tree was introduced to Oman during the time of Nabhani dynasty, by Al-Falah bin Muhsin.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000037 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân ''(54/612)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708223932/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000037 |date=8 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 54. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697836.0x000003 British National Archive: History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân ''(202/612)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308174935/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697836.0x000003 |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of Omân. British National Archive. Page 202. QDL. The Nabhani dynasty started to deteriorate in 1507 when Portuguese colonisers captured the coastal city of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], and gradually extended their control along the coast up to Sohar in the north and down to [[Sur, Oman|Sur]] in the southeast.Gavin Thomas. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 The Rough Guide to Oman .] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035637/https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 |date=11 February 2023 }} The Rough Guide to Oman. Other historians argue that the Nabhani dynasty ended earlier in 1435 CE when conflicts between the dynasty and [[Hinawi|Hinawis]] arose, which led to the restoration of the elective Imamate. === Portuguese era === {{Main|Portuguese Oman}} [[File:MASCATE António Bocarro.png|thumb|Portuguese depiction of Muscat. The [[Portuguese Empire]] ruled [[Muscat|Oman]] for 143 years (1507–1650)]] A decade after [[Vasco da Gama]] succeeded in his voyage around the [[Cape of Good Hope]] and to India in 1497–1498, [[Afonso de Albuquerque]] captured Hormuz and Portugal governed Oman for a 143-year period, from 1507 to 1650.{{Cite web |title=Muscat {{!}} Silk Roads Programme |url=https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/content/muscat |access-date=2025-04-02 |website=en.unesco.org}} In need of an outpost to protect their sea lanes, the Portuguese built up and fortified Muscat. Remnants of Portuguese architectural style still exist. Later, several more Omani cities were colonised in the early 16th century by the Portuguese, to control the entrances of the [[Persian Gulf]] and trade in the region as part of a web of fortresses in the region, from [[Basra]] to [[Hormuz Island]]. The Ottomans contested the Persian Gulf and Oman from the Portuguese during the sixteenth century. In 1552 an [[Ottoman Navy|Ottoman fleet]] briefly [[Capture of Muscat (1552)|captured the fort in Muscat]], during their fight for control of the Persian Gulf and the Indian Ocean, but soon departed after destroying the surroundings of the fortress.Holt, Peter Malcolm; Lambton, Ann K. S. and Lewis, Bernard (1977) ''The Cambridge history of Islam'' Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|0521291364}}.{{Cite web |title=Muscat |url=https://phersu-atlas.com/chronology/polity2771.html |access-date=2025-04-02 |website=phersu-atlas.com}}{{Cite web |author1=Adam Feng |author2=Benny He |author3=Jiwon Kim |author4=Lola Shore |author5=Mark Istvan |author6=Ledeczi-Domonkos |author7=Sarah Walker |date=2021-12-22 |title=A Timeline of Asian Empires in the Early Modern Period |url=https://storymaps.arcgis.com/stories/9aa165d9f669454bb842934bdfc2fc60 |access-date=2025-04-02 |website=ArcGIS StoryMaps |language=en}} At the [[Battle of the Gulf of Oman]], the Portuguese decisively routed an Ottoman fleet.Frederick Charles Danvers: ''The Portuguese in India'', volume 1, 1894, W. H. Allen & Co., London, p. 502. Later in the 17th century, using its bases in Oman, Portugal engaged in the [[Battle off Hormuz (1625)|largest naval battle ever fought in the Persian Gulf]]. The [[Portuguese Empire|Portuguese]] force fought against a combined armada of the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC) and [[English East India Company]] supported by the Safavid empire. The result of the battle was a draw but it resulted in the loss of Portuguese influence in the Gulf.Willem Floor, "Dutch Relations with the Persian Gulf", in Lawrence G. Potter (ed.), ''The Persian Gulf in History'' (Palgrave Macmillan, 2009) p. 240 ===Yaruba dynasty (1624–1744)=== {{further|Omani Empire}} [[File:Areas under Omani influence 18th-19th century.svg|thumb|Following the expulsion of the [[Portuguese Empire]], Oman became one of the powers in the western Indian Ocean from 1698 onwards.Oman Country Profile. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/country-profile-oman Oman Country Profile.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190720161203/https://www.qdl.qa/en/country-profile-oman |date=20 July 2019 }} British Library Partnership. Qatar Digital Library. 2014.]] During the 17th century, the Omanis were reunited by the [[Yaruba dynasty|Yaruba Imams]]. [[Nasir bin Murshid]] became the first Yaarubah Imam in 1624, when he was elected in [[Rustaq]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000039|title='History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856; translated from the original Arabic, and edited with notes, appendices, and an introduction, continuing the history down to 1870, by George Percy Badger, F.R.G.S., late chaplain in the Presidency of Bombay.' [23] (56/612)|date=22 October 2014|website=Qatar Digital Library|access-date=6 September 2019|archive-date=7 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707154525/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000039|url-status=live}} Imam Nasir and his successor succeeded in the 1650s in expelling the Portuguese from their coastal domains in Oman.Majid Alkhalili. [https://books.google.com/books?id=UAKrCQAAQBAJ&dq=ghaleb+al+hinai&pg=PA23 Majid Alkhalili: ''Oman's Foreign Policy''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413204038/https://books.google.com/books?id=UAKrCQAAQBAJ&dq=ghaleb+al+hinai&pg=PA23 |date=13 April 2023 }} Oman's Foreign Policy: Foundation and Practice. 19 May 2009. Praeger. The Omanis over time established a maritime empire that pursued the Portuguese and expelled them from all their possessions in East Africa, which were then incorporated into the Omani domains. To capture Zanzibar [[Saif bin Sultan]], the [[Imam]] of Oman, pressed down the [[Swahili Coast]]. A major obstacle to his progress was [[Fort Jesus]], housing the garrison of a Portuguese settlement at [[Mombasa]]. After a two-year siege, the fort fell to Imam Saif bin Sultan in 1698. Saif bin Sultan occupied Bahrain in 1700. === Civil war (1718-1744) === {{Main|Omani Civil War (1718–1744)}} Following the death of Imam [[Sultan bin Saif II]], the Omani Empire was plunged into civil war in 1718 which weakened the dynasty as rival claimants competed for the imamate. With the power of the Yaruba Dynasty dwindling, Imam Saif eventually asked for help against his rivals from [[Nader Shah]] of Persia whose forces occupied parts of the country on two occasions between 1737 and 1744. The civil war ultimately ended with the election of [[Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi|Ahmad bin Said Al Busaidi]] as imam in 1744, marking the collapse of the Ya'aruba dynasty and the establishment of the Al Bu Said dynasty, which has ruled Oman ever since.Stefan Siebert. [https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 The Rough Guide to Oman.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035637/https://books.google.com/books?id=qKAtjJoXXpwC&pg=PA222 |date=11 February 2023 }} The Rough Guide to Oman. 2011. === 18th and 19th centuries === [[File:Dares 222.jpg|left|thumb|The [[Palace Museum, Zanzibar|Sultan's Palace]] in [[Zanzibar]], which was once Oman's capital and residence of its sultans]] After the Omanis expelled the [[Persians]], Ahmad bin Said became the elected Imam of Oman on 20 November 1744, with [[Rustaq]] serving as the capital. His dynasty, the Al Bu Said, continues to rule Oman into the year 2026. Since the revival of the Imamate, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000054 History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (83/612) ''British National Archive''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310085008/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000054|date=10 March 2021}} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 83. QDL. Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, [[Said bin Ahmad Al Busaidi|Said bin Ahmed]], became the elected Imam. Said's son, [[Hamad bin Said|Hamed bin Said]], overthrew the governor of Muscat and soon obtained the possession of most of the fortresses in the region, giving himself the title of "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid [[Sultan bin Ahmad|Sultan bin Ahmed]], the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Sultan's son, Seyyid [[Said bin Sultan]], succeeded him.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000057 History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (86/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707162506/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000057 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 86. QDL.Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005d History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (92/612) ''British National Archive''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707160946/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005d |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 92. QDL. During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed, who retained the title until he died in 1803, [[Azzan bin Qais]] was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, [[Turki bin Said|Sayyid Turki]], a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan and brother of [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar]], who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.Robert Geran Landen. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598849?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710035950/https://www.jstor.org/stable/598849?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents |date=10 July 2022 }} Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Pages 581–583. JSTOR. 1970. Vol. 90, No. 4. Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over [[Gwadar]], an area of modern-day Pakistan.In 1783, when Seyyid Said succeeded to the "masnad" of Muscat and Oman (an independent state founded in 1749), he fell out with his brother Imam Sultan, who fled to safety in Makran and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat. Said was granted the Kalat share of the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he came to rule over Muscat and Oman.{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com.pk/weekly/cowas/20050911.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609072245/http://www.dawn.com.pk/weekly/cowas/20050911.htm |archive-date=9 June 2010 |title=DAWN – Cowasjee Corner; September 11, 2005 |first=Ardeshir |last=Cowasjee |date=11 September 2005 |publisher=DAWN Group of Newspapers |access-date=27 July 2010 }} ==== British protectorate status ==== The [[British Empire]] was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century. The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection.{{cite news |url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-oman-1750|title=A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman Since 1750 |author=Dr Francis Owtram |publisher=QDL|date=11 December 2014 |access-date=27 July 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192336/https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-omamn-1750 |url-status=live}} 2014. In 1798, the first treaty between the British [[East India Company]] and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at [[Bandar Abbas]].[Joseph A. Kechichian "Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy" RAND 1995]Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005a History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (89/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308153139/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005a |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 89. QDL. A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states. As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century. {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 220 | image1 = Muscat Squadron.png | caption1 = A [[Royal Navy|British naval squadron]] in [[Muscat]] c,1870Muscat and the Monsoon. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/muscat-and-monsoon British National Archive: Muscat and the Monsoon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145949/https://www.qdl.qa/en/muscat-and-monsoon |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. QDL. }} In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani [[Kuria Muria]] islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government.A Collection of Treaties and Engagements. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x000037 British National Archives: ''A Collection of Treaties and Engagements relating to the Persian Gulf Shaikhdoms and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman in force up to the End of 1953' [26v] (54/92)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706133302/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x000037 |date=6 July 2022 }} British National Archives. Page 54. QDL. The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.Historical Summary of Events. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000be British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events 189/222] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308180039/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000be |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 189. QDL. Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, [[Lewis Pelly]] and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance. By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters.Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c0 British National Archive: Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308205414/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c0 |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 191. QDL.The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur.[https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur British National Archive: The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111194717/https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur |date=11 November 2020 }} British National Archive. QDL. The Sultanate thus came ''de facto'' under the British sphere. Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main [[Indian Ocean slave trade|slave market]] of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid [[Sa'id ibn Sultan|Sa'id bin Sultan]], to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694640?read-now=1&seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents E. C. B. MacLaurin "Oman and the Trucial Coast"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117102818/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694640?read-now=1&seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents |date=17 January 2023 }} Oman and the Trucial Coast. Pages 65–76. The Australian Quarterly. JSTOR. 1958. ==== Treaty of Seeb ==== [[File:Maskat & Oman map.png|thumb|left|The split between the interior region (orange) and the coastal region (red) of Oman and Muscat]] The [[Hajar Mountains]], of which the [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]] is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat.{{cite web |title=Western Hajar |url=https://www.oman.de/en/about-oman/geography/west-hajar/ |publisher=Oman.de |access-date=21 August 2026}} The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman. The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals.Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000015 British National Archive: File 8/67 Muscat State Affairs: Muscat– Oman Treaty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708103001/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000015 |date=8 July 2022 }} British National Archive. File 8/67. Page 20. QDL. In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the [[Treaty of Seeb]]. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognised the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the [[Muscat and Oman|Sultanate of Muscat]].{{cite web |title=Jebel Akhdar |publisher=Britain's Small Wars |access-date=10 April 2012 |url=http://www.britains-smallwars.com/SAS/JebelAkhdar.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917071704/http://www.britains-smallwars.com/SAS/JebelAkhdar.html |archive-date=17 September 2013 }}Muscat Rising. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000033 British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707112144/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000033 |date=7 July 2022 }} British National Archive QDLOman profile – Timeline. {{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492|title=BBC Middle East: Oman profile – Timeline (25 April 2018)|publisher=BBC News|date=25 April 2018|access-date=2 August 2019|archive-date=11 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611185919/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492|url-status=live}} 25 April 2018. In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected. On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British [[Political officer (British Empire)|political agent]] residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the [[British Raj|High Government of India]] to extract oil in the Sultanate.Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x00003d ''Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309043538/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x00003d |date=9 March 2021 }} British National Archives page 60 QDL On 31 July 1928, the [[Red Line Agreement]] was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-[[Ottoman Empire]] region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while [[Calouste Gulbenkian]] held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] (IPC).The 1928 Red Line Agreement. [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/red-line United States Office of the Historian: The 1928 Red Line Agreement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717191817/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/red-line |date=17 July 2019 }} United States Office of the Historian. On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.Muscat Rising. [http://qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000bf British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225054303/https://qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000bf |date=25 February 2021 }} British National Archive page 190 QDL === Reign of Sultan Said (1932–1970) === [[File:Said bin Taimur (cropped).png|thumb|right|upright|Sultan [[Said bin Taimur]] ruled from 1932 to 1970]] [[Said bin Taimur]] became the sultan of Muscat officially on 10 February 1932. The rule of sultan Said, a very complex character, was backed by the British government, and has been characterised as being [[feudal]], [[reactionary]] and isolationist. The British government maintained vast administrative control over the Sultanate as the defence secretary and chief of intelligence, chief adviser to the sultan and all ministers except for two were British.Ian Cobain. [https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/08/britains-secret-wars-oman The Guardian: Britain's secret wars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160930170522/https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2016/sep/08/britains-secret-wars-oman |date=30 September 2016 }} Britain's Secret Wars. ''The Guardian''. 8 September 2016.Fred Halliday. [https://books.google.com/books?id=VkYhBQAAQBAJ&dq=Fred%20Halliday%20arabia&pg=PT19 Arabia by Fred Halliday] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406013854/https://books.google.com/books?id=VkYhBQAAQBAJ&dq=Fred%20Halliday%20arabia&pg=PT19 |date=6 April 2023 }} Arabia. The Arabian Peninsula. Saqi Books. University of California. published 1974. In 1937, an agreement between the sultan and [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] (IPC), a consortium of oil companies that was 23.75% British owned, was signed to grant oil concessions to IPC. After failing to discover oil in the Sultanate, IPC was intensely interested in some promising geological formations near [[Fahud]], an area located within the Imamate. IPC offered financial support to the sultan to raise an armed force against any potential resistance by the Imamate.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wkUhBQAAQBAJ&q=moff+oman&pg=PT59|title=Oman's Insurgencies: The Sultanate's Struggle for Supremacy|first=J. E.|last=Peterson|date=2 January 2013|publisher=Saqi|access-date=29 April 2018|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-86356-702-5|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035638/https://books.google.com/books?id=wkUhBQAAQBAJ&q=moff+oman&pg=PT59|url-status=live}}Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf. {{cite web|url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415996.0x000009|title=British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events in the Persian Gulf (208/222)|publisher=QDL|date=30 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723150646/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415996.0x000009|archive-date=23 July 2019}} British National Archive. Page 208. Upon the outbreak of [[World War II]], the sultan of Oman declared war on Germany on September 10, 1939. During the war, Oman had a strategic role in the defence of the United Kingdom's trade routes. Oman was never attacked during the war. In 1943, the [[Royal Air Force]] established stations on [[Masirah Island]] ([[RAF Masirah]]) and at [[Ras al Hadd]]. [[Air-sea rescue]] units were also stationed in Oman. [[No. 244 Squadron RAF]] flew [[Bristol Blenheim V]] [[light bomber]]s and [[Vickers Wellington XIII]]s out of RAF Masirah on anti-submarine duties in the Gulf of Oman and the northern [[Arabian Sea]], while [[No. 209 Squadron RAF]], [[No. 265 Squadron RAF]], and [[No. 321 Squadron RAF]] flew [[Consolidated PBY Catalina]]s out of Umm Ruşayş on Masirah Island. On October 16, 1943, the German [[U-Boat]] ''[[German submarine U-533|U-533]]'' was sunk in the Gulf of Oman after being struck by [[depth charge]]s dropped by a Bristol Blenheim from No. 244 Squadron RAF. The wreck settled at a depth of 108 meters (354 feet) approximately 25 nautical miles (46 kilometres) off the [[Fujairah]] coast. 52 crew members died, with the sole survivor, ''[[Matrosengefreiter]]'' Günther Schmidt, taken aboard HMIS ''Hiravati'' near [[Khor Fakkan]] and made a [[prisoner of war]]. The wreck is now a popular recreational diving site. The December 1951 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation (covering commerce, oil reserves and navigation) between Oman and the United Kingdom recognised the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman as a fully independent state. In 1955, the [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] coastal [[Makran]] strip acceded to Pakistan and was made a district of its [[Balochistan (Pakistan)|Balochistan province]], while [[Gwadar]] remained in Oman. On 8 September 1958, Pakistan [[Gwadar Purchase|purchased the Gwadar enclave]] from Oman for [[United States dollar|US$]]3 million.Gwadar remained an Omani possession as part of the Sultanate until September 1958{{cite web |url=http://www.oman.org/bonn_007.htm |title=International trade networks: The Omani Enclave of Gwadar – Conference on German and International Research on Oman, Bonn 1998: abstracts |author=Nicolin, Beatrice |date=25 May 1998 |publisher=Conference on German and International Research on Oman |location=Bonn |access-date=27 July 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200104031644/http://www.oman.org/bonn_007.htm |archive-date=4 January 2020}} Gwadar then became a [[tehsil]] in the Makran district. ====Jebel Akhdar War==== {{further|Jebel Akhdar War}} [[File:Shackleton flying in formation near Masirah.png|thumb|[[Avro Shackleton|Shackleton]] of the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] flying in formation near Masirah Airbase during the Jebel Akhdar War]] Sultan Said bin Taimur expressed his interest in occupying the Imamate right after the death of Imam Alkhalili, thus taking advantage of any potential instability that might occur within the Imamate when elections were due, to the British government.Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x000046 A.C.Gallowey: ''File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman' [35r] (69/296)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308132954/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x000046 |date=8 March 2021 }} Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman. British National Archive. Page 69. QDL. The British political agent in Muscat believed that the only method of gaining access to the oil reserves in the interior was by assisting the sultan in taking over the Imamate.Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x00009a British Consulate Muscat: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308161726/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776091.0x00009a |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. File 8/62. Page 153. 25 May 1946. QDL. In 1946, the British government offered arms and ammunition, auxiliary supplies and officers to prepare the sultan to attack the interior of Oman.Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776092.0x00005c The Foreign Office London: File 8/62 Muscat State Affairs: Principal Shaikhs and Tribes of Oman [146r] (291/296).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308185519/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100055776092.0x00005c |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 291. QDL. In May 1954, Imam Alkhalili died and [[Ghalib Alhinai]] was elected Imam.{{cite book|last=Peterson|first=John E.|title=Oman in the Twentieth Century: Political Foundations of an Emerging State|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YsUOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA182|publisher=Croom Helm|page=182|isbn=978-0-85664-629-4|year=1978}} Relations between the Sultan Said bin Taimur, and Imam Ghalib Alhinai frayed over their dispute about oil concessions. In December 1955, Sultan Said bin Taimur sent troops of the Muscat and Oman Field Force to occupy the main centres in Oman, including [[Nizwa]], the capital of the Imamate of Oman, and [[Ibri]].Liquid Oman: oil, water, and causality in Southern Arabia. [https://rai.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1467-9655.12398 Liquid Oman: oil, water, and causality in Southern Arabia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117111638/https://rai.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/1467-9655.12398 |date=17 January 2023 }} Royal Anthropological Institute. P. 147–162. 2016. City University of New York. The Omanis in the interior led by Imam Ghalib Alhinai, Talib Alhinai, the brother of the Imam and the Wali (governor) of Rustaq, and Suleiman bin Hamyar, who was the Wali (governor) of Jebel Akhdar, defended the Imamate in the [[Jebel Akhdar War]] against British-backed attacks by the Sultanate. In July 1957, the Sultan's forces were withdrawing, but they were repeatedly ambushed, sustaining heavy casualties. Sultan Said, however, with the intervention of British infantry (two companies of the [[Cameronians (Scottish Rifles)|Cameronians]]), armoured car detachments from the British Army and [[RAF]] aircraft, was able to suppress the rebellion.{{cite book|last=Ryan|first=Mike|title=Secret Operations of the Sas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z8fiduMeiYAC&pg=PA68|publisher=Zenith Imprint|pages=68–70|year=2003|isbn=978-0-7603-1414-2}}{{Dead link|date=July 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} The Imamate's forces retreated to the inaccessible [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]]. Colonel [[David Smiley]], who had been seconded to organise the Sultan's Armed Forces, managed to isolate the mountain in autumn 1958 and found a route to the plateau from Wadi Bani Kharus. On 4 August 1957, the British Foreign Secretary gave the approval to carry out air strikes without prior warning to the locals residing in the interior of Oman. Between July and December 1958, the British RAF made 1,635 raids, dropping 1,094 tons and firing 900 rockets at the interior of Oman targeting insurgents, mountain top villages, water channels and crops.Mark Curtis. [http://markcurtis.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/pro.Oman-1957-9.-Declassified.pdf British National Archives.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303221405/http://markcurtis.info/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/pro.Oman-1957-9.-Declassified.pdf |date=3 March 2021 }} Oman 1957-9. British National Archives. 2017. On 27 January 1959, the Sultanate's forces occupied the mountain in a surprise operation. Imam Ghalib, his brother Talib and Sulaiman managed to escape to [[Saudi Arabia]], where the Imamate's cause was promoted until the 1970s.{{cite book|last=Owtram|first=Francis|title=A Modern History of Oman: Formation of the State since 1920|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=41h0bXfVtfYC&pg=PA106|publisher=I.B.Tauris|page=106|year=2004|isbn=978-1-86064-617-1}} The exiled partisans of the now abolished Imamate of Oman presented the case of Oman to the [[Arab League]] and the United Nations.The Last Imam of Oman. [http://archive.arabic.cnn.com/2009/middle_east/12/1/imam.oman/index.html CNN Arabic: وفاة آخر أئمة عُمان في منفاه السياسي بالسعودية] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411114926/http://archive.arabic.cnn.com/2009/middle_east/12/1/imam.oman/index.html |date=11 April 2022 }} CNN Arabic News. 1 December 2009. Muscat, Oman.10 Arab States Ask U.N. Debate On Oman. [https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/01/archives/10-arab-states-ask-un-debate-on-oman.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FOman The New York Times. 01 October 1960.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117112308/https://www.nytimes.com/1960/10/01/archives/10-arab-states-ask-un-debate-on-oman.html?rref=collection%2Ftimestopic%2FOman |date=17 January 2023 }} ''The New York Times''. On 11 December 1963, the UN General Assembly decided to establish an Ad-Hoc Committee on Oman to study the 'Question of Oman' and report back to the General Assembly.Question of Oman. [https://search.archives.un.org/uploads/r/united-nations-archives/0/9/5/0958bfcb1caaade73cd80426845d3d2743e4225cf8a9476b5783f22427ca28ec/S-0884-0014-13-00001.pdf United Nations Archives.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210818110603/https://search.archives.un.org/uploads/r/united-nations-archives/0/9/5/0958bfcb1caaade73cd80426845d3d2743e4225cf8a9476b5783f22427ca28ec/S-0884-0014-13-00001.pdf |date=18 August 2021 }} United Nations Archives. The UN General Assembly adopted the 'Question of Oman' resolution in 1965, 1966 and again in 1967 that called upon the British government to cease all repressive action against the locals, end British control over Oman and reaffirmed the inalienable right of the Omani people to self-determination and independence.20th Session Adopted Resolutions. [https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/20 United Nations: ''20th Session Adopted Resolutions''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517102749/https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/20 |date=17 May 2022 }} United Nations. 20 September – 20 December 1965.2073 Question of Oman. [https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2073(XX) United Nations: ''2073 Question of Oman''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308050835/https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2073(XX) |date=8 March 2021 }} United Nations. 17 December 1965.2302 Question of Oman. [https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2302(XXII) United Nations: ''2302 Question of Oman''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026094228/https://undocs.org/en/A/RES/2302(XXII) |date=26 October 2021 }} United Nations. 12 December 1967.22nd Session Adopted Resolutions. [https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/22 United Nations: ''22nd Session Adopted Resolutions''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220517102610/https://research.un.org/en/docs/ga/quick/regular/22 |date=17 May 2022 }} United Nations. 19 September – 19 December 1967.{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/112.pdf|title=UN 2238 Question of Oman Resolution (1966)|author=UN General Assembly|publisher=worldlii|access-date=27 August 2019|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307184811/http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/112.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/|title=UN Adopted Resolutions (1966)|author=UN General Assembly|publisher=worldlii|access-date=27 August 2019|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425044515/http://www.worldlii.org/int/other/UNGA/1966/|url-status=live}} ====Dhofar War==== {{further|Dhofar War}} In the [[Dhofar War]], which began in 1963, pro-[[Soviet Union|Soviet]] forces were pitted against government troops. As the rebellion threatened the Sultan's control of [[Dhofar]], Sultan Said bin Taimur was deposed in a [[1970 Omani coup d'état|bloodless coup]] in 1970 by his son [[Qaboos bin Said]] with [[United Kingdom|British]] support. Qaboos expanded the [[Sultan of Oman's Armed Forces]], modernised the state's administration and introduced social reforms. The uprising was finally put down in 1976 with the help of forces from Jordan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan and Britain.{{Citation needed|date=August 2025}} ===Omani Renaissance (1970–present)=== {{Main|Omani Renaissance}} [[File:Qaboos bin Said profile 1983 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Sultan [[Qaboos bin Said]], whose reign saw a rise in living standards and development, the [[Slavery in Oman|abolition of slavery]], the end of the [[Dhofar War|Dhofar Rebellion]], and the promulgation of Oman's constitution.]] After [[1970 Omani coup d'état|deposing his father in 1970]], [[Sultan Qaboos]] opened up the country, removed "Muscat and" from the country's name, embarked on economic reforms, and followed a policy of modernisation marked by increased spending on health, education and welfare, marking the beginning of the [[Omani Renaissance]].{{cite news|title=Happy and rich in an Omani toytown|url=https://www.economist.com/international/2000/08/31/happy-and-rich-in-an-omani-toytown|newspaper=The Economist|date=31 August 2000|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181121042946/https://www.economist.com/international/2000/08/31/happy-and-rich-in-an-omani-toytown?zid=308&ah=e21d923f9b263c5548d5615da3d30f4d|archive-date=21 November 2018}} Saudi Arabia invested in the development of the Omani education system, sending Saudi teachers on its own expense.{{Cite book |last=الفالح |first=عبدالعزيز بن عبدالله |title=كنت طالبا في عمان |publisher=دار الثلوثية |year=2021 |isbn=978-603-03-6298-1 |language=ar}}{{Cite web |title=بعد 38 عاماً.. طلاب من سلطنة عمان يزورون معلمهم في السعودية |url=https://www.al-jazirah.com/2017/20170116/ln57.htm |access-date=2023-09-16 |website=www.al-jazirah.com |archive-date=3 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240103085547/https://www.al-jazirah.com/2017/20170116/ln57.htm |url-status=live }} [[Indian Ocean slave trade|Slavery]], once a cornerstone of the country's trade and development, was outlawed in 1970.{{cite web| url=http://www.al-fanarmedia.org/2017/03/omani-music-masks-unpleasant-past/| title=Omani Music Masks A Slave Trading Past| author=Benjamin Plackett| date=30 March 2017| publisher=Al-Fanar Media| access-date=17 July 2017| archive-date=17 January 2023| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117102831/https://al-fanarmedia.org/2017/03/omani-music-masks-unpleasant-past/| url-status=live}} In 1971, Oman joined the United Nations, along with Bahrain, Qatar and the United Arab Emirates.{{cite web|title= Sultanate marks 50 years of joining the United Nations|url= https://www.omanobserver.om/article/1107772/oman/community/sultanate-marks-50-years-of-joining-the-united-nations|website=Muscat Daily|date=6 October 2021|access-date=7 December 2025}} In 1981, Oman became a founding member of the six-nation [[Gulf Cooperation Council]]. Political reforms were eventually introduced. The country adopted its present [[Flag of Oman|national flag]] in 1995, resembling the previous flag but with a thicker stripe. In 1997, a royal decree was issued granting women the right to vote, and stand for election to the Majlis al-Shura, the [[Consultative Assembly of Oman]]. Two women were duly elected to the body. In 2002, voting rights were extended to all citizens over the age of 21, and the first elections to the Consultative Assembly under the new rules were held in 2003. In 2004, the Sultan appointed Oman's first female minister with portfolio, [[Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel|Sheikha Aisha bint Khalfan bin Jameel al-Sayabiyah]], to the post of National Authority for Industrial Craftsmanship.{{cite web|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2818553.stm|title=Oman appoints first female minister|website=BBC News|date=4 March 2003|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190917115643/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2818553.stm|archive-date=17 September 2019}} Despite these changes, there was little change to the actual political makeup of the government. The Sultan continued to rule by decree. Nearly 100 suspected Islamists were arrested in 2005 and 31 people were convicted of trying to overthrow the government. They were ultimately pardoned in June of the same year. Before the [[2008 Summer Olympics|Beijing Olympics]], Oman became the stop of the Middle East's [[2008 Summer Olympics torch relay|torch relay]] on 14 April 2008, covering 20 kilometres.{{cite web|title= Security tight as Olympic torch reaches Oman|url= https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/apr/14/olympicgames2008.china1|website=The Guardian|date=14 April 2008|last=Stratton|first=Allegra|access-date=7 December 2025}} Inspired by the [[Arab Spring]] uprisings that were taking place throughout the region, [[2011 Omani protests|protests occurred in Oman]] during the early months of 2011. While they did not call for the ousting of the regime, demonstrators demanded political reforms, improved living conditions and the creation of more jobs. They were dispersed by riot police in February 2011. Sultan Qaboos reacted by promising jobs and benefits. In October 2011, elections were held to the Consultative Assembly, to which Sultan Qaboos promised greater powers. The following year, the government began a crackdown on internet criticism. In September 2012, trials began of 'activists' accused of posting "abusive and provocative" criticism of the government online. Six were given jail terms.{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654492 |title=Oman profile – Timeline |work=BBC News |date=11 September 2012 |access-date=18 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510071946/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654492|archive-date=10 May 2019}} In 2013, Oman achieved its status as the elimination of [[malaria]] diagnoses, according to the [[World Health Organization|World Health Organisation]] (WHO).World malaria report 2021. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2021. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. p. 47. Qaboos, at the time the Arab world's longest-serving ruler, died on 10 January 2020.{{cite news|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50902476|title= Sultan Qaboos of Oman dies aged 79|date = 11 January 2020|access-date = 10 January 2020|work = [[BBC News]]|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200405082103/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50902476|archive-date = 5 April 2020}} He was succeeded by his first cousin [[Haitham bin Tariq]].{{cite web|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1611351/middle-east|title=Haitham bin Tariq appointed new ruler of Oman|website=Arab News|date=11 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200113223453/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1611351/middle-east|archive-date=13 January 2020}} On 12 January 2021, Haitham named his eldest son, [[Theyazin bin Haitham]], as the country's first [[Crown Prince of Oman|crown prince]] and heir to the throne with an amendment to the [[Basic Statute of Oman|Basic Statute]].{{Cite web |date=12 January 2021 |title=Sultan Haitham appoints son Theyazin as Oman's first Crown Prince |url=https://gulfnews.com/world/gulf/oman/sultan-haitham-appoints-son-theyazin-as-omans-first-crown-prince-1.1610463211104 |access-date=2021-01-13 |website=Gulf News |language=en}} == Geography == {{Main|Geography of Oman}} [[File:Elphinstone Inlet.webp|thumb|right|[[Topographic map]] of the [[Musandam Peninsula]], near the [[Strait of Hormuz]], and showing the [[Elphinstone Inlet]] and Malcolm's Inlet]] [[File:Oman-Oasis.jpg|thumb|right|An [[oasis]] in Oman]] [[File:SurOman.jpg|thumb|right|The coast of [[Sur, Oman]]]] Oman lies between latitudes [[16th parallel north]] and [[28th parallel north]], and longitudes [[52nd meridian east]] and [[60th meridian east]]. A gravel desert plain covers most of central Oman, with mountain ranges along the north ([[Hajar Mountains]]) and southeast coast ([[Dhofar Mountains]]),{{cite web|url=http://home.kpn.nl/~lilian_schreurs/GeologyOman/Geography.htm|title=Oman Geography 2007|website=home.kpn.nl|access-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180925214427/http://home.kpn.nl/~lilian_schreurs/GeologyOman/Geography.htm|archive-date=25 September 2018}}{{cite web|url=http://thenextchallenge.org/dhofar-mountains-oman/|title=Expedition Report: Dhofar Mountains Oman|date=30 April 2011|access-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010160746/http://thenextchallenge.org/dhofar-mountains-oman/|archive-date=10 October 2017}} where the country's main cities are located: the capital city [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], [[Sohar]] and [[Sur, Oman|Sur]] in the north, and [[Salalah]] in the south and [[Musandam Governorate|Musandam]]. Oman's climate is hot and dry in the interior and humid along the coast. The peninsula of [[Musandam Peninsula|Musandam]] (Musandem), strategically located on the [[Strait of Hormuz]], is an [[enclave and exclave|exclave]] separated from the rest of Oman by the [[United Arab Emirates]].{{cite web|first=Jan S.|last=Krogh|title=Oman|url=http://geosite.jankrogh.com/oman.htm|publisher=jankrogh.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190504144207/http://geosite.jankrogh.com/oman.htm|archive-date=4 May 2019}} [[Madha]], another exclave, is an enclave within UAE territory located halfway between the Musandam Peninsula and the main body of Oman. Madha, part of the Musandam governorate, covers approximately {{convert|75|km2|sqmi}}. Madha's boundary was settled in 1969, with the north-east corner of Madha barely {{convert|10|m|ft}} from the [[Fujairah]] road. Within the Madha exclave is a UAE [[enclave and exclave|enclave]] called [[Nahwa]], belonging to the [[Emirate of Sharjah]], situated about {{convert|8|km|mi}} west of the town of New Madha, and consisting of about forty houses with a clinic and telephone exchange.{{Cite web|url=http://geosite.jankrogh.com/nahwa.htm|title=Nahwa – United Arab Emirates|website=geosite.jankrogh.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190509075149/http://geosite.jankrogh.com/nahwa.htm|archive-date=9 May 2019}} The central desert of Oman is a source of [[meteorite]]s for scientific analysis.4th Swiss Geoscience Meeting, Bern 2006. Meteorite accumulation surfaces in Oman: Main results of. Omani-Swiss meteorite search campaigns, 2001–2006. by Beda Hofmann et al. === Climate === {{Main|Climate of Oman}} [[File:Water_stress,_top_countries_(2022).svg|thumb|right|Oman was the fifteenth most water stressed country in the world in 2022.]] Like the rest of the Persian Gulf, Oman generally has one of the hottest climates in the world—with summer temperatures in Muscat and northern Oman averaging {{convert|30|to|40|°C|°F|1}}.{{cite web|url=http://www.world-climates.com/city-climate-muscat-seeb-oman-asia/|title=Muscat (Seeb) Climate Oman|publisher=www.world-climates.com|access-date=11 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407184445/http://www.world-climates.com/city-climate-muscat-seeb-oman-asia/|archive-date=7 April 2014}} Oman receives [[Geography of Oman|little rainfall]], with annual rainfall in Muscat averaging {{convert|100|mm|in|1|abbr=on}}, occurring mostly in January. In the south, the [[Dhofar]] Mountains area near Salalah has a tropical-like climate and receives seasonal rainfall from late June to late September as a result of monsoon winds from the Indian Ocean, leaving the summer air saturated with cool moisture and heavy fog.{{cite web|title=Oman—Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles|url=http://www.fao.org/ag/AGP/AGPC/doc/Counprof/oman/oman.htm|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization|access-date=28 January 2013|archive-date=25 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625103114/http://www.fao.org/ag/agp/agpc/doc/counprof/oman/oman.htm}} Summer temperatures in [[Salalah]] range from {{convert|20|to|30|°C|°F|1}}—relatively cool compared to northern Oman.{{cite web|url=http://www.world-climates.com/city-climate-salalah-oman-asia/|title=Salalah Climate – Climate of Salalah Oman |publisher=world-climates.com|access-date=11 July 2016|archive-date=9 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809022402/http://www.world-climates.com/city-climate-salalah-oman-asia/}} The mountain areas receive more rainfall, and annual rainfall on the higher parts of the [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jabal Akhdar]] probably exceeds {{convert|400|mm|in}}.{{cite news|title=Weather—Oman|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/hi/country_guides/newsid_9384000/9384206.stm|publisher=BBC|access-date=21 January 2013|archive-date=24 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130124194941/http://news.bbc.co.uk/weather/hi/country_guides/newsid_9384000/9384206.stm}} Low temperatures in the mountainous areas leads to snow cover once every few years.[http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/oman/snow-blankets-oman-s-mountains-as-temperatures-drop-1.1291760 Snow blankets Oman's mountains as temperatures drop] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413130158/http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/oman/snow-blankets-oman-s-mountains-as-temperatures-drop-1.1291760 |date=13 April 2014 }}. ''Gulf News'' (16 February 2014). Retrieved 20 April 2014. Some parts of the coast, particularly near the island of [[Masirah]], sometimes receive no rain at all within the course of a year. The climate is generally very hot, with temperatures reaching around {{convert|54|°C|°F|1|abbr=}} (peak) in the hot season, from May to September.{{Cite book|title=Philip's encyclopedia|publisher=Philip's|year=2008}} On 26 June 2018, the village of [[Qurayyat, Oman|Qurayyat]] set the record for highest minimum temperature in a 24-hour period, 42.6 °C (108.7 °F).{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/hottest-low-temperature-quriyat-oman-wxc/index.html|title=Quriyat in Oman breaks world temperature record|publisher=CNN|year=2018|access-date=29 July 2018|archive-date=3 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703080312/http://edition.cnn.com/travel/article/hottest-low-temperature-quriyat-oman-wxc/index.html|url-status=live}} In terms of climate action, major challenges remain to be solved, per the United Nations Sustainable Development 2019 index. The per-capita CO2 emissions from energy and embodied in fossil fuel exports rates are very high, while imported CO2 emissions and percent of population affected by climate-related disasters are low. ==== Wadis ==== {{Main|List of wadis of Oman}} Oman possesses many [[wadi]]s (Arabic term for river valley) that can temporarily fill with water when rain occurs. === Biodiversity === [[File:Nakhalfarms.jpg|thumb|left|Nakhal palm tree farms in Oman's Al Batinah Region]] [[File:The-Worlds-Most-Isolated-and-Distinct-Whale-Population-Humpback-Whales-of-the-Arabian-Sea-pone.0114162.s001.tif|thumb|right|Non-migratory Arabian Sea [[humpback whales]] off [[Dhofar]]]] [[Desert shrub]] and desert grass, common in southern Arabia, are found in Oman, but vegetation is sparse in the interior plateau, which is largely [[gravel]] desert. The greater monsoon rainfall in Dhofar and the mountains makes the growth there more luxuriant during summer; [[coconut palm]]s grow plentifully on the coastal plains of Dhofar and [[frankincense]] is produced in the hills, with abundant [[oleander]] and varieties of [[acacia]]. The Hajar Mountains are a distinct [[ecoregion]], the highest points in eastern Arabia, with [[wildlife]] that includes the [[Arabian tahr]]. [[Indigenous (ecology)|Indigenous]] [[mammal]]s include the [[Arabian leopard]], [[striped hyena]], [[Vulpes|fox]], [[Arabian wolf]], [[Cape hare]], [[Arabian oryx]] and [[Nubian ibex]]. Birds include the vulture, eagle, stork, bustard, [[Arabian partridge]], [[Bee-eater|bee eater]], falcon and sunbird. In 2001, Oman had nine endangered species of mammals, five endangered types of birds,{{Cite web|title=BirdLife Data Zone|url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/results?cty=160&hdnAction=ADV_SEARCH&rec=N&rlEN=Y&vag=N&so=rl|access-date=11 August 2021|publisher=datazone.birdlife.org|archive-date=9 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009210519/http://datazone.birdlife.org/species/results?cty=160&hdnAction=ADV_SEARCH&rec=N&rlEN=Y&vag=N&so=rl|url-status=live}} and nineteen threatened [[plant species]]. [[Decree]]s have been passed to protect endangered species, including the [[Arabian leopard]], [[Arabian oryx]], [[mountain gazelle]], [[goitered gazelle]], [[Arabian tahr]], [[green sea turtle]], [[hawksbill turtle]] and [[olive ridley turtle]]. However, the [[Arabian Oryx Sanctuary]] is the first site ever to be deleted from [[UNESCO]]'s World Heritage List, following the government's 2007 decision to reduce the site's area by 90% to clear the way for oil prospectors.{{cite web |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/362 |title=UNESCO World Heritage Center – Oman's Arabian Oryx Sanctuary: first site ever to be deleted from UNESCO's World Heritage List |publisher=UNESCO |access-date=17 April 2010 |archive-date=5 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200705132243/https://whc.unesco.org/en/news/362 |url-status=live }} Local and national entities have noted unethical treatment of animals in Oman. In particular, stray dogs (and to a lesser extent, stray cats) are often the victims of torture, abuse or neglect.[http://www.y-oman.com/2013/06/animal-tragedy Animal Tragedy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160529091646/https://www.y-oman.com/2013/06/animal-tragedy/ |date=29 May 2016 }}. y-oman.com. 27 June 2013. The only approved method of decreasing the stray dog population is shooting by police officers. The Oman government has refused to implement a spay and neuter programme or create any animal shelters in the country. Cats, while seen as more acceptable than dogs, are nevertheless also viewed as pests and frequently die of starvation or illness.Macdonald, Sarah (22 March 2014) [http://www.timesofoman.com/News/31423/Article-Strays-on-streets-a-growing-issue-for-Oman Strays on streets a growing issue for Oman] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150112124040/http://www.timesofoman.com/News/31423/Article-Strays-on-streets-a-growing-issue-for-Oman |date=12 January 2015 }}. ''Times of Oman''[https://www.y-oman.com/2013/11/captive-creatures/ Captive Creatures] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160630003504/https://www.y-oman.com/2013/11/captive-creatures/ |date=30 June 2016 }}. y-oman.com. 21 November 2013 In recent years, Oman has become a popular spot for [[whale watching]], highlighting the critically endangered Arabian [[humpback whale]], [[sperm whale]]s and [[pygmy blue whale]]s.{{cite web|url=http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/whales/oman-whales_dolphins.html|title=Whales and dolphins of Oman – Dolphins, Humpbacks and Blue whales!|first=Powell|last=Ettinger|access-date=21 January 2016|archive-date=29 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160729210846/http://www.wildlifeextra.com/go/whales/oman-whales_dolphins.html#cr|url-status=live}} == Politics == {{main|Politics of Oman}} [[File:Oman-Muscat-16-Sultans-Palace-2.JPG|thumb|The Sultan's [[Al Alam Palace]] in Old Muscat]] Oman is a [[unitary state]] and an [[absolute monarchy]],{{cite news|title=Q&A: Elections to Oman's Consultative Council|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15288960|work=BBC News|access-date=21 July 2018|archive-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128112015/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-15288960|url-status=live}} in which all legislative, executive and judiciary power ultimately rests in the hands of the hereditary Sultan. Consequently, [[Freedom House]] has routinely rated the country "Not Free".{{cite web|title=Oman|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/country/oman|work=Freedom House|access-date=18 January 2013|archive-date=23 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190423195441/https://freedomhouse.org/country/oman|url-status=live}} The sultan is the head of state and directly controls the foreign affairs and defence portfolios.{{cite web|title=OMAN Majles A'Shura (Consultative Council)|url=http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2378_E.htm|publisher=Inter-Parliamentary Union|access-date=19 January 2013|archive-date=27 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130227070250/http://www.ipu.org/parline-e/reports/2378_E.htm|url-status=live}} He has absolute power and issues [[Rule by decree|laws by decree]].{{cite web|title=Oman|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/oman|work=Freedom in the World 2012|publisher=Freedom House|date=17 January 2012|access-date=28 January 2013|archive-date=25 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121025073322/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2012/oman|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=Waking up too|url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2012/06/23/waking-up-too|newspaper=The Economist|date=23 June 2012|access-date=19 January 2013|archive-date=28 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228215140/http://www.economist.com/node/21557354|url-status=live}} According to [[International Institute for Democracy and Electoral Assistance|International IDEA]]'s Global State of Democracy (GSoD) Indices and Democracy Tracker, Oman performs in the low to mid-range on overall democratic measures, with particular weaknesses in political participation, including electoral participation and civil society.{{Cite web |title=Global State of Democracy Indices {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/gsod-indices |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int}}{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/ |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int}}{{Cite web |title=Oman {{!}} The Global State of Democracy |url=https://www.idea.int/democracytracker/country/oman |access-date=2025-09-29 |website=www.idea.int |language=en}} ===Legal system=== Oman is an [[absolute monarchy]], with the Sultan's word having the force of law. The judiciary branch is subordinate to the Sultan. According to Oman's constitution, [[Sharia law]] is one of the sources of legislation. Sharia court departments within the civil court system are responsible for family-law matters, such as divorce and inheritance. While ultimate power is concentrated in the Sultan and Oman does not have an official [[separation of powers]],{{cite web|title=Country Report: Oman|url=http://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/OMN/|year=2016|publisher=BTI Project|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-date=12 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312141230/https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/OMN/}} the late Sultan Qaboos declined to grant the full title Minister of Defence, Minister of Foreign Affairs and Minister of Finance to the ministers exercising those responsibilities, preferring to keep them within the Royal Domain. The current Sultan Haitham has granted the ministers responsible of those portfolios the full titles, whilst elevating the defence portfolio to that of a deputy prime minister. Since 1970 all legislation has been promulgated through royal decrees, including the 1996 Basic Law. The Sultan appoints the ministers, the judges, and can grant pardons and commute sentences. The Sultan's authority is inviolable and the Sultan expects total subordination to his will. The administration of justice is highly personalised, with limited due process protections, especially in political and security-related cases.{{cite web|last=Stork|first=Joe|title=Human rights in the smaller Persian Gulf states: Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar and UAE|date=19 December 2012|url=http://www.peacebuilding.no/Regions/Middle-East-and-North-Africa/The-Gulf/Publications/Human-rights-in-the-smaller-Gulf-states-Bahrain-Kuwait-Oman-Qatar-and-UAE|work=NOREF|access-date=18 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140308194615/http://www.peacebuilding.no/Regions/Middle-East-and-North-Africa/The-Gulf/Publications/Human-rights-in-the-smaller-Gulf-states-Bahrain-Kuwait-Oman-Qatar-and-UAE|archive-date=8 March 2014}} The [[Basic Statute of Oman|Basic Statute of the State]]{{cite web |title=Basic Statute of the State |url=http://mola.gov.om/Nen.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130723131521/http://mola.gov.om/Nen.pdf |archive-date=23 July 2013 |work=Royal Decree 101/96 |publisher=[[Ministry of Legal Affairs]] |access-date=18 August 2012}} is supposedly the cornerstone of the Omani legal system and it operates as a constitution for the country. The Basic Statute was issued in 1996 and thus far has been amended only twice: in 2011,{{cite web |title=Amendment to Some of the Provisions of the Basic Statute of the State |url=http://www.mola.gov.om/maraseem/948/99-2011.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130117012153/http://www.mola.gov.om/maraseem/948/99-2011.pdf |archive-date=17 January 2013 |work=Royal Decree 99/2011 |publisher=Ministry of Legal Affairs}} in response to [[2011 Omani protests|protests]]; and in 2021, to create the position of [[Crown Prince of Oman]]. Though Oman's legal code theoretically protects civil liberties and personal freedoms, both are regularly ignored by the regime. Women and children face legal discrimination in many areas. Women are excluded from certain state benefits, such as housing loans, and are refused equal rights under the personal status law. Women also experience restrictions on their self-determination in respect to health and reproductive rights. The Omani legislature is the bicameral [[Council of Oman]], consisting of an upper chamber, the [[Council of State (Oman)|Council of State]] (Majlis ad-Dawlah) and a lower chamber, the [[Consultative Assembly (Oman)|Consultative Assembly]] (Majlis al-Shura). Political parties are banned, as are any affiliations based on religion. The upper chamber has 71 members, appointed by the Sultan from among prominent Omanis; it has only advisory powers.{{cite web|title=Legislative Branch|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2101.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613003906/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2101.html|archive-date=13 June 2007|work=The World Factbook|access-date=19 January 2013}} The 84 members of the Consultative Assembly are elected by universal suffrage to serve four-year terms. The members are appointed for three-year terms, which may be renewed once.{{cite web|title=Country Profiles (Legislature) – Oman|url=http://www.arabparliaments.org/countries/country.aspx?cid=13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120605011017/http://www.arabparliaments.org/countries/country.aspx?cid=13|archive-date=5 June 2012|publisher=Arab Parliaments}} The last elections were held on [[2023 Omani general election|29 October 2023]], and the next is due in October 2027. Oman's national anthem, ''[[As-Salam as-Sultani]]'' is dedicated to former Sultan Qaboos. ===Administrative divisions=== {{main|Governorates of Oman|Provinces of Oman}} The Sultanate of Oman is administratively divided into 11 [[Governorates of Oman|governorates]] ({{Langx|AR|محافظات}}). The governorates are further divided into 63 [[Provinces of Oman|provinces]] ({{Langx|AR|ولايات}}).{{cite web|title=About Oman|url=http://www.ncsi.gov.om/oman.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130731182110/http://www.ncsi.gov.om/oman.aspx|archive-date=31 July 2013|publisher=National Center for Statistics & Information|access-date=13 February 2013}}{{cite web|title=Governorates of Sultanate Of Oman |url=http://www.omanet.om/english/regions/oman.asp?cat=reg |publisher=Ministry of Information, Sultanate of Oman |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131208143606/http://www.omanet.om/english/regions/oman.asp?cat=reg |archive-date=8 December 2013 }} {{right|{{Oman Gov}}}} {| class="wikitable sortable" |- !Governorate !Capital |- |[[Ad Dakhiliyah Governorate]]||[[Nizwa]] |- |[[Ad Dhahirah Governorate]]||[[Ibri]] |- |[[Al Batinah North Governorate]]||[[Sohar]] |- |[[Al Batinah South Governorate]]||[[Rustaq]] |- |[[Al Buraimi Governorate]]||[[Al Buraymi|Al Buraimi]] |- |[[Al Wusta Governorate (Oman)|Al Wusta Governorate]]||[[Haima, Oman|Haima]] |- |[[Ash Sharqiyah North Governorate]]||[[Ibra]] |- |[[Ash Sharqiyah South Governorate]]||[[Sur, Oman|Sur]] |- |[[Dhofar|Dhofar Governorate]]||[[Salalah]] |- |[[Muscat Governorate]]||[[Muscat]] |- |[[Musandam Governorate]]||[[Khasab]] |- |} {{Clear}} ===Foreign relations=== {{main|Foreign relations of Oman}} [[File:Prime Minister Keir Starmer meets Haitham bin Tariq, the Sultan of Oman for a bilateral meeting in 10 Downing Street, London, United Kingdom 6 August 2024 - 2.jpg|thumb|Sultan [[Haitham bin Tariq]] with British Prime Minister [[Keir Starmer]], August 2024]] Since 1970, Oman has pursued a moderate foreign policy, and has expanded its diplomatic relations dramatically. Oman is among the very few Arab countries that have maintained friendly ties with [[Iran]].{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/|title=Oman|publisher=CIA – The World Factbook|access-date=29 October 2011|archive-date=13 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210313050143/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/|url-status=dead}}{{cite web |url=https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB2501/index1.html |title=Oman: A Unique Foreign Policy |publisher=RAND |access-date=29 October 2011 |year=1995 |last1=Kechichian |first1=Joseph A. |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002214/https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_briefs/RB2501/index1.html |url-status=live }} [[Badr bin Hamad Al Busaidi]] is the Sultanate's Minister of Foreign Affairs. Oman allowed the British [[Royal Navy]] and [[Indian Navy]] access to the port facilities of [[Al Duqm Port & Drydock]].{{cite news |url=http://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-gets-access-to-strategic-oman-port-for-military-use-chabahar-gwadar-in-sight-5061573/ |newspaper=[[The Indian Express]] |title=India gets access to strategic Oman port Duqm for military use, Chabahar-Gwadar in sight |first=Shubhajit |last=Roy |date=13 February 2018 |access-date=24 March 2019 |archive-date=10 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190410214859/https://indianexpress.com/article/india/india-gets-access-to-strategic-oman-port-for-military-use-chabahar-gwadar-in-sight-5061573/ |url-status=live }} === Military === {{main|Sultan's Armed Forces}} [[File:Portsmouth korvet Al-Shamikh Oman 18-10-2011 15-15-51.png|thumb|[[Royal Navy of Oman]] [[Khareef-class corvette]], Al-Shamikh]] [[Stockholm International Peace Research Institute|SIPRI]]'s estimation of Oman's military and security expenditure as a percentage of GDP in 2020 was 11 percent, making it the world's highest rate in that year, higher than [[Saudi Arabia]] (8.4 percent).[https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex According to SIPRI] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502184705/https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex |date=2 May 2019 }} | [https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRI-Milex-data-1949-2020_0.xlsx Excel Spreadsheet] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220224071552/https://sipri.org/sites/default/files/SIPRI-Milex-data-1949-2020_0.xlsx |date=24 February 2022 }} Oman's on-average military spending as a percentage of GDP between 2016 and 2018 was around 10 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 2.2 percent.Oman's Military Expenditures. [https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=OM-1W Oman's military expenditures WB] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118010201/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=OM-1W |date=18 January 2023 }} The World Bank. Retrieved 2019. [[File:Lockheed C-130H Hercules (L-382), Oman - Air Force AN1756417.jpg|thumb|[[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|Lockheed C-130H Hercules]] of the [[Royal Air Force of Oman]]]] Oman's military manpower totalled 44,100 in 2006, including 25,000 men in the army, 4,200 sailors in the navy, and an air force with 4,100 personnel. The [[Royal Household]] maintained 5,000 Guards, 1,000 in Special Forces, 150 sailors in the Royal Yacht fleet, and 250 pilots and ground personnel in the Royal Flight squadrons. Oman also maintains a modestly sized paramilitary force of 4,400 men.{{cite web|title=The Gulf Military Forces in an Era of Asymmetric War|url=http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/060728_gulf_oman.pdf|publisher=Center for Strategic and International Studies|author1=Anthony H. Cordesman|author2=Khalid R. Al-Rodhan|date=28 June 2006|access-date=19 January 2013|archive-date=17 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130517100443/http://csis.org/files/media/csis/pubs/060728_gulf_oman.pdf}} The [[Royal Army of Oman]] had 25,000 active personnel in 2006, plus a small contingent of Royal Household troops. Despite a comparative large military spending, it has been relatively slow to modernise its forces. Oman has a relatively limited number of tanks, including 6 [[M60A1]], 73 [[M60A3]] and 38 [[Challenger 2]] main battle tanks, as well as 37 aging [[FV101 Scorpion|Scorpion]] light tanks. The [[Royal Air Force of Oman]] has approximately 4,100 men, with 36 combat aircraft and no armed helicopters. Combat aircraft include 20 aging [[SEPECAT Jaguar|Jaguars]], 12 [[BAE Systems Hawk|Hawk]] Mk 203s, 4 Hawk Mk 103s and 12 [[PC-9]] turboprop trainers with a limited combat capability. It has one squadron of 12 [[F-16]]C/D aircraft. Oman also has 4 [[FFA AS-202 Bravo|A202-18 Bravos]] and 8 [[PAC MFI-17 Mushshak|MFI-17B Mushshaqs]]. The [[Royal Navy of Oman]] had 4,200 men in 2000, and is headquartered at [[Seeb]]. It has bases at Ahwi, Ghanam Island, [[Mussandam]] and [[Salalah]]. In 2006, Oman had ten surface combat vessels. These included two 1,450-ton [[Qahir-class corvette|''Qahir'' class]] [[corvette]]s, and eight ocean-going [[patrol boat]]s. The Omani Navy had one 2,500-ton [[Nasr al Bahr|''Nasr al Bahr'' class]] LSL (240 troops, 7 tanks) with a helicopter deck. Oman also had at least four [[landing craft]]. Oman ordered three [[Khareef-class corvette|''Khareef'' class]] corvettes from the [[VT Group]] for £400 million in 2007. They were built at [[Portsmouth]].{{cite web|title=Testing times for corvette|work=Maritime Photographic |url=http://www.maritimephotographic.co.uk/blog/testing-times-for-corvette/|date=15 March 2012|access-date=21 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141013091037/http://www.maritimephotographic.co.uk/blog/testing-times-for-corvette/|archive-date=13 October 2014}} In 2010 Oman spent US$4.074 billion on military expenditures, 8.5% [[List of countries by military expenditure share of GDP|of the gross domestic product]].{{cite web |url=http://milexdata.sipri.org |title=The SIPRI Military Expenditure Database |publisher=Stockholm International Peace Research Institute |access-date=29 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328072123/http://milexdata.sipri.org/ |archive-date=28 March 2010 }} The sultanate has a long history of association with the British military and defence industry.{{cite news|title=A balancing act|url=https://www.economist.com/news/2009/09/15/a-balancing-act|newspaper=The Economist|date=15 September 2009|access-date=19 January 2013|archive-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228184039/http://www.economist.com/node/14442346?zid=308&ah=e21d923f9b263c5548d5615da3d30f4d|url-status=live}} According to [[SIPRI]], Oman was the 23rd largest arms importer from 2012 to 2016.{{cite web|url=http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/toplist.php|title=TOP LIST TIV TABLES|work=SIPRI|access-date=22 June 2017|archive-date=14 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130214003447/http://armstrade.sipri.org/armstrade/page/toplist.php}} ===Human rights=== {{Main|Human rights in Oman}} {{See also|LGBT rights in Oman}} [[File:Portrait Of Dr. Talib Al Mamari.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Talib Al Mamari]], a former member of the [[Consultative Assembly (Oman)|Consultative Assembly of Oman]], who was arrested in 2013 after participating in a peaceful protest as a mediator. The [[Working Group on Arbitrary Detention|UN Working Group on Arbitrary Detention]] (WGAD) deemed his detention arbitrary and a violation of his right to freedom of expression.]] Torture methods in use in Oman include [[mock execution]], beating, [[hooding]], solitary confinement, subjection to extremes of temperature and to constant noise, abuse and humiliation.{{cite web|url = http://www.gc4hr.org/report/view/20|title = Torture in Oman|year = 2014|publisher = Gulf Center for Human Rights|access-date = 29 December 2014|archive-date = 7 September 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190907090808/https://www.gc4hr.org/report/view/20|url-status = live}}{{cite web|url=http://www.gc4hr.org/news/view/579|title=Torture in Oman|quote=The practice of torture is widespread in Oman state penal institutions and has become the state's knee jerk reaction to independent political expression, the Gulf Centre for Human Rights (GCHR) says in a report published today|year=2014|publisher=Gulf Center for Human Rights|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-date=24 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190724185106/https://www.gc4hr.org/news/view/579|url-status=live}} There have been numerous reports of torture and other inhumane forms of punishment perpetrated by Omani security forces on protesters and detainees.{{cite web|url=http://www.bti-project.org/reports/country-reports/mena/omn/index.nc|title=BTI 2014 – Oman Country Report|year=2014|publisher=BTI Project|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228234844/http://www.bti-project.org/reports/country-reports/mena/omn/index.nc|archive-date=28 December 2014}} Several prisoners detained in 2012 complained of sleep deprivation, extreme temperatures and solitary confinement. [[LGBT rights in Oman|Homosexuality]] is criminalised within Oman.{{cite web|url=http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf|title=State-sponsored Homophobia A world survey of laws prohibiting same sex activity between consenting adults|access-date=31 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020202330/http://old.ilga.org/Statehomophobia/ILGA_SSHR_2014_Eng.pdf|archive-date=20 October 2016}} [[File:Mohammed Al-fazari.jpeg|thumb|upright|[[Mohammed Al-Fazari]], an exiled Omani writer and journalist now living in the UK, is an author whose [[Book censorship|books are banned]] in Oman. He is also the founder and EIC of [[Muwatin Media Network|Muwatin]].{{cite book |title=Oman: Events of 2018 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/oman |publisher=Human Rights Watch |date=17 December 2018 |access-date=17 April 2019 |archive-date=18 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118171940/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/oman |url-status=live }}]] The Omani government decides who can or cannot be a journalist and this permission can be withdrawn at any time.{{cite web|author=Whitaker, Brian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/04/oman-sultan-qaboos-despot|title=Oman's Sultan Qaboos: a classy despot|year=2011|work=[[The Guardian]]|access-date=29 December 2014|author-link=Brian Whitaker|archive-date=18 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118171943/https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2011/mar/04/oman-sultan-qaboos-despot|url-status=live}} Censorship and [[self-censorship]] are a constant factor. Omanis have limited access to political information through the media.{{cite web|url=https://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Oman.pdf|title=Country Report: Oman|year=2016|publisher=BTI Project|page=12|access-date=3 June 2016|archive-date=8 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190808043953/https://www.bti-project.org/fileadmin/files/BTI/Downloads/Reports/2016/pdf/BTI_2016_Oman.pdf}} Access to news and information can be problematic: journalists have to be content with news compiled by the official news agency on some issues. Through a decree by the Sultan, the government has now extended its control over the media to blogs and other websites. Omanis cannot hold a public meeting without the government's approval. Omanis who want to set up a non-governmental organisation of any kind need a licence. The Omani government does not permit the formation of independent [[civil society]] associations. [[Human Rights Watch]] issued in 2016, that an Omani court sentenced three journalists to prison and ordered the permanent closure of their newspaper, over an article that alleged corruption in the judiciary.{{Cite news|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/10/03/oman-journalists-sentenced-over-articles-alleging-corruption|title=Oman: Journalists Sentenced Over Articles Alleging Corruption|date=3 October 2016|publisher=Human Rights Watch|access-date=2 March 2017|archive-date=18 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118171943/https://www.hrw.org/news/2016/10/03/oman-journalists-sentenced-over-articles-alleging-corruption|url-status=live}} Omani law prohibits criticism of the Sultan and government in any form or medium. Oman's police do not need [[search warrants]] to enter people's homes. The law does not provide citizens with the right to change their government. The Sultan retains ultimate authority on all foreign and domestic issues. Government officials are not subject to financial disclosure laws. Criticism of government figures and politically objectionable views have been suppressed. Publication of books is limited and the government restricts their importation and distribution, as with other media products. Until 2023, Omani citizens needed government permission to marry foreigners.{{cite web|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2013/nea/220371.htm|title=2013 Human Rights Reports: Oman|year=2014|publisher=[[US Department of State]]|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-date=19 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190819102135/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2013/nea/220371.htm|url-status=live}} In April 2023, the law was changed by a royal decree, allowing Omani citizens to marry foreigners without government permission.{{Cite news |last=Barrington |first=Lisa |date=April 19, 2023 |title=Oman liberalises foreign marriage law in rare social reform |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/oman-liberalises-foreign-marriage-law-rare-social-reform-2023-04-19/#:~:text=DUBAI%2C%20April%2019%20(Reuters),in%20the%20conservative%20Gulf%20country. |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231204021152/http://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/oman-liberalises-foreign-marriage-law-rare-social-reform-2023-04-19/ |archive-date=December 4, 2023 |access-date=May 16, 2024 |work=[[Reuters]] |page=1}} According to HRW, women in Oman face discrimination. The plight of [[domestic worker]]s in Oman is a taboo subject.{{cite web|author=Susan Al Shahri|url=http://mideastposts.com/showcase/a-taboo-subject-the-desperate-plight-of-domestic-workers-in-oman/|title=A Taboo Subject: The Desperate Plight of Domestic Workers in Oman|year=2012|publisher=Mideast Posts|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228173922/http://mideastposts.com/showcase/a-taboo-subject-the-desperate-plight-of-domestic-workers-in-oman/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|author=Susan Mubarak|url=http://www.muscatdaily.com/Archive/Stories-Files/Things-We-Don-t-Talk-About|title=Things We Don't Talk About|year=2012|work=[[Muscat Daily]]|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228173933/http://www.muscatdaily.com/Archive/Stories-Files/Things-We-Don-t-Talk-About}} In 2011, the [[Philippines]] government determined that out of all the countries in the Middle East, only Oman and Israel qualify as safe for Filipino migrants.{{cite web|url=http://www.migrant-rights.org/research/is-any-country-in-the-middle-east-safe-for-migrant-workers/|title=Is Any Country in The Middle East Safe for Migrant Workers?|year=2011|publisher=migrantrights.org|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-date=30 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230223407/http://www.migrant-rights.org/research/is-any-country-in-the-middle-east-safe-for-migrant-workers/|url-status=live}} Migrant workers remained insufficiently protected against exploitation.{{Cite web |title=Oman Archives |work=Amnesty International |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/oman/report-oman/ |access-date=15 April 2022 |language=en |archive-date=15 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220415054953/https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/oman/report-oman/ |url-status=live }} {{Clear}} == Economy == {{Main|Economy of Oman}} [[File:GDP per capita development in Oman.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Historical development of real GDP per capita in Oman]] Oman's Basic Statute of the State expresses in Article 11 that the "national economy is based on justice and the principles of a [[Market economy|free economy]]". By regional standards, Oman has a relatively diversified economy, but remains dependent on oil exports. In terms of monetary value, mineral fuels accounted for 82.2 percent of total product exports in 2018.{{Cite web|url=http://www.worldstopexports.com/omans-top-10-exports/|title=Oman's Top 10 Exports|date=10 July 2019|website=World's Top Exports|access-date=29 September 2019|archive-date=6 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006082624/https://www.worldstopexports.com/omans-top-10-exports/|url-status=live}} Tourism is the fastest-growing industry in Oman. Other sources of income, agriculture and industry, are small in comparison and account for less than 1% of the country's exports, but diversification is seen as a priority by the government. Agriculture, often [[subsistence]] in its character, produces [[Phoenix dactylifera|dates]], [[Lime (fruit)|limes]], [[Cereal|grains]] and vegetables, but with less than 1% of the country under [[Tillage|cultivation]], Oman is likely to remain a net importer of food. Oman's socio-economic structure is described as being hyper-centralised [[Rentier state|rentier]] welfare state. The largest 10 percent of corporations in Oman are the employers of almost 80 percent of Omani nationals in the private sector. Half of the private sector jobs are classified as elementary. One third of employed Omanis are in the private sector, while the remaining majority are in the public sector.Elusive Employment: Development Planning and Labour Market Trends in Oman. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275830095_Elusive_Employment_Development_Planning_and_Labour_Market_Trends_in_Oman Development Planning and Labour Market Trends in Oman 2014] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007193722/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275830095_Elusive_Employment_Development_Planning_and_Labour_Market_Trends_in_Oman |date=7 October 2022 }} Researchgate. September 2014. A hyper-centralised structure produces a monopoly-like economy. [[File:MSM Main.JPG|thumb|left|[[Muscat Securities Market]]]] Since a slump in oil prices in 1998, Oman has made active plans to diversify its economy and is placing a greater emphasis on other areas of industry, namely tourism and infrastructure. Oman had a 2020 Vision to diversify the economy established in 1995, which targeted a decrease in oil's share to less than 10 percent of GDP by 2020, but it was rendered obsolete in 2011. Oman then established 2040 Vision.Oman Country Report. [https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/OMN/ Oman Country Report 2018] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200312141230/https://www.bti-project.org/en/reports/country-reports/detail/itc/OMN/ |date=12 March 2020 }} Transformation Index BTI. 2018. A [[Oman–United States Free Trade Agreement|free-trade agreement with the United States]] took effect 1 January 2009, which eliminated tariff barriers on all consumer and industrial products and provided strong protections for foreign businesses investing in Oman.[[Chemical & Engineering News]], 5 January 2009, "U.S.-Oman pact expands Free Trade", p. 18 [[Tourism in Oman|Tourism]], another source of Oman's revenue, is on the rise. {{Pie chart | caption=Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in Oman by country as of 2017 | other = yes | label1 = United Kingdom | value1 = 48| color1 = silver | label2 = United Arab Emirates | value2 = 10.8 | color2 = #008 | label3 = Kuwait | value3 = 4.6 | color3 = #08f }} Oman's [[Migrant workers in the Gulf region|foreign workers]] send an estimated US$10 billion annually to their home states in Asia and Africa, more than half of them earning a monthly wage of less than US$400.{{cite web |url=http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/oct2005/oman-o28.shtml |title=Indian migrant workers in Oman speak to the WSWS |date=28 October 2005 |publisher=Wsws.org |access-date=29 October 2011 |archive-date=28 October 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028035431/http://www.wsws.org/articles/2005/oct2005/oman-o28.shtml |url-status=live }} The largest foreign community is from the Indian states of [[Kerala]], [[Tamil Nadu]], [[Karnataka]], [[Maharashtra]], [[Gujarat]] and [[Punjab, India|Punjab]],{{cite web |url=http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/antony-meets-indian-diaspora-in-omam_100365941.html |title=Antony meets Indian diaspora in Oman |work=Thaindian News |publisher=Thaindian.com |date=18 May 2010 |access-date=29 October 2011 |archive-date=12 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160612025351/http://www.thaindian.com/newsportal/world-news/antony-meets-indian-diaspora-in-omam_100365941.html }} representing more than half of the entire workforce in Oman. Salaries for overseas workers are known to be less than those for Omani nationals, though still two to five times higher than for the equivalent job in India. In terms of foreign direct investment (FDI), total investments in 2017 exceeded US$24 billion. The highest share of FDI went to the oil and gas sector, which represented around US$13 billion (54.2 percent), followed by [[Financial intermediary|financial intermediation]], which represented US$3.66 billion (15.3 percent). FDI is dominated by the United Kingdom with an estimated value of US$11.56 billion (48 percent), followed by the UAE, with US$2.6 billion (10.8 percent), and Kuwait with US$1.1 billion (4.6 percent). In 2018, Oman had a budget deficit of 32 percent of total revenue and a government debt-to-GDP ratio of 47.5 percent.Oman Government Debt to GDP 2018. [https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/oman/government-debt--of-nominal-gdp CEIC report: Oman Government Debt to GDP 2018] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221017052659/https://www.ceicdata.com/en/indicator/oman/government-debt--of-nominal-gdp |date=17 October 2022 }} ceicdata.com. 2018. Oman's military spending to GDP between 2016 and 2018 averaged 10 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 2.2 percent.{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=OM-1W|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP) – Oman, World | Data|publisher=World Bank|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=18 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230118010201/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS?locations=OM-1W|url-status=live}} Oman's health spending to GDP in 2015 and 2016 averaged 4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period was 10 percent.{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=1W-OM|title=Current health expenditure (% of GDP) – World, Oman | Data|publisher=World Bank|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425044516/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=1W-OM|url-status=live}} Oman's research and development spending between 2016 and 2017 averaged 0.24 percent, which is significantly lower than the world's average (2.2 percent) during the same period.{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=1W-OM|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP) – World, Oman | Data|publisher=World Bank|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425044517/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=1W-OM|url-status=live}} Oman's government spending on education to GDP in 2016 was 6.11 percent, while the world's average was 4.8 percent (2015).{{Cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=OM-1W|title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP) – Oman, World | Data|publisher=World Bank|access-date=5 September 2019|archive-date=25 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425044515/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?locations=OM-1W|url-status=live}} {{Bar chart | title = Oman's Spending in 2016 | label_type = Type | data_type = Spending (% of GDP){{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?end=2017&locations=OM&start=1986&view=chart|title=Government expenditure on education, total (% of GDP)|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=29 September 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929152350/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS?end=2017&locations=OM&start=1986&view=chart|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/oman/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS|title=Military expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=indexmundi|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=11 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220411115727/https://www.indexmundi.com/facts/oman/indicator/MS.MIL.XPND.GD.ZS|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=OM|title=Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007053203/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/GB.XPD.RSDV.GD.ZS?locations=OM|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=OM|title=health expenditure (% of GDP)|publisher=The World Bank|access-date=4 September 2019|archive-date=20 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221120072109/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SH.XPD.CHEX.GD.ZS?locations=OM|url-status=live}} | bar_width = 35 | width_units = em | data_max = 30 | label1 = Military spending | data1 = 13.73 | label2 = Education spending | data2 = 6.11 | label3 = Health spending | data3 = 4.30 | label4 = Research & Development spending | data4 = 0.26 }} === Oil and gas === [[File:Sohar flickr01.jpg|thumb|right|Petrochemical tanks in [[Sohar]]]] Oman's proven reserves of petroleum total about 5.5 billion barrels, 25th largest in the world. Oil is extracted and processed by [[Petroleum Development Oman]] (PDO), with proven oil reserves holding approximately steady, although oil production has been declining.{{cite web |url=http://www.indexmundi.com/oman/oil_proved_reserves.html |title=Oman: proven oil reserves |publisher=Indexmundi.com |access-date=17 April 2010 |archive-date=25 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220425044528/https://www.indexmundi.com/oman/oil_proved_reserves.html |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Oman: Energy data |publisher=[[Energy Information Administration|EIA]] |url=http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/Oman/Oil.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110302093656/http://www.eia.doe.gov/cabs/Oman/Oil.html |archive-date=2 March 2011 |access-date=16 February 2009}} The [[Ministry of Energy and Minerals (Oman)|Ministry of Energy and Minerals]] is responsible for all oil and gas infrastructure and projects in Oman.{{cite web|title=Home|url=http://www.mog.gov.om/english/tabid/54/Default.aspx|publisher=Ministry of Energy and Minerals|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811004242/http://mog.gov.om/english/tabid/54/Default.aspx|archive-date=11 August 2013|access-date=19 January 2013}} Following the [[1970s energy crisis]], Oman doubled their oil output between 1979 and 1985.{{cite journal |title=Lessons from the 1986 Oil Price Collapse |first=Dermot |last=Gately |journal=Brookings Papers on Economic Activity |issue=2 |year=1986 |page=239 |url=http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Projects/BPEA/1986-2/1986b_bpea_gately_adelman_griffin.PDF |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160509062905/http://www.brookings.edu/~/media/Projects/BPEA/1986-2/1986b_bpea_gately_adelman_griffin.PDF |archive-date=9 May 2016 }} In 2018, oil and gas represented 71 percent of the government's revenues.Oman budget 2019 KPMG Insights. [https://home.kpmg/om/en/home/insights/2019/01/2019omanbudget.html KPMG: Oman budget 2019 KPMG Insights] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823233443/https://home.kpmg/om/en/home/insights/2019/01/2019omanbudget.html |date=23 August 2022 }} KPMG. 2019. In 2016, oil and gas share of the government's revenue represented 72 percent.Oman's 2017 budget: An analysis. [https://home.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2017/01/tnf-oman-jan18-2017.pdf KPMG: Oman's 2017 budget: An analysis] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904232437/https://home.kpmg/content/dam/kpmg/xx/pdf/2017/01/tnf-oman-jan18-2017.pdf |date=4 September 2019 }} KPMG. 2017. The government's reliance on oil and gas as a source of income dropped by 1 percent from 2016 to 2018. Oil and gas sector represented 30.1 percent of the nominal GDP in 2017.{{cite web| url = https://cbo.gov.om/sites/assets/Documents/English/Publications/AnnualReports/AnnualReport2017eng.pdf| title = Central Bank of Oman Annual Report 2017}} Between 2000 and 2007, production fell by more than 26%, from 972,000 to 714,800 [[barrels per day]].{{cite web|title=Oman the comeback kid of oil|url=http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/industry-insights/energy/oman-the-comeback-kid-of-oil|work=The National|date=9 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121231031303/http://www.thenational.ae/thenationalconversation/industry-insights/energy/oman-the-comeback-kid-of-oil|archive-date=31 December 2012}} Production has recovered to 816,000 barrels in 2009, and 930,000 barrels per day in 2012. Oman's natural gas reserves are estimated at 849.5 billion cubic metres, ranking 28th in the world, and production in 2008 was about 24 billion cubic metres per year. In September 2019, Oman was confirmed to become the first Middle Eastern country to host the [[International Gas Union]] Research Conference (IGRC 2020). This 16th iteration of the event will be held between 24 and 26 February 2020, in collaboration with [[Oman LNG]], under the auspices of the [[Ministry of Energy and Minerals (Oman)|Ministry of Energy and Minerals]].{{cite web|url=https://www.businessliveme.com/economy/energy-news/oilgas/oman-to-host-international-gas-union-research-conference-in-2020/|title=Oman to host International Gas Union Research Conference in 2020|access-date=5 September 2019|website=Business Live Middle East|date=5 September 2019|archive-date=5 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805194828/https://www.businessliveme.com/economy/energy-news/oilgas/oman-to-host-international-gas-union-research-conference-in-2020/}} === Industry, innovation and infrastructure === In industry, innovation and infrastructure, Oman is still faced with "significant challenges", as per United Nations Sustainable Development Goals index, as of 2019. Oman has scored high on the rates of internet use, mobile broadband subscriptions, logistics performance and on the average of top 3 university rankings. Meanwhile, Oman scored low on the rate of scientific and technical publications and on research & development spending. Oman's manufacturing value added to GDP rate in 2016 was 8.4 percent, which is lower than the average in the Arab world (9.8 percent) and world average (15.6 percent). In terms of research & development expenditures to GDP, Oman's share was on average 0.20 percent between 2011 and 2015, while the world's average during the same period was 2.11 percent.Sustainable Development: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. [https://sdg-tracker.org/infrastructure-industrialization Sustainable Development: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221114034/https://sdg-tracker.org/infrastructure-industrialization |date=21 December 2019 }} United Nations. 2019. The majority of firms in Oman operate in the oil and gas, construction and trade sectors. {| class="wikitable" |- ! Non-hydrocarbon GDP growth!! 2015 !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 |- | Value (%)2019 Article IV Consultation with Oman. [https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2019/07/03/pr19266-imf-executive-board-concludes-2019-article-iv-consultation-with-oman IMF Executive Board Concludes 2019 Article IV Consultation with Oman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008220143/https://www.imf.org/en/News/Articles/2019/07/03/pr19266-imf-executive-board-concludes-2019-article-iv-consultation-with-oman |date=8 October 2019 }} IMF. 3 July 2019. || 4.8|| 6.2 || 0.5|| 1.5 |} Oman is refurbishing and expanding the ports infrastructure in Muscat, Duqm, Sohar and Salalah to expand tourism, local production and export shares. Oman is also expanding its downstream operations by constructing a refinery and petrochemical plant in Duqm with a 230,000 barrels per day capacity projected for completion by 2021.Oman – Market Overview. [https://www.export.gov/article?id=Oman-Market-Overview Oman – Market Overview (US Export.gov) 2018] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913055903/https://www.export.gov/article?id=Oman-Market-Overview |date=13 September 2019 }} export.gov. 2018. The majority of industrial activity in Oman takes place in eight industrial states and four free-zones. The industrial activity is mainly focused on mining-and-services, petrochemicals and construction materials. The largest employers in the private-sector are the construction, wholesale-and-retail and manufacturing sectors, respectively. Construction accounts for nearly 48 percent of the total labour force, followed by wholesale-and-retail, which accounts for around 15 percent of total employment and manufacturing, which accounts for around 12 percent of employment in the private sector. The percentage of Omanis employed in the construction and manufacturing sectors is nevertheless low, as of 2011 statistics. Oman, as per [[Global Innovation Index]] (2019) report, scores "below expectations" in innovation relative to countries classified under high income.[https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/Home Global Innovation Index Organization 2019] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180714081715/https://www.globalinnovationindex.org/Home |date=14 July 2018 }} Global Innovation Index Organization. 2019. In 2025, Oman ranked 69th out of 144 countries in innovation index, which takes into consideration factors, such as, political environment, education, infrastructure and business sophistication.{{Cite web |title=GII Innovation Ecosystems & Data Explorer 2025 |url=https://www.wipo.int/gii-ranking/en/oman |access-date=2025-10-16 |website=WIPO}}{{Cite book |last1=Dutta |first1=Soumitra |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2025/en/index.html |title=Global Innovation Index 2025: Innovation at a Crossroads |last2=Lanvin |first2=Bruno |publisher=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-92-805-3797-0 |page=19 |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.58864 |access-date=2025-10-17}} Innovation, technology-based growth and economic diversification are hindered by an economic growth that relies on infrastructure expansion, which heavily depends on a high percentage of 'low-skilled' and 'low-wage' foreign labour. Another challenge to innovation is the [[Dutch disease]] phenomenon, which creates an oil and gas investment lock-in, while relying heavily on imported products and services in other sectors. Such a locked-in system hinders local business growth and global competitiveness in other sectors, and thus impedes economic diversification. The inefficiencies and bottlenecks in business operations that are a result of heavy dependence on natural resources and 'addiction' to imports in Oman suggest a 'factor-driven economy'. A third hindrance to innovation in Oman is an economic structure that is heavily dependent on few large firms, while granting few opportunities for SMEs to enter the market, which impedes healthy market-share competition between firms.Science, Technology and Innovation 2014 Review. [https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/dtlstict2014d1_en.pdf United Nations Science, Technology and Innovation 2014 Review] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805233550/https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/dtlstict2014d1_en.pdf |date=5 August 2020 }} United Nations. 2014. The ratio of patent applications per million people was 0.35 in 2016 and the [[MENA]] region average was 1.50, while the 'high-income' countries' average was approximately 48.0 during the same year.PCT patents. [https://tcdata360.worldbank.org/indicators/entrp.pct?country=OMN&indicator=3441&viz=bar_chart&years=2016 PCT patents, applications/million population] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191008220147/https://tcdata360.worldbank.org/indicators/entrp.pct%3Fcountry%3DOMN%26indicator%3D3441%26viz%3Dbar_chart%26years%3D2016 |date=8 October 2019 }} The World Bank. 2016. Oman was ranked 74th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024.{{Cite book |author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]] |year=2024 |title=Global Innovation Index 2024: Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship |url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/ |access-date=2024-10-06 |page=18 |publisher=World Intellectual Property Organization |language=en |doi=10.34667/tind.50062 |isbn=978-92-805-3681-2}} === Agriculture and fishing === Oman's fishing industry contributed 0.78 percent to the GDP in 2016. Fish exports between 2000 and 2016 grew from US$144 million to US$172 million, an increase of 19.4 percent. The main importer of Omani fish in 2016 was [[Vietnam]], which imported almost US$80 million (46.5 percent) in value,{{cite news |last1=Ngan |first1=Kim |title=Oman Investment Authority to expand investment fund in Vietnam |url=https://theinvestor.vn/oman-investment-authority-to-expand-investment-fund-in-vietnam-d15837.html |access-date=22 June 2025 |work=theinvestor.vn |date=30 May 2025 |language=en}} and the second biggest importer was the [[United Arab Emirates]], which imported around US$26 million (15 percent). The other main importers are Saudi Arabia, [[Brazil]] and [[China]]. Oman's consumption of fish is almost two times the world's average. The ratio of exported fish to total fish captured in tons fluctuated between 49 and 61 percent between 2006 and 2016. Omani strengths in the fishing industry comes from having a good market system, a long coastline (3,165 km) and wide water area. However, Oman lacks sufficient infrastructure, research and development, quality and safety monitoring, together with a limited contribution by the fishing industry to GDP. [[Date (fruit)|Dates]] represent 80 percent of all fruit crop production. Further, date farms employ 50 percent of the total agricultural area in the country. Oman's estimated production of dates in 2016 is 350,000 tons, making it the 9th largest producer of dates. Oman's total export of dates was US$12.6 million in 2016, almost equivalent to Oman's total imported value of dates, which was US$11.3 million in 2016. The main importer is India (around 60 percent of all imports). Oman's date exports remained steady between 2006 and 2016. Oman is considered to have good infrastructure for date production and support provision to cultivation and marketing, but lacks innovation in farming and cultivation, industrial coordination in the supply chain and encounter high losses of unused dates. === Tourism === {{Main|Tourism in Oman}} [[File:اطلالة الفندق الخارجية.jpg|left|thumb|Al-Bustan Palace Hotel, Muscat]] [[File:Wahiba Sands (33).jpg|thumb|[[Sharqiya Sands]]]] Tourism in Oman has grown considerably recently, and it is expected to be one of the largest industries in the country.{{cite web |url=http://www.marketresearch.com/Business-Monitor-International-v304/Oman-Tourism-Q2-6205512/ |title=Travel & Leisure Market Research Reports and Industry Analysis |publisher=Marketresearch.com |access-date=9 June 2013 |archive-date=28 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110928211424/http://www.marketresearch.com/Business-Monitor-International-v304/Oman-Tourism-Q2-6205512/ |url-status=live }} The World Travel & Tourism Council stated that Oman is the fastest growing tourism destination in the Middle East.{{cite web|author1=Claudine-Coletti |title=Oman Eyes Lucrative Business Tourism Market|url=http://www.forbesmiddleeast.com/en/oman-eyes-lucrative-business-tourism-market/|website=Forbesmiddleeast|date=26 June 2017 |access-date=26 June 2017|archive-date=26 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170626074014/http://www.forbesmiddleeast.com/en/oman-eyes-lucrative-business-tourism-market/}} Tourism contributed 2.8 percent to the Omani GDP in 2016. It grew from RO 505 million (US$1.3 billion) in 2009 to RO 719 million (US$1.8 billion) in 2017 (+42.3 percent growth). Citizens of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC), including Omanis who are residing outside of Oman, represent the highest ratio of all tourists visiting Oman, estimated to be 48 percent. The second highest number of visitors come from other Asian countries, who account for 17 percent of the total number of visitors.National Green Export Review of Oman: Tourism, Dates and Fish. [https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ditcted2018d13_en.pdf National Green Export Review of Oman: Tourism, Dates and Fish (United Nations-CTAD 2018 report)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703204348/https://unctad.org/en/PublicationsLibrary/ditcted2018d13_en.pdf |date=3 July 2019 }} United Nations. 2018. A challenge to tourism development in Oman is the reliance on the government-owned firm, Omran, as a key actor to develop the tourism sector, which potentially creates a market [[barrier to entry|barrier-to-entry]] of private-sector actors and a [[Crowding out (economics)|crowding out]] effect. Another key issue to the tourism sector is deepening the understanding of the ecosystem and biodiversity in Oman to guarantee their protection and preservation. [[Ecotourism]] is a growing segment of Omani tourism.{{Cite journal |last=Balida |first=Don Anton |date=2023-05-26 |title=Perceptions and Attitudes of Domestic Tourists toward Ecotourism |url=https://papers.academic-conferences.org/index.php/ictr/article/view/1173 |journal=International Conference on Tourism Research |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=24–33 |doi=10.34190/ictr.6.1.1173 |issn=2516-3612|doi-access=free }} One site in particular – [[Ras al-Jinz]], also known as "Turtle Beach" – is a popular destination due to the annual nesting of the critically endangered [[Hawksbill sea turtle|Hawksbill Turtle]], the endangered [[Green sea turtle|Green Turtle]], the [[Olive ridley sea turtle|Olive Ridley Turtle]], and the [[Loggerhead sea turtle|Loggerhead Turtle]].{{Cite web |title=Ras Al Jinz Map, Al Hadd, Ash Sharqiyah South Governorate, Oman {{!}} Sandee |url=https://sandee.com/map/ras-al-jinz/@22.425633,59.837305 |access-date=2024-09-20 |website=sandee.com}} Oman has one of the most diverse environments in the Middle East with various tourist attractions and is particularly well known for adventure and [[cultural tourism]].{{cite journal|author=Kharusi, N. S. |author2= Salman, A. |title= The English Transliteration of Place Names in Oman|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230721784|journal= Journal of Academic and Applied Studies |volume= 1|issue=3|date=September 2011|pages=1–27 }}{{cite web|author=Thomas, Babu |url=http://www.omanet.om/english/tourism/culture.asp?cat=tour |title=Culture in Oman, Tourism |publisher=Omanet.om |access-date=9 June 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130625131221/http://www.omanet.om/english/tourism/culture.asp?cat=tour |archive-date=25 June 2013 }} [[Muscat]], the capital of Oman, was named the second best city to visit in the world in 2012 by the travel guide publisher [[Lonely Planet]].{{cite web |author=I'Anson, Richard |date=7 June 2012 |url=http://www.lonelyplanet.com/england/london/travel-tips-and-articles/76861 |title=Lonely Planet's Best in Travel: top 10 cities for 2012 – travel tips and articles |publisher=Lonely Planet |access-date=9 June 2013 |archive-date=2 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111102010653/http://www.lonelyplanet.com/england/london/travel-tips-and-articles/76861 |url-status=live }} Muscat also was chosen as the Capital of Arab Tourism of 2012.[http://www.gulfinthemedia.com/index.php?m=opinions&id=577331&lang=en Postings of opinions published in the Gulf and international newspapers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141230014015/http://www.gulfinthemedia.com/index.php?m=opinions&id=577331&lang=en |date=30 December 2014 }} In November 2019, Oman made the rule of [[Travel visa|visa]] on arrival an exception and introduced the concept of e-visa for tourists from all nationalities. Under the new laws, visitors were required to apply for the visa in advance.{{cite web|url=https://iheartuae.com/2019/11/11/visitors-to-oman-now-need-to-apply-for-a-visa-in-advance/|title=VISITORS TO OMAN NOW NEED TO APPLY FOR A VISA IN ADVANCE|access-date=11 November 2019|website=Heart 107.1|archive-date=12 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112092306/https://iheartuae.com/2019/11/11/visitors-to-oman-now-need-to-apply-for-a-visa-in-advance/}} == Demographics == {{Main|Demographics of Oman}} {{Historical populations|percentages=pagr|1950|457,000|1960|537,000|1970|671,000|1980|1,017,000|1990|1,805,000|2000|2,344,000|2010|2,882,000|2015|4,192,000|2020|4,543,000|align=right|footnote=source:{{UN_Population|ref}}|2023|4644384}}By 2020, Oman's population exceeded 4.5 million.{{cite web | url=https://timesofoman.com/article/117268-omans-population-crosses-45-million-2 | title=Oman's population crosses 4.5 million | access-date=8 June 2022 | archive-date=9 February 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230209021936/https://timesofoman.com/article/117268-omans-population-crosses-45-million-2 | url-status=live }} The [[total fertility rate]] in 2020 was estimated to be 2.8 children born per woman; this rate has been rapidly decreasing in recent years.{{cite web | url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=OM | title=Fertility rate, total (Births per woman) - Oman | Data | access-date=8 June 2022 | archive-date=9 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221209080422/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.DYN.TFRT.IN?locations=OM | url-status=live }} About half of the population lives in [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] and the Batinah coastal plain northwest of the capital. [[Omanis]] are entirely [[Arabs|Arab]], with certain groups of [[Omani Baloch|Baluchi]] and [[Afro-Omanis|African]] descent. Around 20 percent of Omanis are of Baloch descent whose ancestors migrated to Oman centuries ago, and are now considered native.{{Cite book |last1=Long |first1=Roger D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&dq=omani+baloch&pg=PA129 |title=State and Nation-Building in Pakistan: Beyond Islam and Security |last2=Singh |first2=Gurharpal |last3=Samad |first3=Yunas |last4=Talbot |first4=Ian |date=2015-10-08 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-44820-4 |language=en |access-date=7 August 2023 |archive-date=19 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230919080547/https://books.google.com/books?id=nzivCgAAQBAJ&dq=omani+baloch&pg=PA129 |url-status=live }} Omani society is largely [[tribal]]{{cite book|year=2013|author=Khalid M. Al-Azri|title=Social and Gender Inequality in Oman: The Power of Religious and Political Tradition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eb6Pgy1Q0vQC&pg=PA40|page=40|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-138-81679-4|access-date=28 December 2014|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035639/https://books.google.com/books?id=eb6Pgy1Q0vQC&pg=PA40|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|author=Judith Miller|title=Creating Modern Oman: An Interview with Sultan Qabus|url=http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/53039/judith-miller/creating-modern-oman-an-interview-with-sultan-qabus|year=1997|journal=[[Foreign Affairs]]|volume=76|issue=May/June 1997|access-date=29 December 2014|author-link=Judith Miller|archive-date=28 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141228174118/http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/53039/judith-miller/creating-modern-oman-an-interview-with-sultan-qabus|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ghbC-V8YKyEC&pg=PA196|year=2013|title=Democracy and Youth in the Middle East: Islam, Tribalism and the Rentier State in Oman|pages=170–197|author=Sulaiman al-Farsi|publisher=Bloomsbury Academic|isbn=978-1-78076-090-2|access-date=28 December 2014|archive-date=11 February 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230211035639/https://books.google.com/books?id=ghbC-V8YKyEC&pg=PA196|url-status=live}} and encompasses three major identities: that of the tribe, the Muslim faith and maritime trade. The first two identities are closely tied to tradition and are especially prevalent in the interior of the country, owing to lengthy periods of isolation. The third identity pertains mostly to Muscat and the coastal areas of Oman, and is reflected by business, trade, and the origins of certain Omanis, who trace their roots to Baloch, [[Al-Lawatia]], [[Persian people|Persia]] and historical Omani [[Zanzibar]]. Omanis of Balochi descent typically use the surname/[[Nisba (onomastics)|nisba]] ''[[Al-Balushi]]''.{{cite news|last1=al Shaibany|first1=Saleh|title=Omanis flocking to Zanzibar, their ancestral home|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/mena/omanis-flocking-to-zanzibar-their-ancestral-home-1.498003|access-date=30 June 2014|work=The National|date=4 August 2010|archive-date=8 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160408183502/http://www.thenational.ae/news/world/middle-east/omanis-flocking-to-zanzibar-their-ancestral-home|url-status=live}} [[Gwadar]], a region of Balochistan, was a Colony of Oman for more than a century. In the 1960s, Pakistan took over the land, with many Omanis still there.{{Cite web|url = https://www.arabnews.com/node/1489531/world|title = Arab legacy lingers as Pakistan's Gwadar grows from tiny fishing town into port city|date = 29 April 2019|access-date = 19 November 2021|archive-date = 7 October 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20221007095109/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1489531/world|url-status = live}} === Largest cities === {{Main list|List of cities in Oman }} {{Largest cities | country = Oman | stat_ref = {{cite web |url=http://www.geonames.org/OM/largest-cities-in-oman.html |title=Oman – 10 Largest Cities |website=geonames.org |access-date=20 August 2021}} | div_link = Governorates of Oman{{!}}Governorate |city_1 = Muscat, Oman{{!}}Muscat |div_1 = Muscat Governorate |pop_1 = 797,000 |city_2 = Seeb, Oman{{!}}Seeb |div_2 = Muscat Governorate |pop_2 = 237,816 |city_3 = Salalah |div_3 = Dhofar Governorate |pop_3 = 163,140 |city_4 = Bawshar |div_4 = Muscat Governorate |pop_4 = 159,487 |city_5 = Sohar |div_5 = Al Batinah North Governorate |pop_5 = 108,274 |city_6 = Suwayq |div_6 = Al Batinah North Governorate |pop_6 = 107,143 |city_7 = Ibri |div_7 = Al Dhahirah Governorate |pop_7 = 101,640 |city_8 = Saham |div_8 = Al Batinah North Governorate |pop_8 = 89,327 |city_9 = Barka, Oman{{!}}Barka |div_9 = Al Batinah South Governorate |pop_9 = 81,647 |city_10 = Rustaq |div_10 = Al Batinah South Governorate |pop_10 = 79,383 }} === Languages === [[File:Sultan_Qaboos_Highway.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|Arabic and English road sign in Oman]] [[Arabic]] is the official and most widely spoken language of Oman. It belongs to the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic]] family.{{cite web|title=Basic Statute of the State|url=http://mola.gov.om/basic_statute.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626055226/http://mola.gov.om/basic_statute.pdf|archive-date=26 June 2012|publisher=Ministry Of Legal Affairs}} There are several [[dialects of Arabic]] spoken, all part of the [[Peninsular Arabic]] family: [[Dhofari Arabic]] (also known as Dhofari, Zofari) is spoken in [[Salalah]] and the surrounding coastal regions (the [[Dhofar|Dhofar Governorate]]);{{Infobox language/ref|e18|lc1=ell|ld1=Dhofari Arabic|refname=}} [[Gulf Arabic]] is spoken in parts bordering the [[United Arab Emirates|UAE]]; whereas [[Omani Arabic]], distinct from the Gulf Arabic of eastern Arabia and Bahrain, is spoken in Central Oman, although with recent oil wealth and mobility has spread over other parts of the Sultanate.{{Citation needed|date=February 2026}} According to the U.S. [[Central Intelligence Agency]] (CIA), the main languages spoken in Oman besides Arabic are English, [[Malayalam]], [[Balochi language|Baluchi]] ([[Makrani dialect|Southern Baluchi]]), [[Urdu]], [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Bengali language|Bengali]], [[Hindi]], [[Tulu language|Tulu]] and various other Indian languages, due to the influx of Pakistani migrants and foreign workers. English is widely spoken in the business community and is taught at school from an early age. Almost all signs and writings appear in both Arabic and English at tourist sites. [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]] language and its various dialects like ([[Jadgali language|Jadgali]], [[Luwati language|Lawati]], [[Memoni language|Maimani]], [[Kutchi language|Kutchi]], Al Saigh) are also spoken in Oman.{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jahdhami |first=Said |date=2018-01-01 |title=INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES IN OMAN |url=https://www.academia.edu/105800303 |journal=International Journal of English Language and Linguistics Research}}{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jahdhami |first=Said |date=2015-01-01 |title=Minority Languages in Oman |url=https://www.academia.edu/105799320 |journal=Anglisticum Journal}}{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jahdhami |first=Said |date=2022-01-01 |title=Maimani Language and Lawati Language: Two Sides of the Same Coin |url=https://www.academia.edu/105799938 |journal=Journal of Modern Languages |volume=32 |pages=37–57 |doi=10.22452/JML.VOL32NO1.3|doi-access=free }}{{Cite book |last=Publishing |first=Britannica Educational |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6cabAAAAQBAJ&dq=Sindhi+language+oman&pg=PA69 |title=The Culture of India |date=2010-04-01 |publisher=Britannica Educational Publishing |isbn=978-1-61530-203-1 |language=en}} Additionally, [[Swahili]] is sometimes spoken among Omanis of [[Zanzibar]]i descent. Today, the [[Mehri language]] is limited in its distribution to the area around [[Salalah]], in [[Zafar, Yemen|Zafar]] and westward into the Yemen. But until the 18th or 19th century it was spoken further north, perhaps into Central Oman.[[Paul Alan Yule|Paul Yule]], Late Pre-Islamic Oman: The Inner Evidence – The Outside View, in: M. Hoffmann-Ruf–A. al-Salami (eds.), ''Studies on Ibadism and Oman, Oman and Overseas'', vol. 2, Hildesheim, 2013, 13–33, {{ISBN|9783487147987}}{{cite news|title=Basic Information on Oman|url=http://www.omannews.gov.om/ona/english/Basic_Information_on_Oman.jsp|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205155257/http://www.omannews.gov.om/ona/english/Basic_Information_on_Oman.jsp|archive-date=5 December 2013|agency=Oman News Agency|access-date=19 January 2013}} Endangered indigenous languages in Oman include [[Kumzari language|Kumzari]], [[Bathari language|Bathari]], [[Harsusi language|Harsusi]], [[Hobyot language|Hobyot]], [[Jibbali language|Jibbali]] and Mehri.{{cite web|title=Interactive Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger|url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php|publisher=UNESCO|access-date=19 January 2013|archive-date=12 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812000456/http://www.unesco.org/culture/languages-atlas/index.php|url-status=live}}
Khojki and Zidjali were also reported, but [[Khojki]] is an alphabet, not a language, and Zidjali AKA Makrani is a dialect of Southern Baluchi [[Omani Sign Language]] is the language of the deaf community. === Religion === {{Main|Religion in Oman}} {{See also|Islam in Oman}} {{Pie chart | thumb = right | caption = [[Religion in Oman]] (2020){{cite web|url= https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/|title= Middle East OMAN|date= 21 December 2021|publisher= CIA The World Factbook|access-date= 24 January 2021|archive-date= 13 March 2021|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210313050143/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/|url-status= dead}} | label1 = [[Islam in Oman|Islam]] | value1 = 85.9 | color1 = Green | label2 = [[Christianity in Oman|Christianity]] | value2 = 6.4 | color2 = Red | label3 = [[Hinduism in Oman|Hinduism]] | value3 = 5.7 | color3 = Orange | label4 = [[Buddhism in the Middle East|Buddhism]] | value4 = 0.8 | color4 = Yellow | label5 = [[History of the Jews in Oman|Judaism]] | value5 = 0.1 | color5 = Blue | label6 = Other | value6 = 0.2 | color6 = Grey }} Even though the Oman government does not keep statistics on religious affiliation, statistics from the US's Central Intelligence Agency state that adherents of [[Islam in Oman|Islam]] are in the majority at 85.9 percent, while 6.4 percent are [[Christianity in Oman|Christians]], 5.7 percent [[Hinduism in Oman|Hindus]], 0.8 percent [[Buddhism in the Middle East|Buddhists]], and fewer than 0.1 percent are [[History of the Jews in Oman|Jews]]; members of other religious affiliations comprise 1 percent and the unaffiliated 0.2 percent. Virtually all Omanis are [[Muslims]]; these predominantly follow the [[Ibadi]] [[Islamic schools and branches|school]] of Islam,{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-vicious-schism-between-sunni-and-shia-has-been-poisoning-islam-for-1400-years--and-its-getting-worse-9139525.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/the-vicious-schism-between-sunni-and-shia-has-been-poisoning-islam-for-1400-years--and-its-getting-worse-9139525.html |archive-date=24 May 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Schism between Sunni and Shia has been poisoning Islam for 1,400 years – and it's getting worse|website=[[The Independent]] | quote=Oman is unusual because its Sunni and Shia residents are outnumbered by a third sect, the Ibadis, who constitute more than half the population. |first=Paul|last=Vallely|date=19 February 2014}}{{Cite web |title=The Ibadi sect of Islam thrives in the Sultanate of Oman |url=https://reuters.screenocean.com/record/794967 |access-date=2024-10-31 |website=Reuters Archive Licensing |language=en}} followed by the [[Shafi`i]] school of [[Sunni Islam]] followed in Northern Oman, particularly in the [[Al Batinah North Governorate|Al Batinah North]] and [[Al Batinah South Governorate|Al Batinah South]] governorates, with a very small minority following the [[Twelver]] school of [[Shia Islam]] practiced by Omani [[Ajam]] tribes. Most non-Muslims in Oman are foreign workers, variously adhering to [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Zoroastrianism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Hinduism]], or [[Christianity]]. Christian communities are centred in the major urban areas of [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], [[Sohar]] and [[Salalah]]. These include [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodox]] and various [[Protestant]] congregations, organising along linguistic and ethnic lines. More than 50 different Christian groups, fellowships and assemblies are active in the Muscat metropolitan area, formed by migrant workers from Southeast Asia. There are also communities of ethnic Indian Hindus and Christians, as well as a small Sikh community.{{cite web|url=http://www.sify.com/news/oman-to-allow-temple-gurdwara-news-national-klytaydgdgd.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101129023102/http://sify.com/news/oman-to-allow-temple-gurdwara-news-national-klytaydgdgd.html |archive-date=29 November 2010 |title=Oman to allow temple, gurdwara |website=[[Sify]] |date=24 November 2010 |access-date=14 January 2014}} === Education === {{Main|Education in Oman}} [[File:Dhofar University.jpg|thumb|{{Interlanguage link|Dhofar University|ar|جامعة ظفار}} in Salalah]] Oman scored high as of 2019 on the percentage of students who complete lower secondary school and on the literacy rate between the age of 15 and 24, 99.7 percent and 98.7 percent, respectively. However, Oman's net primary school enrolment rate in 2019, which is 94.1 percent, is rated as "challenges remain" by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDG) standard. Oman's overall evaluation in quality of education, according to UNSDG, is 94.8 ("challenges remain") as of 2019.Sustainable Development Report Dashboards 2019 Oman. [https://dashboards.sdgindex.org/#/OMN Sustainable Development Report Dashboards 2019 Oman] SDG Index. 2019. Oman's higher education produces a surplus in humanities and liberal arts, while it produces an insufficient number in technical and scientific fields and required skill-sets to meet the market demand. Further, sufficient human capital creates a business environment that can compete with, partner or attract foreign firms. Accreditation standards and mechanisms with a quality control that focuses on input assessments, rather than output, are areas of improvement in Oman, according to the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development 2014 report. The transformation Index BTI 2018 report on Oman recommends that the education curriculum should focus more on the "promotion of personal initiative and critical perspective". Oman was ranked 84th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2020, down from 80th in 2019.{{Cite web|title=Release of the Global Innovation Index 2020: Who Will Finance Innovation?|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|access-date=2 September 2021|website=wipo.int|language=en|archive-date=3 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603121259/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2020/index.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=Global Innovation Index 2019|url=https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|access-date=2 September 2021|website=wipo.int|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101818/https://www.wipo.int/global_innovation_index/en/2019/index.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=RTD – Item|url=https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|access-date=2 September 2021|publisher=European Commission|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902140715/https://ec.europa.eu/newsroom/rtd/items/691898|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|date=28 October 2013|title=Global Innovation Index|url=https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930|access-date=2 September 2021|website=INSEAD Knowledge|language=en|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902101622/https://knowledge.insead.edu/entrepreneurship-innovation/global-innovation-index-2930}} The adult literacy rate in 2010 was 86.9 percent.{{cite web|title=National adult literacy rates (15+), youth literacy rates (15–24) and elderly literacy rates (65+)|url=http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|publisher=UNESCO Institute for Statistics|access-date=18 January 2013|archive-date=29 October 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029183908/http://stats.uis.unesco.org/unesco/TableViewer/tableView.aspx?ReportId=210|url-status=live}} According to the [[Webometrics Ranking of World Universities]], the top-ranking universities in the country are [[Sultan Qaboos University]] (1678th worldwide), Dhofar University (6011th) and the [[University of Nizwa]] (6093rd).{{cite web|title=Oman |url=http://www.webometrics.info/en/aw/Oman |publisher=Ranking Web of Universities |access-date=26 February 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140221185619/http://www.webometrics.info/en/aw/Oman |archive-date=21 February 2014 }} === Health === {{Main|Health in Oman}} {{See also|Healthcare in Oman}} Since 2003, Oman's undernourished share of the population has dropped from 11.7 percent to 5.4 percent in 2016, but the rate remains high: double the level of high-income economies (2.7 percent) in 2016.Share of the Population that is Undernourished. [https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/prevalence-of-undernourishment?tab=chart&country=OMN+High%20income Our World in Data: Share of the population that is undernourished] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806082059/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/prevalence-of-undernourishment?tab=chart&country=OMN+High%20income |date=6 August 2020 }} Our World in Data. Retrieved 2019. The UNSDG targets zero hunger by 2030.Prevalence of Undernourishment. [https://sdg-tracker.org/zero-hunger UNSDG: Prevalence of undernourishment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190326131025/https://sdg-tracker.org/zero-hunger |date=26 March 2019 }} Sustainable Development Goals Tracker. Retrieved 2019. Oman's coverage of essential health services in 2015 was 77 percent, which is relatively higher than the world's average of approximately 54 percent during the same year, but lower than high-income economies' level (83 percent) in 2015.Healthcare Access and Quality Index. [https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/healthcare-access-and-quality-index?tab=chart&time=1990..2015&country=OMN+High-income Our World in Data: Healthcare Access and Quality Index] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806020130/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/healthcare-access-and-quality-index?tab=chart&time=1990..2015&country=OMN+High-income |date=6 August 2020 }} Since 1995, the percentage of Omani children who receive key vaccines has consistently been very high (above 99 percent). As for road incident death rates, Oman's rate has been decreasing since 1990, from 98.9 per 100,000 individuals to 47.1 per 100,000 in 2017, however, the rate remains significantly above average, which was 15.8 per 100,000 in 2017.Good Health. [https://sdg-tracker.org/good-health UNSDG: good health] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230427020651/https://sdg-tracker.org/good-health |date=27 April 2023 }} United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. Retrieved 2019. Oman's health spending to GDP between 2015 and 2016 averaged 4.3 percent, while the world's average during the same period averaged 10 percent. As for mortality due to air pollution (household and ambient air pollution), Oman's rate was 53.9 per 100,000 population as of 2016.{{Cite web|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272596/9789241565585-eng.pdf?ua=1|title=World Health Organization: "Monitoring Health for SDGs" 2018 report|access-date=29 September 2019|archive-date=1 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191001015440/https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/272596/9789241565585-eng.pdf?ua=1|url-status=live}} However, in 2019 the WHO ranked Oman as the least polluted country in the [[Arab world]], with a score of 37.7 in the [[Air Pollution Index|pollution index]]. The country ranked 112th in Asia among the list of highest polluted countries.{{cite web|url=https://www.omanobserver.om/oman-among-least-polluted-countries-in-asia/|title=Oman among least polluted countries in Asia|access-date=24 November 2019|website=Oman Observer|date=24 November 2019|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806084104/https://www.omanobserver.om/oman-among-least-polluted-countries-in-asia/|url-status=live}} Life expectancy at birth in Oman was estimated to be 76.1 years in 2010.{{cite web|title=Major Economic & Social Indicators|url=http://www.ncsi.gov.om/NCSI_website/book/mb/Dec2012/T1.pdf|publisher=National Center for Statistics & Information|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140514092309/http://www.ncsi.gov.om/NCSI_website/book/mb/Dec2012/T1.pdf|archive-date=14 May 2014|access-date=14 May 2014}} {{As of|2010}}, there were an estimated 2.1 physicians and 2.1 hospital beds per 1,000 people. In 1993, 89 percent of the population had access to health care services. In 2000, 99 percent of the population had access to health care services.{{Cite journal |last=Alshishtawy |first=Moeness M |title=Four Decades of Progress |journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal |year=2010 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=12–22 |doi=10.18295/2075-0528.1154 |issn=2075-051X |pmc=3074664 |pmid=21509077}} In 2000, Oman's health system was ranked number 8 by the WHO.{{cite web|title=World Health Organization Assesses the World's Health Systems|url=https://www.who.int/whr/2000/media_centre/press_release/en/|publisher=World Health Organization|access-date=5 October 2020|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111222713/https://www.who.int/whr/2000/media_centre/press_release/en/|url-status=live}} === Currency === The '''Omani rial''' (Arabic: ريال عُماني; ISO code: '''OMR''') is the official currency of the Sultanate of Oman. Issued by the [[Central Bank of Oman]] (CBO), the rial is subdivided into '''1,000 baisa''' (also written ''baiza'', بيسة) — making it one of only a handful of currencies in the world divided into 1,000 rather than 100 subunits. As of 2025, the Omani rial is the '''third-highest-valued currency unit in the world''', after the Kuwaiti dinar and the Bahraini dinar. == Culture == {{main|Culture of Oman}} [[File:DhowMuscat.jpg|thumb|The traditional [[dhow]], an enduring symbol of Oman{{cite web|title=Culture of Oman|url=http://www.omansultanate.com/culture.htm|publisher=Sultanate of Oman|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-date=6 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221206045024/http://www.omansultanate.com/culture.htm|url-status=live}}]] Outwardly, Oman shares many of the cultural characteristics of its Arab neighbours, particularly those in the [[Gulf Cooperation Council]]. Despite these similarities, important factors make Oman unique in the Middle East. These result as much from geography and history as from culture and economics.{{cite web|last=Common|first=Richard K.|title=Barriers To Developing 'Leadership' In The Sultanate Of Oman|url=http://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/ijls/new/vol6iss2/3_Common_pp215-229_jm.pdf|publisher=International Journal of Leadership Studies|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-date=9 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180409204103/https://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/ijls/new/vol6iss2/3_Common_pp215-229_jm.pdf|url-status=live}} The relatively recent and artificial nature of the [[state (polity)|state]] in Oman makes it difficult to describe a national culture; however, sufficient cultural heterogeneity exists within its national boundaries to make Oman distinct from other Arab States of the Persian Gulf. Oman's cultural diversity is greater than that of its Arab neighbours, given its historical expansion to the Swahili Coast and the Indian Ocean. Oman has a long tradition of shipbuilding, as maritime travel played a major role in the Omanis' ability to stay in contact with the civilisations of the ancient world. [[Sur, Oman|Sur]] was one of the most famous shipbuilding cities of the Indian Ocean. An [[Ghanjah|al Ghanja]] ship takes one whole year to build. Other types of Omani ship include As Sunbouq and Al Badan.{{cite web|title=The Ship Building Industry|url=http://www.omantourism.gov.om/wps/portal/mot/tourism/oman/detailsp/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3j_oMBgNz9XEwODED9zA09PE3MTLxdjYzcnE_2CbEdFANHQ-q8!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/mot_english_lib/mot/experience/culture/crafts/ship+building|publisher=Ministry of Tourism, Sultanate of Oman|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-date=1 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301092624/https://www.omantourism.gov.om/wps/portal/mot/tourism/oman/detailsp/!ut/p/c4/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3j_oMBgNz9XEwODED9zA09PE3MTLxdjYzcnE_2CbEdFANHQ-q8!/?WCM_GLOBAL_CONTEXT=/wps/wcm/connect/mot_english_lib/mot/experience/culture/crafts/ship+building}} ===Dress=== [[File:Khanjar.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Khanjar]], the traditional [[dagger]] of Oman ({{circa|1924}})]] The male [[national dress]] in Oman consists of the ''[[dishdasha]]'', a simple, ankle-length, collarless gown with long sleeves. Worn by nearly every Omani male, it is most frequently white in colour but may also appear in a variety of other colours. Its main adornment, a [[tassel]] (''furakha or farakh'') sewn into the neckline, can be impregnated with perfume.{{cite web|title=Culture|url=http://www.omanistudents.org/oman/culture/|publisher=Omani Students Society|access-date=20 January 2013|archive-date=23 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623075110/http://www.omanistudents.org/oman/culture/}} Underneath the dishdasha, men wear a plain, wide strip of cloth wrapped around the body from the waist down. The most noted regional differences in dishdasha designs are the style with which they are embroidered, which varies according to age group. On extremely formal occasions a black or beige cloak called a [[Bisht (clothing)|''bisht'']] may cover the dishdasha. The embroidery edging the cloak is often in silver or gold thread and it is intricate in detail. [[File:Sultanate of Oman Display Brisbane Mall-41 (6930110464).jpg|thumb|An Omani man wearing a beige ''[[Thawb|dishdasha]]'', a ''Musar'' with a ''[[Khanjar]]'' worn at his waist, holding an ''assa''.]] Omani men wear two types of headdress: * the ''ghutra'', also called "Musar" a square piece of woven wool or cotton fabric of a single colour, decorated with various embroidered patterns. Occasionally, an accessory similar to the [[Agal (accessory)|Agal]] called the [[Khizam]] is tied upon the Musar.{{Cite web |date=2015-09-07 |title=الخزام |url=https://alroya.om/post/143007/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%B2%D8%A7%D9%85 |access-date=2025-12-10 |website=جريدة الرؤية العمانية |language=ar}} * the ''kummah'', a cap that is the head dress worn during leisure hours. Some men carry the ''assa'', a stick, which can have practical uses or is simply used as an accessory during formal events. Omani men, on the whole, wear sandals on their feet. The [[Khanjar]] (dagger) forms part of the national dress and men wear the Khanjar on all formal public occasions and festivals. It is traditionally worn at the waist. Sheaths may vary from simple covers to ornate silver or gold-decorated pieces. A depiction of a Khanjar appears on the national flag.{{cite web|title = Human rights|date = 2 August 2015|url = https://www.amnesty.org/ar/documents/mde20/2192/2015/en|publisher = Amnesty International|access-date = 26 December 2015|archive-date = 12 July 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180712030729/https://www.amnesty.org/ar/documents/mde20/2192/2015/en/|url-status = live}} Omani women wear eye-catching national costumes, with distinctive regional variations. All costumes incorporate vivid colours and vibrant embroidery and decorations. The Omani women's traditional costume comprises several garments: the ''kandoorah'', which is a long tunic whose sleeves or ''radoon'' are adorned with hand-stitched embroidery of various designs. The ''dishdasha'' is worn over a pair of loose-fitting trousers, tight at the ankles, known as a ''[[sirwal]]''. Women also wear a head shawl most commonly referred to as the ''lihaf''. {{As of | 2014}} women reserve wearing their traditional dress for special occasions, and instead wear a loose black cloak called an ''[[abaya]]'' over their personal choice of clothing, whilst in some regions, particularly amongst the Bedouin, the ''[[burqa]]'' is still worn.{{cite web |title=Women's Traditional Clothing |url=http://www.omanculturaldays.com.au/exhibtion7.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130409220427/http://www.omanculturaldays.com.au/exhibtion7.html |archive-date=9 April 2013 |publisher=Oman Cultural Days Exhibition |access-date=20 January 2013 }} Women wear ''[[hijab]]'', and though some women cover their faces and hands, most do not. The Sultan has forbidden the covering of faces in public office. === Art === Traditional art in Oman stems from its long heritage of material culture. Art movements in the 20th century reveal that the art scene in Oman began with early practices that included a range of tribal handicrafts and self-portraiture in painting since the 1960s.{{Cite journal|last=Mazin|first=Aisha|date=16 June 2016|title=Contemporary Art in Oman: Spaces And Places|url=https://journal.collectionair.com/city-guides/contemporary-art-oman-spaces-places/|journal=The Collectionair's Journal|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=6 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806002419/https://journal.collectionair.com/city-guides/contemporary-art-oman-spaces-places/}} However, since the inclusion of several Omani artists in international collections, art exhibitions, and events, such Alia Al Farsi, the first Omani artist to show at the last [[Venice Biennale]] and Radhika Khimji, the first Omani artist to exhibit at both the [[Arts in Marrakech (AiM) International Biennale|Marrakesh]] and [[Ghetto Biennale|Haiti Ghetto biennale]], Oman's position as a newcomer to the contemporary art scene in recent years has been more important for Oman's international exposure.{{Cite journal|last=Choudhry|first=Sudipta|year=2017|title=Oman|journal=ArtAsiaPacific|volume=12|id={{ProQuest|1853304328}}}} [[File:Aflaj Gallery in The National Museum Oman,.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Ancient irrigation system and water channels.{{Cite news|url=https://timesofoman.com/article/121104|title=Oman National Museum a showcase of Sultanate's heritage and values|work=Times of Oman|access-date=28 November 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201222837/https://timesofoman.com/article/121104|url-status=live}} Aflaj Gallery, The National Museum of Oman.]] Bait Muzna Gallery is the first art gallery in Oman. Established in 2000 by Sayyida Susan Al Said, Bait Muzna has served as a platform for emerging Omani artists to showcase their talent and place themselves on the wider art scene. In 2016, Bait Muzna opened a second space in [[Salalah]] to branch out and support [[art film]] and the [[digital art]] scene. The gallery has been primarily active as an art consultancy.{{Cite web|url=https://www.baitmuznagallery.com/our-story|title=baitmuzna {{!}} Our Story|website=baitmuzna|access-date=27 November 2018|archive-date=23 August 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220823224526/https://www.baitmuznagallery.com/our-story}} The Omani Society for Fine Arts, established in 1993, offers educational programmes, workshops and artist grants for practitioners across varied disciplines. The Sultanate's flagship cultural institution, the [[National Museum (Oman)|National Museum of Oman]], opened on 30 July 2016 with 14 permanent galleries. It showcases national heritage from the earliest human settlement in Oman two million years ago through to the present day. The museum takes a further step by presenting information on the material in [[Arabic Braille]] script for the visually impaired, the first museum to do this in the Gulf region. [[Bait Al Zubair|Bait Al Zubair Museum]] is a private, family-funded museum that opened its doors to the public in 1998. In 1999, the museum received [[Qaboos bin Said al Said|Sultan Qaboos]]' Award for Architectural Excellence. Bait Al Zubair displays the family's collection of Omani artifacts.{{Cite web|url=http://www.baitalzubair.com/?page_id=107&lang=en|title=Bait Al Zubair {{!}} Bait Al Zubair|website=www.baitalzubair.com|access-date=27 November 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201222938/http://www.baitalzubair.com/?page_id=107&lang=en|url-status=live}} ===Music and cinema=== {{Main|Music of Oman|Cinema of Oman}} The [[Music of Oman]] is extremely diverse due to Oman's imperial legacy. There are over 130 different forms of traditional Omani songs and dances, with the Oman Centre for Traditional Music being created in 1984 to preserve them.{{cite web|title=Introduction|url=http://www.octm-folk.gov.om/meng/introduction.asp|publisher=Oman Centre for Traditional Music|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130315191325/http://www.octm-folk.gov.om/meng/introduction.asp|archive-date=15 March 2013}} All of Oman's traditional music is sustained by oral transmission between generations, and each region has its own unique forms. There are songs for special occasions, songs for [[Sailor|seafarers]], [[Fisherman|fishermen]], [[Bedouin|Bedouins]] and mountain farmers. Traditional songs originating from the desert are often in praise of the [[camel]], which has been described in the [[Quran|Holy Quran]]. Al Taghrud, sung while riding camels, and Al Taariq, a Bedouin song with two singers taking turns to sing verses, are two of the best examples of traditional desert songs.{{Cite web |last=Yousuf |first=Kabeer |date=2018-06-09 |title=Traditional music maintains link with past, culture |url=https://www.omanobserver.om/article/54817/Features/traditional-music-maintains-link-with-past-culture |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=Oman Observer |language=en}} [[File:01.13.SFLF.WDC.23jun05 (23320043).jpg|thumb|An Omani Razfa dance]] Omani traditional dances include Al-Razha, a traditional war dance characterised by its use of the sword and its exchange of poetry between men.{{Cite web |title=Traditional Dancers |url=https://www.safaridesert.com/tours/Traditional-Dancers/#:~:text=Description,between%20them,%20terminating%20the%20fight. |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=www.safaridesert.com}} [[Yowlah|Al Razfa]], also known as the Yowlah, is performed by men, where two rows form to create a dual chorus that delivers chants and poetry in an antiphonal style, accompanied by drums and other instruments. The music and poetry performed during the dance is referred to as ''Harbiya'' music, with Omani Harbiya groups frequently performing at weddings, cultural festivals, national celebrations, and community gatherings.{{Cite web |last=MENAFN |title=Oman- Poetry, performance, dance and drums |url=https://menafn.com/1096440964/Oman-Poetry-performance-dance-and-drums |access-date=2025-07-05 |website=menafn.com |language=en}} In 1985, Sultan Qaboos founded the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra. Instead of engaging foreign musicians, he decided to establish an orchestra made up of Omanis.{{cite web |title=The Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra |url=http://www.oman-tours.com/about-oman/culture-overview-crafts-architecture-music-arts/musicdance/royal-symphony-orchestra-oman/ |publisher=Oman Tours |access-date=20 January 2013 |archive-date=4 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130504171957/http://www.oman-tours.com/about-oman/culture-overview-crafts-architecture-music-arts/musicdance/royal-symphony-orchestra-oman/ |url-status=live }} On 1 July 1987 at the Al Bustan Palace Hotel's Oman Auditorium the Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra gave its inaugural concert. {{cite web|title=The Royal Oman Symphony Orchestra |url=http://main.omanobserver.om/node/29415|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130507102754/http://main.omanobserver.om/node/29415|archive-date=7 May 2013|work=Oman Observer|date=9 November 2010}} In popular music, a seven-minute music video about Oman went viral, achieving 500,000 views on YouTube within 10 days of being released on YouTube in November 2015. The a cappella production features three of the region's most popular talents: Kahliji musician Al Wasmi, Omani poet Mazin Al-Haddabi and actress Buthaina Al Raisi.{{cite web|url=http://omanobserver.om/loveoman-video-goes-viral-with-500-000-views/|title=#LoveOman video goes viral with 500, 000 views – Oman Observer|date=13 November 2015|website=Oman Observer|access-date=19 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827031258/http://omanobserver.om/loveoman-video-goes-viral-with-500-000-views/|archive-date=27 August 2016}} [[File:Sur-Cinema (3).JPG|thumb|left|Cinema in Sur]] The [[cinema of Oman]] is very small, there being only one Omani film ''Al-Boom'' (2006) {{as of | 2007 | lc = on}}. Oman Arab Cinema Company LLC is the single largest motion picture exhibitor chain in Oman.City Cinema.( 2014 ).About Us. Retrieved 4 March 2016, from {{cite web |url=http://citycinemaoman.net/about_us.html |title=City Cinema Oman | Cinema Theatres in Oman | Book Movie Tickets Online in Oman | Movie theatres in Oman | Oman Movie Theatre Tickets Online Booking |access-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160213140651/http://citycinemaoman.net/about_us.html |archive-date=13 February 2016 }} ===Media=== {{main|Mass media in Oman}} The government has continuously held a monopoly on television in Oman. [[Sultanate of Oman Television|Oman TV]] is the only state-owned national television channel broadcaster in Oman. Oman TV broadcasts four HD channels, including Oman TV General, Oman TV Sport, Oman TV Live and Oman TV Cultural.{{Cite web|url=http://part.gov.om/part/english/|title=Public Authority for Radio and Tv|website=part.gov.om|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304035303/http://part.gov.om/part/english/}} Although private ownership of radio and television stations is permitted, Oman has only one privately owned television channel.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654265|title=Oman profile – Media|date=13 January 2015|publisher=BBC|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201235859/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654265|url-status=live}} Majan TV is the first private TV channel in Oman. It began broadcasting in January 2009. However, Majan TV's official channel website was last updated in early 2010.{{Cite web|url=http://www.majan-tv.com/majan.htm|title=مجان|website=majan-tv.com|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201093002/http://www.majan-tv.com/majan.htm}} The public has access to foreign broadcasts since the use of satellite receivers is allowed.{{Cite journal|last=Katzman|first=Kenneth|date=9 November 2018|title=Oman: Reform, Security, and U.S. Policy|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RS21534.pdf|journal=Congressional Research Service|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413111934/https://fas.org/sgp/crs/mideast/RS21534.pdf|url-status=live}} Oman Radio is the first and only state-owned radio channel. It began broadcasting on 30 July 1970.{{Cite web|url=http://part.gov.om/omanradio/index.jsp|title=إذاعــة سلـطنة عمان ~ الإذاعة العامة|website=part.gov.om|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=2 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202035839/http://part.gov.om/omanradio/index.jsp}} It operates both Arabic and English networks. Other private channels include Hala FM, Hi FM, Al-Wisal, Virgin Radio Oman FM and Merge. In early 2018, Muscat Media Group (MMG) launched a new private radio station.{{Cite news|url=https://timesofoman.com/article/127318|title=New radio stations T FM and Shabiba FM have officially launched in Oman|date=31 January 2018|work=Times of Oman}}{{Cite web|url=http://mediate-oman.com/listings/muscat-media-group/|title=Muscat Media Group Profile|website=Mediate}}{{Cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/oman|title=Oman|date=23 April 2015|website=Freedom House|access-date=27 November 2018|archive-date=2 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202070519/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/oman}} Oman has nine main newspapers, five in Arabic and four in English.{{Cite web|url=http://mediate-oman.com/media-list/|title=The Media List|website=Mediate|access-date=1 December 2018|archive-date=1 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181201232827/http://mediate-oman.com/media-list/|url-status=live}} The media landscape in Oman has been continuously described as restrictive, censored, and subdued.{{Cite web|url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/oman|title=Oman|website=freedomhouse.org|access-date=27 November 2018|date=23 April 2015|archive-date=2 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202070519/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/oman}} The Ministry of Information censors politically, culturally, or sexually offensive material in domestic or foreign media. The press freedom group [[Reporters Without Borders]] ranked the country 127th out of 180 countries on its 2018 World Press Freedom Index. In 2016, the government drew international criticism for suspending the newspaper ''[[Azamn]]'' and arresting three journalists after a report on corruption in the country's judiciary. ''Azamn'' was not allowed to reopen in 2017 although an appeal court ruled in late 2016 that the paper can resume operating.{{Cite news|url=https://rsf.org/en/ranking|title=2018 World Press Freedom Index {{!}} Reporters Without Borders|publisher=Reports Without Borders|access-date=27 November 2018|archive-date=28 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200428075902/https://rsf.org/en/ranking|url-status=live}} === Cuisine === {{Main|Omani cuisine}} [[File:Traditional Omani Food.jpg|thumb|Traditional Omani food]] Omani cuisine is diverse and has been influenced by many cultures. Omanis usually eat their main daily meal at midday, while the evening meal is lighter. During [[Ramadan]], dinner is typically served after the [[Taraweeh]] prayers, sometimes as late as 11 pm. Arsia, a festival meal served during celebrations, consists of mashed rice and meat (sometimes chicken). Another popular festival meal, shuwa, consists of meat cooked very slowly (sometimes for up to 2 days) in an underground clay oven. Fish is often used in main dishes too, and the [[Giant trevally|kingfish]] is a popular ingredient. Mashuai is a meal consisting of a whole spit-roasted kingfish served with lemon rice. Rukhal bread is a thin, round bread eaten at any meal, typically served with Omani honey for breakfast or crumbled over curry for dinner. The Omani [[Halva|halwa]] is a very popular sweet, consisting of cooked raw sugar with nuts. There are many different flavours, the most popular ones being black halwa (original) and saffron halwa. Halwa is considered a symbol of Omani hospitality, traditionally served with coffee. As is the case with most [[Arab states of the Persian Gulf]], alcohol is only available over the counter to non-Muslims. === Sports === [[File:MuscatGulfCup2.jpg|thumb|left|Oman hosted and won the [[19th Arabian Gulf Cup]]]] In October 2004, the Omani government set up a Ministry of Sports Affairs to replace the General Organisation for Youth, Sports and Cultural Affairs. The [[19th Arabian Gulf Cup]] took place in [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]], from 4 to 17 January 2009 and was won by the [[Oman national football team|Omani national football team]]. The [[23rd Arabian Gulf Cup]] that took place in [[Kuwait]], from 22 December 2017 until 5 January 2018 with Oman winning their second title, defeating the [[United Arab Emirates national football team|United Arab Emirates]] in the final. Oman's traditional sports are [[dhow]] racing, [[horse racing]], [[camel racing]], [[bull fighting]] and [[falconry]].Nazneen Akbari [http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/features/traditional-sports-in-oman-relics-of-the-rich-arabian-history_11539 Traditional sports in Oman – relics of the rich Arabian history] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180522043521/http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/features/traditional-sports-in-oman-relics-of-the-rich-arabian-history_11539 |date=22 May 2018 }}, ''Your Middle East'', 29 April 2013. Retrieved 11 January 2016. Association football, [[basketball]], [[waterskiing]] and [[sandboarding]]Surf The Sand [https://sand-boarding.com/sandboarding/#Where_can_you_practice_sandboarding Where can you practice sandboarding?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609165921/https://sand-boarding.com/sandboarding/#Where_can_you_practice_sandboarding |date=9 June 2023 }}, ''Sand-boarding.com'', 29 April 2021. Retrieved 20 March 2022. are among the sports that have emerged quickly and gained popularity among the younger generation. Oman, along with [[Fujairah]] in the [[UAE]], are the only regions in the Middle East that have a variant of [[bullfighting]], known as 'bull-butting', organised within their territories.{{cite web|title=Bullfighting à la Batinah|url=http://www.roughguides.com/destinations/middle-east/oman/al-batinah-al-dhahirah/bullfighting-%C3%A0-la-batinah/|website=Rough Guides|access-date=8 September 2014|archive-date=10 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010153353/https://www.roughguides.com/destinations/middle-east/oman/al-batinah-al-dhahirah/bullfighting-%c3%a0-la-batinah/}} Al-Batena area in Oman is specifically prominent for such events. [[File:Flickr - tpower1978 - World Cup Qualifiers (7).jpg|thumb|2010 FIFA World Cup Qualifiers Round 3 match between [[Oman national football team|Oman]] and [[Japan national football team|Japan]] at the Royal Oman Police Stadium on 7 June 2008 in Muscat, Oman]] The [[Oman Olympic Committee]] played a major part in organising the highly successful 2003 Olympic Days, which were of great benefit to the sports associations, clubs, and young participants. The [[Association football|football]] association took part, along with the [[handball]], [[basketball]], [[rugby union]], [[field hockey]], [[volleyball]], [[sport of athletics|athletics]], swimming and [[tennis]] associations. In 2010 Muscat hosted the [[2010 Asian Beach Games]]. Oman featured a men's national team in [[beach volleyball]] that competed at the [[2018–2020 AVC Beach Volleyball Continental Cup]].{{cite news |title=Continental Cup Finals start in Africa |url=https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |access-date=7 August 2021 |work=[[FIVB]] |date=22 June 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807141038/https://www.fivb.com/en/about/news/continental-cup-finals-start-in-africa?id=94414 |url-status=live }} Oman also hosts tennis tournaments each year. The [[Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex]] stadium contains a 50-metre swimming pool that is used for international tournaments. The Tour of Oman, a professional cycling 6-day stage race, takes place in February. Oman hosted the Asian [[2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup qualification (AFC)|2011 FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup qualifiers]], where 11 teams competed for three spots at the [[FIFA Beach Soccer World Cup|FIFA World Cup]]. Oman hosted the Men's and Women's [[2012 Beach Handball World Championships]] at the Millennium Resort in Mussanah, from 8 to 13 July.{{cite web |url=http://www.muscatmutterings.com/2012/07/beach-handball-2012-world-championships.html |title=The Beach Handball 2012 World Championships |date=8 July 2012 |access-date=24 September 2012 |archive-date=14 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120714033118/http://www.muscatmutterings.com/2012/07/beach-handball-2012-world-championships.html |url-status=live }} The first "[[El Clásico|El Clasico]]" to be played outside of Spain, was played on 14 March 2014, at the Sultan Qaboos Sports Complex.{{Cite web|title=Legends Cup promises to be true battle for honours - 'a la clasico'|url=https://www.pressreader.com/oman/times-of-oman/20140312/282166469117894|access-date=9 November 2020|via=PressReader|archive-date=7 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220407142147/https://www.pressreader.com/oman/times-of-oman/20140312/282166469117894|url-status=live}} Oman has competed repeatedly for a position in the [[FIFA World Cup]], but have not yet qualified to compete in the tournament. In [[cricket]], Oman qualified for the [[2016 ICC World Twenty20]] and the 2021 T20 Cricket World Cup. On 25 June 2021, it was confirmed that Oman will co-host the [[2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup|2021]] edition of the [[ICC Men's T20 World Cup]] alongside the United Arab Emirates.{{Cite web|last=Acharya|first=Shayan|title=T20 World Cup: Oman to host 'minimum six' games|url=https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/t20-world-cup-oman-to-host-minimum-six-matches-bcci-icc-sourav-ganguly-jay-shah/article35370648.ece|access-date=17 July 2021|website=Sportstar|date=16 July 2021|language=en|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716183900/https://sportstar.thehindu.com/cricket/t20-world-cup-oman-to-host-minimum-six-matches-bcci-icc-sourav-ganguly-jay-shah/article35370648.ece|url-status=live}} In 2024, Oman participated in the [[Touch World Cup#2024 - England (Nottingham)|2024 Touch Rugby World Cup]] in [[Nottingham]], which was its first participation in an international rugby tournament.{{cite web |author=Ahmed Al Kaabi |date=2024-04-25 |title=Oman qualify for Touch Rugby World Cup in UK |url=https://www.omanobserver.om/article/1152836/sports/other-sports/oman-qualify-for-touch-rugby-world-cup-in-uk |access-date=2024-10-09 |website=Oman Observer}} == Gallery == File:001027-Muscat-IMG 6483-2.jpg|A mosque in [[Muscat]], Oman File:Fort Mutrah in Muscat, Oman.jpg|Mutrah Fort, [[Muscat]], Oman File:Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque in Muscat, Oman.jpg|Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque, [[Muscat]], Oman File:001025-Muscat-IMG 5662-2.jpg|Sultan's Ship, Mutrah, [[Muscat]], Oman File:001024-Muscat-Pan1-2.jpg|Al Amarat Hills, [[Muscat]], Oman File:001027-Muscat-IMG 6501-2.jpg|Al Azaiba Beach, [[Muscat]], Oman File:001026-Muscat-IMG 6183-2.jpg|Library of [[Sultan Qaboos Grand Mosque]], [[Muscat]], Oman == See also == {{portal|Oman|Countries|Asia }} * [[Omanis]] * [[Outline of Oman]] * [[Sultan Haitham City]] {{Clear}} == Notes == {{Reflist|group="note"}} {{notelist}} == References == {{Reflist|refs= {{cite web |url=https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history/oman-and-the-second-world-war |title=The Second World War |access-date=9 August 2024 |publisher=[[Royal Air Force Museum]] }} {{cite web |url=https://old.xray-mag.com/content/german-ww2-u-boat-located-oman |title=German WW2 u-boat located off Oman |access-date=9 August 2024 |work=X-Ray Mag |date=September 16, 2011 }} {{cite web |url=https://gulfnews.com/uae/what-lies-beneath-nazi-wreck-off-fujairah-1.554341 |title=What lies beneath: Nazi wreck off Fujairah |access-date=9 August 2024 |work=[[Gulf News]] |date= December 17, 2009 |first=Derek |last=Baldwin }} {{cite web |url=https://www.nevingtonwarmuseum.com/oman.html |title=Oman |access-date=9 August 2024 |work=NevingtonWarMuseum.com }} }} == External links == {{Sister project links|auto=yes}} * [https://mht.gov.om/ Ministry of Tourism] (official government website) * [https://experienceoman.om/ Experience Oman] (official government website) * [https://web.archive.org/web/20260114081940/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/oman/ Oman]. ''[[The World Factbook]]''. [[Central Intelligence Agency]]. * {{GovPubs|oman}} * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-14654150 Oman] from the [[BBC News]]. * [https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history/the-sultanate-of-oman/ The Sultanate of Oman] at RAF Museum * {{Wikiatlas|Oman}} {{Oman topics}} {{Navboxes |title = Related articles |list = {{Countries and territories of the Middle East}} {{Countries of Asia}} {{Countries bordering the Persian Gulf}} {{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}} {{Arabian Plate}} {{Countries bordering the Arabian Sea}} {{Gulf Cooperation Council}} {{Arab League}} {{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) |collapsed}} {{Monarchies |collapsed}} }} {{Authority control}} {{Coord|21|N|57|E|type:country_region:OM|display=title}} __FORCETOC__ [[Category:Oman| ]] [[Category:750s establishments]] [[Category:751 establishments]] [[Category:Arabian Peninsula]] [[Category:Countries and territories where Arabic is an official language]] [[Category:Countries in Asia]] [[Category:Islamic states]] [[Category:Member states of the Arab League]] [[Category:Member states of the Gulf Cooperation Council]] [[Category:Member states of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation]] [[Category:Member states of the United Nations]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 750s]] [[Category:Sultanates]] [[Category:Countries in West Asia]] [[Category:Middle East]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1970]]