{{Short description|Series of military campaigns by the Mongol Empire}}
[[File:Mongol Empire map.gif|thumb|The Mongol Empire at its greatest extent (1206–1294)]]
{{Campaignbox Mongol invasions and conquests}}

The '''Mongol conquests''' took place during the 13th and 14th centuries, creating the [[List of largest empires|largest contiguous empire]] in history, the [[Mongol Empire]] (1206–1368), which by 1260 covered a significant portion of [[Eurasia]]. At its height, it stretched from the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] to [[Central Europe]]. As the Mongol Empire began to [[Division of the Mongol Empire|fragment]] from 1260, [[List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|conflict between the Mongols and Eastern European polities]] continued for centuries. Mongols continued to rule [[China]] into the 14th century under the [[Yuan dynasty]], while Mongol rule in [[Iranian plateau|Persia]] persisted into the 15th century under the [[Timurid Empire]]. In the [[Indian subcontinent]], the later [[Mughal Empire]] survived into the 19th century.

==Background==
{{Main|Rise of Genghis Khan}}
[[File:Mongol Empire polities circa 1200.png|thumb|left|upright=1.3|The major tribes of the [[Mongolian plateau]] and nearby polities in the mid-12th century|alt=Map of the Mongol tribes and nearby polities in the early thirteenth century]]

The predecessors of the [[Mongols|Mongol tribe]] were first recorded in the late tenth century, as they migrated from eastern [[Manchuria]] into the [[Mongolian Plateau]], where they settled southeast of [[Lake Baikal]] near the mountain [[Burkhan Khaldun]].{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=389|Dunnell|2023|2p=21}} During the twelfth century, the Mongols rose to prominence as its [[khan (title)|khans]] made allies and led raids on the Chinese [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]]. The killing of the khans [[Hotula Khan|Qutula]] and [[Ambaghai]] in the 1160s ended this first confederation.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1pp=389–390|May|2018|2p=12|Dunnell|2023|3p=24}} The Mongols were reduced to comparative penury;{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1p=12|Dunnell|2023|2p=24}} other tribes, such as the [[Naimans]] in the west of the plateau and [[Kerait]] in the centre, became much more powerful, while the Mongols competed with smaller tribes like the [[Merkit]] and the [[Tatar confederation|Tatars]], the allies of the Jin, in the east and north.{{sfnm|Jackson|2014|1pp=35–36|May|2018|2p=10}}

One nephew of Qutula Khan, named [[Yesugei]], had some success fighting against the Tatars,{{sfn|May|2018|pp=19–20}} and was a great friend of [[Toghrul]], the [[Khan (title)|khan]] of the Kerait.{{sfn|Dunnell|2023|p=25}} With his wife [[Hö'elün]], whom [[bride kidnapping|he had abducted]] from her previous Merkit husband, Yesugei had several children, including a boy named Temüjin (the future [[Genghis Khan]]) who was born {{circa|1162}}.{{sfnm|Broadbridge|2018|1pp=45–48|May|2018|2pp=21–22}}

[[File:YuanEmperorAlbumGenghisPortrait.jpg|thumb|right|upright=.7|A 1278 portrait of [[Genghis Khan]]]]

Yesugei was poisoned by Tatars when Temüjin was still young and Hö'elün's family were abandoned by their tribe on the steppe.{{sfnm|Biran|2012|1p=34|Dunnell|2023|2p=25}} They survived the hostility of other tribes and the dangers of the steppe itself, while Temüjin killed [[Behter|his older half-brother]] to secure his familial position.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=98|Biran|2012|2p=34}} As an adult, Temüjin formed alliances with [[Toghrul]] of the Kerait and an old friend named [[Jamukha]] who was now leader of his own tribe; they worked together to retrieve Temüjin's newlywed wife [[Börte]], who had been kidnapped by Merkit raiders in retaliation for Hö'elün's abduction.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=34–36|May|2022a|2pp=55–56}}

The victory over the Merkit brought Temüjin prestige and a considerable following; although he and Jamuqa initially remained close, their individual ambitions soon conflicted and turned hostile.{{sfnm|Biran|2012|1p=35|Dunnell|2023|2p=25}} In 1187, Jamukha [[Battle of Dalan Baljut|decisively defeated]] Temüjin, who took refuge in China.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=49–50|May|2022a|2p=57}} Sponsored by the Jin, he returned to the steppe in 1196 and led a successful campaign with Toghrul against the Tatars in 1196, which re-established his prestige.{{sfnm|Biran|2012|1p=36|May|2022a|2pp=57–58}} Temüjin and Toghrul steadily increased their power over the next five years, culminating in a 1201 victory over a coalition led by Jamukha.{{sfnm|Biran|2012|1p=36|May|2018|2pp=34–35}} In 1202, Temüjin eradicated the Tatars; this left the Mongols as the preeminent power in eastern Mongolia.{{sfn|May|2018|p=36}} Relations with Toghrul ruptured in 1203, but Temüjin [[Baljuna Covenant|managed to avoid defeat]] and subdued the Kerait.{{sfnm|May|2022a|1pp=60–61|Dunnell|2023|2pp=26–27}} The Naimans were subjugated and Jamukha was executed in the next two years.{{sfnm|Biran|2012|1pp=38–39|Dunnell|2023|2p=27}} With these victories, Temüjin became the undisputed ruler of a newly unified people—the [[Mongol Empire]].{{sfnm|Biran|2012|1p=39|May|2022a|2p=64|Dunnell|2023|3p=27}}

==Military==
{{main|Military of the Mongol Empire}}
[[File:Pursuit by Mongol Warriors (Diez Albums).jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|14th-century depiction of Mongol warriors in lamellar armour, on Mongolian ponies and using unique cavalry techniques, pursuing their enemy]]
The [[Military of the Mongol Empire|Mongol military]] eliminated the traditional weaknesses of [[Nomadic empire|nomadic armies]]{{efn|Such [[Eurasian nomads]] included the [[Alans]], the [[Huns]], the [[Pannonian Avars]], the [[First Turkic Khaganate|First]] and [[Second Turkic Khaganate]]s, the [[Khazars]], the [[Uyghur Khaganate]], the [[Oghuz Turks]], and the [[Cumans]].{{sfn|Golden|2002|pp=108–123}}}} and built upon their tactical strengths to become one of the most formidable armed forces in history.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=348|May|2023|2p=460}} Previous nomadic armies were based on the skill of [[Mounted archery|horse-archers]]—armoured [[cavalry]] able to shoot accurately and quickly with [[composite bow]]s—who often overwhelmed their enemies with their speed and mobility, [[ambush]]es, or [[feigned retreat]]s. However, their shortcomings included poor [[siege warfare]] capabilities, an inability to satisfactorily [[Military occupation|occupy defeated enemies]], and above all a lack of [[military discipline]], which often in resulted in disunity or even, after a defeat, disintegration.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=348|May|2007|2p=138}} The reforms initiated by Genghis Khan allowed the Mongol army to resolve these weaknesses, but their capabilities continued to evolve in response to new threats or opportunities to encompass, according to [[Christopher P. Atwood|Christopher Atwood]], "a vision of comprehensive warfare unique in the Middle Ages".{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=348|May|2023|2pp=460–461}}

===Focus and aims===
To Genghis Khan, Atwood believes, "war was a personal vendetta against willfully defiant rulers" who had disrespected him or the Mongols.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=349}} The broadening of these aims into a goal of [[world conquest]] was a gradual one;{{sfn|Biran|2012|p=73}} [[David O. Morgan|David Morgan]] argued that the Mongols "came round to the idea when they found that they were, in fact, conquering the world".{{sfn|Jackson|2017|p=75}} The attractiveness of the idea was enhanced by the Mongol army's continuous success.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=349|Biran|2012|2p=73}} By the time of the rule of [[Güyük Khan]] ({{reign|1246|1248}}), as he stated to the papal envoy [[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine|Carpini]], it had developed into official ideology.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=349}}

{{blockquote|from the rising of the sun to its setting, all the lands have been made subject to me. Who could do this contrary to the command of God?}}

===Soldiers, horses, and equipment===
Every adult{{efn|15 years old or over.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=350}}}} Mongol man was a soldier;{{sfnm|Lane|2006|1p=95|Jackson|2014|2p=41}} when not called up, they resumed their traditional [[Pastoralism|pastoralist]] way of life.{{sfn|May|2023|p=464}} They received no army pay save plunder, which was divided post-battle according to each soldier's contribution.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=350}} Most were horse-archers, having learned to ride since childhood.{{sfnm|Lane|2006|1pp=100–101|May|2007|2pp=42–43}} The small [[Mongolian horse|Mongolian breed]] was strong, quiet, and particularly hardy—although usually not [[shod]], one could travel {{convert|600|mi|km}} in nine days. A Mongol soldier took on campaign, on average, five or six horses to ride on alternate days. Ill-treatment of horses, such as eating before tending to their needs, could be [[death penalty|punishable by death]].{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=349|Lane|2006|2pp=100–101}}

The [[Mongol bow|Mongol composite bow]], made of wood and [[horn (anatomy)|horn]], had a normal range of around {{convert|325|m|ft}}, but in favourable conditions it could reach {{convert|530|m|ft}}.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=349}}{{efn|By comparison, the [[medieval European crossbow]] was accurate up to {{convert|75|m|ft}}, while the [[English longbow]] had an effective range of {{convert|220|m|ft}}.{{sfn|May|2007|p=50}}}} Mongol soldiers, who all had at least one bow, carried them alongside two or three [[quiver]]s containing [[arrow]]s. Most [[arrowhead]]s were of usual shape and construction, but the Mongols also used special arrows which whistled, stunned, or pierced.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1pp=349–350|Lane|2006|2p=102|May|2007|3pp=51–52}} A major drawback of the bow was that it could not be used in the rain or damp weather. The Mongols preferred to not engage in close combat with forces who would usually be superior in that aspect,{{sfn|May|2007|p=52}} but nevertheless carried a wide range of [[Hand-to-hand combat|hand-to-hand weaponry]], including [[lance]]s, [[mace (bludgeon)|mace]]s, [[axe]]s, [[spear]]s, or [[club (weapon)|club]]s.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=350|Lane|2006|2p=102}} The majority of Mongol soldiers had little or no [[armour]], wearing as little as a [[deel (clothing)|deel]] (heavy coat) with an undergarment of dog or goat skin, accompanied by thick [[felt]] boots and [[List of fur headgear|fur hats]]. Wealthier Mongols could afford [[lamellar armour]], preferred to [[Chain mail|metal mail]] because of its easy manufacture and greater effectiveness against arrows. Conical helmets were usually made of iron.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=350|Lane|2006|2p=98|May|2007|3p=53}} [[Shield]]s were used by [[Picket (military)|sentries]] or by dismounted cavalry.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=350}} Soldiers also had to carry equipment, including their tents.{{sfn|Lane|2006|p=102}}

===Organisation and preparation===
To ensure the old tribal loyalties disappeared, Genghis Khan assigned the soldiers of each tribe to different units, divided using a [[decimal|decimal system]], of his army.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=350|Jackson|2017|2p=65}} Another critical reform was the institution of strict military discipline across the whole army from general down to common soldier.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=250|May|2007|2p=47}} Officers were responsible for the training and equipping of the men under their command; comrades in units were ordered to protect each other in battle; and individual soldiers were forbidden from fleeing or looting without permission. If any soldier or unit failed in their duties, they were liable to be punished, often with execution.{{sfn|Lane|2006|pp=97–98}} Institutions such as the layout of army camps or the operation chain of command were standardised, and the role of the ''[[keshig]]'' (imperial guard) was centred to ensure it served as a [[military academy]] for future generals.{{sfn|Lane|2006|pp=96–97}}

The cohesion and unity of the Mongol military was a much greater factor in their success than any numerical superiority—{{sfn|Jackson|2014|pp=42–43}} the total strength available in Genghis's lifetime was likely between only 50,000 and 75,000 soldiers, and Mongol armies were almost always outnumbered.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|pp=351–352}} Before the [[Division of the Mongol Empire|division of the empire]], the army was divided into five formations: the regular army, the ''alginchin'' and ''tamma'' frontier troops, who served as scouts and nomadic garrisons respectively, the ''keshig'', and the ''qara'ul''/''qaraghul'', whose function is unclear but may have included guarding roads and the frontier.{{sfn|May|2023|pp=463–466}} All soldiers received a distinctive haircut, the uniqueness of which discouraged desertion.{{sfn|May|2023|p=464}}

The Mongols were accustomed to rest in late spring and summer. Campaigns were planned at summer ''[[kurultai]]''. Here, commanders were appointed and plans drawn up, often using [[military intelligence]] gathered from merchants or their own scouting networks.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1pp=350–351|May|2012|2p=133}} Mongol war plans balanced independent tactical thinking by commanders with a strict strategic timetable. This allowed coordinated movements between divisions hundreds of miles apart before they rendezvoused at pre-selected locations.{{sfn|May|2016|p=14}} Preparations would begin in autumn, and the campaign usually started in winter—unlike their enemies, the Mongols favoured fighting in cold weather.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|pp=350, 352}}

===Strategy and tactics===
[[File:Európai_tatárjárás_(1235-1242).png|thumb|upright=1.5|Map of the [[Mongol invasion of Europe]], showing the paths of individual columns dozens of miles apart which coordinated their movements to high levels of strategic precision]]
The Mongols usually planned a multi-pronged invasion, relying on their plans and scouting networks to allow individual columns to join with others.{{sfn|May|2012|p=133}} Moving armies were protected from surprise attacks by [[Screening (tactical)|scouting screens]] which ranged tens or hundreds of kilometers around the main force.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=351|May|2007|2pp=70–71}} They preferred to provoke the enemy ruler into an initial battlefield confrontation in which Mongol combat skill would prove decisive, followed by the destruction of smaller strongholds, and then the capture of the enemy capital.{{sfn|May|2007|p=83}} This sequence cut off any hierarchical communication, encouraged refugees to flee to the capital, decreasing the inhabitants' morale and supplies, and allowed the Mongols to obtain labour and materials to attack the best-defended fortresses.{{sfn|May|2012|p=134}} Often the enemy ruler was intensively pursued to prevent any force rallying around him.{{sfn|May|2007|p=84}} Similarly, individual divisions would unpredictably attack individual strongholds before quickly withdrawing, preventing local lords from helping their neighbours.{{sfn|May|2016|p=14}}{{efn|Timothy May, terming this the Mongols' "Tsunami Strategy", emphasises that it was not a [[scorched earth policy]] designed to make the region uninhabitable, but rather one aimed at halting and destroying any remaining military capability.{{sfn|May|2016|p=14}}}}

Mongol [[military tactics]] exploited their mastery as horse archers, emphasised their mobility, flexibility, and organisation, and generally aimed for a decisive total victory.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=352|May|2012|2p=71}} They included traditional steppe tactics such as ambushes or the famous [[feigned retreat]], which often lasted days before the Mongols confronted their tired pursuers on their chosen battlefield. Other tactics included [[Hit-and-run tactics|hit-and-run barrages]] which resembled the later European [[caracole]], specialised formations which disrupted enemy troops, or an "arrow storm" tactic which used the principle of [[concentrated firepower]] against a [[kill zone]].{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=352|May|2007|2pp=71–75}} [[Encirclement]] tactics were practised during the ''nerge'' great hunts, during which the Mongols formed circles many kilometres wide which gradually contracted, herding animals towards the center;{{sfn|May|2023|pp=462–463}} these hunts were sometimes used to extinguish [[guerilla]] resistance.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=352}}

The Mongols were initially poor at [[siege warfare]], only being able to conquer walls with the element of surprise.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=352}} However, they quickly learnt to incorporate Muslim and Chinese siege engineers into their armies.{{sfn|May|2012|p=132}} These artillery experts were used, in addition to sieges, on the battlefield, in [[naval warfare]], and in logistics. Their equipment included [[trebuchet]]s, [[mangonel]]s, [[Shell (projectile)|exploding shells]], flaming [[naphtha]], and the world's earliest-known [[cannon]], dating from the late 13th century; their tactics included [[sapping]], night attacks, and diverted bodies of water.{{sfn|Atwood|2004|pp=352–354}} The Mongols heavily used prisoners of war as [[Corvée|forced labour]] and [[human shields]] during sieges.{{sfn|May|2007|pp=78–79}} The spread of the Mongol military played a key role in technological diffusion across Eurasia, such as the transmission of trebuchets to China and [[gunpowder warfare]] to Europe.{{sfn|Allsen|2002|pp=266–267}} [[Naval warfare]] was generally only practised by the successor state of the [[Yuan dynasty]].{{sfn|May|2023|pp=477–478}}

Mongol armies also utilised terror tactics, [[psychological warfare]], and [[propaganda]]. The population of captured cities, aside from useful individuals such as craftsmen, were usually massacred.{{sfn|May|2023|p=467}} The Mongols encouraged news of these events to be exaggerated and spread as widely as possible, to terrify potential targets into surrendering before a costly siege.{{sfn|Lane|2006|p=117}} They exaggerated the size of their armies with rumours, [[Mannequin|dummies]] mounted on spare horses, or extra fires lit at night camps; they promoted rebellion in enemy territory; and they sought to pit potential rivals against each other.{{sfnm|May|2007|1pp=80–81|Jackson|2014|2pp=47–49}} Several accounts record that Mongol [[shaman]]s were believed to play pivotal roles in summoning rainstorms or snowstorms which hindered enemy forces.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=352|May|2007|2pp=81–82}}

==China==
{{Main|Mongol conquest of China|l1=Mongol conquest of China}}

===Western Xia===
{{main|Mongol conquest of Western Xia}}
The 1203 flight of their defeated Kerait enemies drew the attention of the Mongols south to their refuge, the sedentary state of [[Western Xia]], located on the [[Gansu corridor]].{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=590|May|2017a}} Although the Kerait were soon expelled for plundering the natives,{{sfn|May|2018|p=47}} Genghis ordered raids on the border territories in retribution in 1205 and in 1207, sacking the town of [[Wuluhai]] on the [[Yellow River]].{{sfn|May|2017a}} These raids gathered plunder, supplies, and intelligence.{{sfn|Dunnell|2023|p=32}} The Xia ruler [[Emperor Xiangzong of Western Xia|Emperor Xiangzong]] requested aid against the Mongols from the neighbouring [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]], who refused with the comment:{{sfn|Waterson|2013|p=38}}
{{blockquote|...it is to our advantage when our enemies attack one another. Wherein lies the danger to us?}}

====First invasion====
[[File:Mongol 1209.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Mongol invasion of Western Xia in 1209]]
In April 1209, Genghis launched a full-scale invasion of the Western Xia, aiming to conquer {{convert|400|km|mi}} of territory and take the Xia capital of [[Yinchuan|Zhongxingfu]].{{sfn|Wright|2022a|p=90}} Why Genghis escalated from raiding is unclear, though the simultaneous submission of the [[Uyghurs]] and the [[Qarluqs]] may have played a role.{{sfn|May|2017a}} Initial Xia resistance was fierce and repelled the Mongols, albeit with [[Pyrrhic victory|Pyrrhic casualties]]. Although the Mongols initially failed to provoke the Xia into attacking, another feigned retreat in August inflicted an overwhelming defeat on Xia forces.{{sfn|Wright|2022a|p=90}}

In autumn 1209, the Mongols attacked into the [[Helan Mountains|Alashan Mountains]] again and this time devastated the Xia armies, winning three battles and taking several towns.{{sfnm|Waterson|2013|1p=38|Dunnell|2023|2p=34}} However, their siege of Zhongxingfu proved difficult as they had no better [[siege equipment]] than crude [[battering ram]]s.{{sfn|May|2018|p=48}} In late October, an impatient Genghis ordered that [[Levee|dykes]] be built to divert the Yellow River into the city; the tactic initially worked, and by January the city was on the brink of capture, but then the earthworks burst and flooded the Mongol camp.{{sfnm|May|2012|1p=39|Wright|2022a|2p=91}} The Xia nevertheless sued for peace, believing that continual resistance against a superior military was futile.{{sfn|Wright|2022a|p=91}} In exchange for peace, Genghis received Xia as a [[vassal state]], one of Emperor Xiangzong's daughter's to marry, a large tribute of camels, falcons, and cloth, and a promise that Xia troops would assist the Mongol army.{{sfn|May|2018|p=48}}{{efn|Xiangzong made sure to emphasise that the troops he could provide would not be nomadic cavalry, the Xia having long since become sedentary.{{sfn|Wright|2022a|p=91}}}}

====Truce and second invasion====
[[File:Mongol 1226-1227.png|thumb|upright=1.3|Mongol invasion of Western Xia, 1226-1227]]
The Xia supported the Mongols during their subsequent wars against the Jin dynasty, which they initially took advantage of to assert old territorial grudges.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=591|Dunnell|2023|2pp=34–35}} However, the Xia became increasingly weary of Genghis's annual demands for their heavy cavalry to support Mongol troops.{{sfn|Wright|2022a|p=92}} In 1217, they outright refused, provoking a punitive Mongol expedition which surrounded Zhongxingfu for several months.{{sfnm|Waterson|2013|1p=46|Wright|2022a|2p=92}} While they did not provide troops for [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|the forthcoming invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire]] in 1218, traditionally recorded as the cause of their eventual downfall,{{sfn|Wright|2022a|pp=91–92}} it was more likely because they were already heavily supporting the campaigns of [[Muqali]], who Genghis left behind to deal with the Jin.{{sfn|Kwanten|1978|pp=33–34}} In 1222, the Xia even offered Muqali an extra 50,000 troops. However, the Xia by then deeply resented the Mongols' dismissive attitude towards them,{{sfnm|Kwanten|1978|1p=34|Wright|2022a|2p=92}} and in 1222–23 they broke off relations and re-allied with the Jin, who wanted to buy Xia horses.{{sfnm|Kwanten|1978|1p=45|Waterson|2013|2p=46}}

Muqali fought both the Jin and Xia until his death in 1223, and his son {{ill|Bo’ol|zh|孛鲁|ja|ボオル}} continued until late 1224, when he travelled to Mongolia to greet the returned Genghis Khan.{{sfn|Kwanten|1978|p=35}} Genghis attempted to make peace with the Xia, but no Xia noble was willing to become a hostage in Mongolia, so negotiations broke down.{{sfn|May|2018|p=65}} In spring 1226 the Mongols attacked from the northwest at [[Khara-Khoto]].{{sfn|Atwood|2004|p=591}} The cities of the [[Hexi Corridor]] including [[Jiuquan|Suzhou]], [[Zhangye|Ganzhou]], and [[Wuwei, Gansu|Xiliangfu]], were captured easily, since the Mongol army was now experienced in siege warfare, while the elderly Genghis directed operations from the cooler [[Qilian Mountains]].{{sfnm|Wright|2022a|1p=93|Dunnell|2023|2p=51}} In late 1226 the Mongols crossed the frozen Yellow River, routed a large Xia relief force, sacked [[Lingwu|Lingzhou]] in December, and besieged Zhongxingfu.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=591|Wright|2022a|2p=93}} The city held out for half a year, while Genghis directed operations against both holdouts in the Hexi Corridor and the Jin border. He died in the [[Liupan Mountains]] in August 1227. The Mongols suppressed news of his death before the capture of Zhongxingfu, whose population was massacred, including the royal family.{{sfnm|Wright|2022a|1p=94|Dunnell|2023|2p=51}} The territory and population of the Xia were incorporated into the Mongol Empire.{{sfnm|May|2018|1p=66|Wright|2022a|2pp=95–96}}

===Jin dynasty===
{{main|Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty}}

====Initial invasions (1208–1215)====
{{multiple image
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 | image1 = Bataille entre mongols & chinois (1211).jpeg
 | alt1 = Painting of cavalry pursuing and attacking other horsemen
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 | image2 = Chingiz Khan in battle - Collection of epic poems (1397-1398), f.49v - BL Or. 2780.jpg
 | alt2 = Painting of a confrontation between two groups of cavalry in a mountain pass.
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 | image3 = Siège de Beijing (1213-1214).jpeg
 | alt3 = Painting of a horseman, with other cavalry behind, approaching a large building.
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 | footer = Depictions of Mongol-Jin conflict from 14th-century Persian manuscripts. From top: the [[Yehuling Campaign]] (1211); a skirmish between Mongol and Jin cavalry; the Mongol general Samuqa besieging [[Zhongdu]] in 1215.
}}
Genghis had planned to attack the [[Jin dynasty (1115–1234)|Jin dynasty]] since 1206, but had waited to secure his other borders first.{{sfnm|Kwanten|1978|1p=32|Ratchnevsky|1991|2p=107}} He had several reasons for commencing warfare: to pay his soldiers through plundering the riches of North China, to avenge the long-past murder of his kinsman [[Ambaghai Khan]], to excise any semblance of Mongol subservience to the Jin, and even simply because he hated [[Wanyan Yongji]], the Jin emperor.{{sfnm|Franke|1994|1pp=251–252|Wright|2022b|2pp=105–106}} Although his army was outnumbered by approximately ten-to-one,{{efn|The historian Paul Ratchnevsky estimated the Mongol army in 1211 at 65,000 soldiers with 10,000 allies, while the Jin had 500,000 infantry and 120,000 cavalry.{{sfn|Ratchnevsky|1991|p=108}}}} Genghis opened hostilities in 1210 by refusing to pay tribute.{{sfn|Dunnell|2023|p=35}}

Mongol armies marched forth in spring 1211 in two divisions: the right (western) wing under Genghis's sons [[Jochi]], [[Chagatai Khan|Chagatai]], and [[Ögedei Khan|Ögedei]] captured several cities in the area of modern [[Hohhot]], while Genghis himself led the centre and left (eastern) wings to attack the Jin's northern frontier.{{sfnm|Allsen|1994|1p=351|Atwood|2026|2loc=Historical Commentary §39.2}} In this [[Yehuling Campaign]], Mongol armies crossed through "Wild Fox Pass"{{efn|{{lang-zh |c = 野狐嶺 |p = Yěhúlǐng }}{{sfn|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.4}}}} and inflicted a heavy defeat on Jin forces at the [[Battle of Huihe River]] on 26 September. Forces under [[Jebe]] then broke through the key [[Juyong Pass]], which guarded the road to the Jin capital at [[Zhongdu]], in October, and pillaged the city's environs until January 1212. In February, the Mongols retreated and captured three large cities north of the Juyong Pass; [[Muqali]] decisively defeated a large Jin reinforcement army at the [[Battle of Huanrzui]] that month.{{sfn|Secret History, trans. Atwood|loc=Appendix D}}{{sfn|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.2–39.4}} The aim of the 1211–1212 campaign was not to conquer territory, but as a [[chevauchée]] to plunder, gather information, and diminish Jin control in North China, before returning to Mongolia.{{sfnm|Allsen|1994|1p=351|Waterson|2013|2p=39}}

Genghis began a second campaign in August–October 1212. The Mongols crossed the Wild Fox Pass again and recaptured Xuandezhou ({{lang-zh |c = 宣德州}}, present-day [[Xuanhua, Zhangjiakou|Xuanhua]]) on the road to the Juyong Pass; although Genghis's son [[Tolui]] scaled the walls of nearby Dexingfu ({{lang-zh |c = 德興府}}, present-day [[Zhuolu Town|Zhuolu]]), the Mongols were unable to recapture it.{{sfn|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.6}} Genghis personally laid siege to [[Datong]], but although the Mongols obliterated a Jin army, the campaign nearly ended in disaster when the khan was wounded by an arrow, after which the Mongol armies withdrew.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1p=110|Atwood|2026|2loc=Historical Commentary §39.6}} The only other battle was Jebe's capture of Dongjing ({{lang-zh |c = 東京}}, present-day [[Liaoyang]]) on 5 January 1213 using a feigned retreat, although his army soon withdrew.{{sfn|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.3}}

Mongol armies returned in August 1213 and besieged Xuandezhou and Dexingfu for a third time, capturing both. They [[Battle of Jinshan|then defeated]] a huge army (estimated by contemporary chronicles at 100,000—300,000 troops) at [[Huailai]]; it was said that Jin corpses covered the ground for 40 ''[[li (unit)|li]]''. However, the Juyong Pass had been refortified strongly, and the Mongols were unable to quickly take it.{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=281|Atwood|2026|2loc=Historical Commentary §39.7}} In October Genghis's old ally, the merchant [[Ja'far Khwaja]], guided a Mongol column through a smuggling route{{efn|The Zijingguan Pass {{lang-zh |c = 紫荊関}}{{sfn|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.7}}}} to the southwest [[Flanking maneuver|to flank]] the Jin garrison of the Juyong Pass, who were trapped and massacred.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=110–111|Atwood|2004|2p=381|Qiu|2020|3p=148}} The Mongols thereafter controlled access to North China,{{sfnm|Atwood|2004|1p=381|Qiu|2020|2p=148}} which was in a state of chaos—the Jin general [[Hushahu]] had murdered Wanyan Yonji and set up a puppet ruler,{{efn|[[Hushahu]] was the Jin general who had been defeated comprehensively at the [[Battle of Huanrzui]] ("Badger's Mouth") in February 1212.{{sfn|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.2}}}} while rebellions had arisen in Jin territory, such as the [[Eastern Xia]] which took over [[Manchuria]].{{sfnm|Franke|1994|1pp=252–259|Atwood|2004|2p=277|Dunnell|2023|3p=36}}

From December, the Mongols pillaged the entire [[North China plain]] in three divisions. While they failed to capture Zhongdu and increasingly suffered from disease, the Jin capital was also starving.{{sfnm|Allsen|1994|1pp=351–352|Atwood|2026|2loc=Historical Commentary §39.8, §40.1}} Hushahu had been overthrown in November 1213, and the new Jin administration was receptive to peace terms. The treaty was signed on 30 April 1214, with terms including expensive tribute and humiliatingly, the concession of a Jin princess for Genghis to marry. The armies began returning to Mongolia in May.{{sfnm|Dunnell|2023|1p=36|Atwood|2026|loc=Historical Commentary §39.7, §40.1}} However, the peace was short-lived, as the [[Emperor Xuanzong of Jin|new Jin emperor]] moved their capital south to the more-defensible [[Kaifeng]]. While many Jin mutinies broke out at this sign of weakness, Genghis was also enraged and regarded the move as a violation of the treaty.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1p=114|May|2018|2p=54}} The Mongols invaded again in June, and while Muqali was deputised to attack Manchuria, Zhongdu was again besieged in the winter. This time, the weakened city could not hold out and it surrendered on 31 May 1215. By 1215, Genghis Khan's aims included territorial conquest.{{sfnm|Ratchnevsky|1991|1pp=114–115|Wright|2022b|2p=208|Atwood|2026|3loc=Historical Commentary §40.5}}

====Muqali's operations (1218–1223)====

====Total victory (1230–1234)====

===Song dynasty===
{{main|Mongol conquest of the Song dynasty}}

====Möngke's campaigns (1251–1259)====

====Bayan's campaign (1274–1276)====

====Extinguishing remnants (1276–1279)====

==East Asia==
{{main|Mongol invasions of Korea|l1=Mongol invasions of Korea|Mongol invasions of Tibet|l2=Tibet|Mongol invasions of Japan|l3=Japan}}
The Yuan dynasty established the top-level government agency [[Bureau of Buddhist and Tibetan Affairs]] to govern [[Tibet]], which was [[Mongol conquest of Tibet|conquered by the Mongols]] and [[Tibet under Yuan rule|put under Yuan rule]]. The Mongols also [[Mongol invasions of Sakhalin|invaded Sakhalin Island]] between 1264 and 1308. Likewise, Korea ([[Goryeo]]) became a [[Korea under Yuan rule|semi-autonomous vassal state]] of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years.

==Central Asia==
{{Main|Mongol campaigns in Central Asia}}
[[File:Bataille de vâliyân (1221).jpeg|thumb|left|[[Battle of Vâliyân]] (Spring of 1221) during the [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire]]]]

[[Genghis Khan]] forged the initial Mongol Empire in [[Central Asia]], starting with the unification of the nomadic tribes of the [[Merkit]]s, [[Tatars]], [[Keraites]], [[Turkic peoples|Turks]], [[Naimans]], and Mongols. The Buddhist [[Uyghurs]] of [[Qocho]] surrendered and joined the empire. He then continued expansion via [[Mongol conquest of the Qara Khitai|conquest of the Qara Khitai]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sinor |first1=Denis |title=Western Information on the Kitans and Some Related Questions |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=April 1995 |volume=115 |issue=2 |pages=262–269 |doi=10.2307/604669 |jstor=604669 }}</ref> and [[Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|of the Khwarazmian Empire]].

Large areas of [[Islam in Central Asia|Islamic Central Asia]] and [[Khorasan province|northeastern Persia]] were seriously depopulated,<ref>[http://www.worldtimelines.org.uk/world/asia/western/AD1250-1500 World Timelines – Western Asia – AD 1250–1500 Later Islamic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101202232313/http://worldtimelines.org.uk/world/asia/western/AD1250-1500 |date=2010-12-02 }}</ref> as every city or town that resisted the Mongols was destroyed. Each soldier was given a quota of enemies to execute according to circumstances. For example, after the conquest of [[Konye-Urgench|Urgench]], each Mongol warrior – in an army of perhaps two [[Tumen (unit)|tumen]]s (20,000 troops) – was required to execute 24 people, or nearly half a million people per said army.<ref>"[https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118121401/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |date=2012-01-18 }}", University of Washington.</ref>

Against the [[Alans]] and the [[Cumans]] ([[Kipchaks]]), the Mongols used divide-and-conquer tactics by first warning the Cumans to end their support of the Alans, whom they then defeated,<ref name=Halperin2000>{{cite journal |last=Halperin |first=Charles J. |title=The Kipchak Connection: The Ilkhans, the Mamluks and Ayn Jalut |journal=Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London |date=2000 |volume=63 |issue=2 |pages=229–245 |doi=10.1017/S0041977X00007205 |jstor=1559539 |s2cid=162439703 }}</ref> before rounding on the Cumans.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Sinor |first=Denis |title=The Mongols in the West |journal=Journal of Asian History |date=1999 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |jstor=41933117 }}</ref> The Alans were recruited into the Mongol forces and known as the [[Asud]], with one unit called "Right Alan Guard" that was combined with "recently surrendered" soldiers. Mongols and Chinese soldiers stationed in the area of the former state of Qocho and in Besh Balikh established a Chinese military colony led by Chinese general Qi Kongzhi.<ref name="Rossabi1983">{{cite book|author=Morris Rossabi|title=China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th–14th Centuries|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA255|year=1983|publisher=University of California Press|isbn=978-0-520-04562-0|pages=255–|access-date=2020-11-01|archive-date=2024-01-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080054/https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC&q=alan+guard+mongols&pg=PA255#v=snippet&q=alan%20guard%20mongols&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Europe==
{{Main|Mongol invasion of Europe}}
[[File:Bitwa pod Legnicą.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Battle of Legnica]] took place during the [[first Mongol invasion of Poland]].]][[File:Spisska nova ves...castle.jpg|thumb|200px|The [[Mongol invasion of Europe|Mongol invasion in the 13th century]] led to construction of mighty stone castles, such as [[Spiš Castle]] in [[Slovakia]].]]

The Mongols invaded and destroyed [[Mongol invasion of Volga Bulgaria|Volga Bulgaria]] and [[Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus'|Kievan Rus']], before invading [[First Mongol invasion of Poland|Poland]], [[Mongol invasion of Bulgaria and Serbia|Bulgaria]],  [[First Mongol invasion of Hungary|Hungary]] and other territories. Over the course of three years (1237–1240), the Mongols razed all the major cities of Russia with the exceptions of [[Novgorod]] and [[Pskov]].<ref name="BBC, Russia Timeline">{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1113655.stm|work=BBC News|title=BBC Russia Timeline|access-date=2018-03-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180318035844/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1113655.stm|archive-date=2018-03-18|url-status=live|date=2012-03-06}}</ref>

[[Giovanni da Pian del Carpine]], the Pope's envoy to the Mongol Great Khan, traveled through [[Kiev]] in February 1246 and wrote:{{Blockquote|text=They [the Mongols] attacked Russia, where they made great havoc, destroying cities and fortresses and slaughtering men; and they laid siege to Kiev, the capital of Russia; after they had besieged the city for a long time, they took it and put the inhabitants to death. When we were journeying through that land we came across countless skulls and bones of dead men lying about on the ground. Kiev had been a very large and thickly populated town, but now it has been reduced almost to nothing, for there are at the present time scarce two hundred houses there and the inhabitants are kept in complete slavery.<ref>[https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html The Destruction of Kiev] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html |date=2011-04-27 }}</ref>|sign=|source=}}

The Mongol invasions displaced populations on a scale never seen before in Central Asia or Eastern Europe. Word of the Mongol hordes' approach spread terror and panic.<ref name="Diana Lary 2012 49">{{cite book |author=Diana Lary |title=Chinese Migrations: The Movement of People, Goods, and Ideas over Four Millennia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_FDAXMsq1QC&pg=PT49 |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |page=49 |isbn=9780742567658 |access-date=2015-06-20 |archive-date=2023-07-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230729092658/https://books.google.com/books?id=w_FDAXMsq1QC&pg=PT49 |url-status=live }}</ref> The violent character of the invasions acted as a catalyst for further violence between Europe's elites and sparked additional conflicts. The increase in violence in the affected Eastern European regions correlates with a decrease in the elite's [[Numeracy|numerical skills]], and has been postulated as a root of the [[Great Divergence]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Keywood |first1=Thomas |last2=Baten |first2=Jörg |title=Elite violence and elite numeracy in Europe from 500 to 1900 CE: roots of the divergence |journal=Cliometrica |date=1 May 2021 |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=319–389 |doi=10.1007/s11698-020-00206-1 |s2cid=219040903 |doi-access=free |hdl=10419/289019 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

==Middle East==
{{Main|Mongol conquest of Persia and Mesopotamia|Mongol invasions of the Levant|Mongol conquest of Anatolia|l2=the Levant|Mongol invasion of the Khwarazmian Empire|l3=Anatolia|l4=Khwarezmian Empire|Mongol campaign against the Nizaris|l5=the Nizaris of Alamut|Siege of Baghdad}}
[[File:Bagdad1258.jpg|thumb|[[Siege of Baghdad]] in 1258]]

The Mongols conquered, by battle or voluntary surrender, the areas of present-day Iran, Iraq, the [[Caucasus]], and parts of [[Syria]] and [[Turkey]], with further Mongol raids reaching southwards into [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] as far as [[Gaza City|Gaza]] in 1260 and 1300. The major battles were the [[siege of Baghdad]], when the Mongols sacked the city which had been the center of Islamic power for 500 years and the [[Battle of Ain Jalut]] in 1260 in southeastern [[Galilee]], when the Muslim [[Bahri Mamluks]] were able to defeat the Mongols and decisively halt their advance for the first time. One thousand [[Northern and southern China|North Chinese]] engineer squads accompanied the Mongol [[Hulagu Khan]] during his conquest of the Middle East.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&q=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&pg=PA510 |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia, Vol. II, L–Z, index |editor=Josef W. Meri, Jere L. Bacharach |access-date=2011-11-28 |year=2006 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-96690-0 |page=510 |archive-date=2024-01-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080054/https://books.google.com/books?id=LaV-IGZ8VKIC&q=mongol+invasion+hungary+chinese+gunpowder&pg=PA510#v=snippet&q=mongol%20invasion%20hungary%20chinese%20gunpowder&f=false |url-status=live |quote="This called for the employment of engineers to engaged in mining operations, to build siege engines and artillery, and to concoct and use incendiary and explosive devices. For instance, Hulagu, who led Mongol forces into the Middle East during the second wave of the invasions in 1250, had with him a thousand squads of engineers, evidently of north Chinese (or perhaps Khitan) provenance."}}</ref>

==North Asia==
{{Main|Mongol campaigns in Siberia}}

By 1206, Genghis Khan had conquered all Mongol and Turkic tribes in Mongolia and southern Siberia. In 1207, his eldest son [[Jochi]] subjugated the Siberian forest people, the [[Uriankhai]], the [[Oirats]], [[Barga (tribe)|Barga]], [[Khakas]], [[Buryats]], [[Tuvans]], [[Tumed|Khori-Tumed]], and [[Yenisei Kyrgyz]] according to chapter 5 of the ''[[Secret History of the Mongols]]''. He then organized the Siberians into three [[Tumen (unit)|tumens]]. He gave the [[Telengits]] and [[Tiele people|Tolos]] along the [[Irtysh|Irtysh River]] to an old companion, Qorchi. While the Barga, Tumed, Buryats, Khori, Keshmiti, and [[Bashkirs]] were organized in separate thousands, the Telengits, Tolos, Oirats, and Yenisei Kyrgyz were numbered into the regular tumens.<ref>C. P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.&nbsp;502</ref> Genghis created a settlement of Chinese craftsmen and farmers at Kem-Kemchik after the first phase of the [[Mongol conquest of the Jin dynasty]]. The [[khagan]]s favored [[gyrfalcon]]s, furs, women, and Yenisei Kyrgyz horses for tribute.

Western Siberia came under control of the [[Golden Horde]].<ref>Nagendra Kr Singh, Nagendra Kumar – International Encyclopaedia of Islamic Dynasties, p.271</ref> The descendants of [[Orda Khan]], the eldest son of Jochi, directly ruled the area. In the swamps of western Siberia, [[dog sled]] [[Yam (route)|yam]] stations were set up to facilitate collection of tribute.

In 1270, [[Kublai Khan]] sent a Chinese official, with a new batch of settlers, to serve as judge of the Kyrgyz and Tuvan basin areas ([[w:zh:益蘭州|益蘭州]] and [[w:zh:謙州|謙州]]).<ref>[[History of Yuan]] 《 元史 》，</ref> Ogedei's grandson [[Kaidu]] occupied portions of central Siberia from 1275 on. The Yuan dynasty army under Kublai's Kipchak general Tutugh reoccupied the Yenisei Kyrgyz lands in 1293. From then on, the Yuan dynasty controlled large portions of central and eastern Siberia.<ref>C. P. Atwood-Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire, p.503</ref>

==South Asia==
{{Main|Mongol invasions of India}}

From 1221 to 1327, the Mongol Empire launched several invasions into the Indian subcontinent. The Mongols occupied parts of northwestern South Asia for decades. However, they failed to penetrate past the outskirts of Delhi and were repelled from the interior of India. Centuries later, the Mughals, whose founder [[Babur]] had Mongol roots, established their own empire in India.

==Southeast Asia==
{{Main|First Mongol invasion of Burma|l1=First|Second Mongol invasion of Burma|l2=Second Mongol invasion of Burma|Mongol invasions of Vietnam|l3=Mongol invasions of Vietnam|Mongol invasion of Java|l4=Mongol invasions of Java}}

Kublai Khan's Yuan dynasty was initially successful [[First Mongol invasion of Burma|invading Burma between 1277 and 1287]] and led to the capitulation and disintegration of the [[Pagan kingdom|Pagan Kingdom]] but failed to hold it as the Burmese revolt quickly overthrew the Mongol puppet government and rallied under the new [[Myinsaing Kingdom|Myinsaing dynasty]]. The [[Second Mongol invasion of Burma|invasion of 1301]] to retake Burma was defeated and the Mongols abandoned all ambitions towards Burma. The [[Mongol invasions of Vietnam]] ([[Đại Việt]]) and [[Mongol invasion of Java|Java]] had a similar pattern, largely dominating in open field but were ultimately worn down through irregular warfare and the local environment which ultimately resulted in defeat for the Mongols, although much of [[Southeast Asia]] agreed to pay tribute to avoid further bloodshed.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA120 Taylor 2013] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230413014840/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UHi9JXNokEC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA120|date=2023-04-13}}, pp. 103, 120.</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159 ed. Hall 2008] {{webarchive|url=https://archive.today/20161022121639/https://books.google.de/books?id=gyPjBevBHxcC&pg=PA159&dq=tran+fujian&hl=en&sa=X&ei=XiPNVPrfH4WgNsWpgagC&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=tran%20fujian&f=false|date=2016-10-22}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=nZaaAAAAQBAJ&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159 p. 159] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406115436/https://books.google.com/books?id=nZaaAAAAQBAJ&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA159|date=2023-04-06}}.</ref><ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&pg=PT90|title=Sources of Vietnamese Tradition|first1=Jayne|last1=Werner|first2=John K.|last2=Whitmore|first3=George|last3=Dutton|date=21 August 2012|publisher=Columbia University Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780231511100|access-date=1 November 2020|archive-date=1 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080052/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZHD4Asj0FagC&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&pg=PT90#v=snippet&q=Tran%20Chen%20Fujian&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Gunn 2011">[https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA112 Gunn 2011] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406115435/https://books.google.com/books?id=E10tnvapZt0C&dq=tran+fujian&pg=PA112 |date=2023-04-06 }}, p. 112.</ref><ref name="Embree & Lewis 1988">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran%20fujian|title=Encyclopedia of Asian history|first1=Ainslie Thomas|last1=Embree|first2=Robin Jeanne|last2=Lewis|date=1 January 1988|publisher=Scribner|isbn=9780684189017|via=Google Books|access-date=4 June 2020|archive-date=1 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240101080053/https://books.google.com/books?id=cNwpAQAAMAAJ&q=tran%20fujian|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Woodside 1971">[https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&dq=tran+fukien&pg=PA8 Woodside 1971] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405181634/https://books.google.com/books?id=0LgSI9UQNpwC&dq=tran+fukien&pg=PA8 |date=2023-04-05 }}, p. 8.</ref>

The Mongol invasions played an indirect role in the establishment of major Tai states in the region by recently migrated Tais, who originally came from Southern China, in the early centuries of the second millennium.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Lieberman |first1=Victor |title=Strange Parallels: Volume 1, Integration on the Mainland: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c.800–1830 (Studies in Comparative World History) |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0521800860|edition=Kindle }}</ref> Major Tai states such as [[Lan Na]], [[Sukhothai Kingdom|Sukhothai]], and [[Lan Xang]] appeared around this time.

==See also==
* [[Destruction under the Mongol Empire]]
* [[Slave trade in the Mongol Empire]]
* [[Division of the Mongol Empire]]
* [[Lists of battles of the Mongol invasion of Europe]]
** [[List of battles of the Mongol invasion of Kievan Rus']]
* [[Military of the Mongol Empire]]
* [[Mongol invasion of Europe]]
* [[Political divisions and vassals of the Mongol Empire]]
* [[Timeline of the Mongol Empire]]
** [[Timeline of the Golden Horde]]

==References==

===Notes===
{{Notelist}}

===References===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{refbegin|50em}}
* {{cite book |last=Allsen |first=Thomas T. |author-link=Thomas T. Allsen |title=Culture and Conquest in Mongol Eurasia |date=2001 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-5216-0270-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |author-link=Christopher Atwood |date=2004 |title=Encyclopedia of Mongolia and the Mongol Empire |publisher=Facts on File |location=New York |isbn=978-0-8160-4671-3 |url=https://www.academia.edu/8855875 |access-date=2 March 2022}}
* {{cite book |translator-last=Atwood |translator-first=Christopher |translator-link=Christopher Atwood |date=2023 |title=[[The Secret History of the Mongols]] |publisher=[[Penguin Classics]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-2411-9791-2 |ref={{SfnRef|Secret History, trans. Atwood}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |author-link=Christopher Atwood |date=2026 |title=The Campaigns of Chinggis Khan: Text, Translation, and Commentary |publisher=[[Bridwell Press]] |location=Dallas }}
* {{cite book |last=Bai︠a︡rsaĭkhan |first=D. |title=The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) |date=2011 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=[[Leiden]] |jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w8h10n |isbn=978-9-0041-8635-4 }}
* {{cite book |last=Barthold |first=Vasily |author-link=Vasily Bartold |editor-last=Bosworth |editor-first=Clifford E. |editor-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |date=1992 |orig-date=1900 |title=Turkestan Down To The Mongol Invasion |publisher=[[Munshiram Manoharlal]] |location=New Delhi |edition=Third |isbn=978-8-1215-0544-4 |url=https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/z316q171w}}
* {{cite book |last=Biran |first=Michal |title=Genghis Khan |year=2012 |series=Makers of the Muslim World |publisher=[[Oneworld Publications]] |location=London |url=https://www.academia.edu/32453356 |isbn=978-1-7807-4204-5}}
* {{cite book |date=2020 |title=Along the Silk Roads in Mongol Eurasia: Generals, Merchants, and Intellectuals |editor-last1=Biran |editor-first1=Michal |editor-last2=Brack |editor-first2=Jonathan |editor-last3=Fiaschetti |editor-first3=Francesca |location=[[Oakland, California|Oakland]] |publisher=[[University of California Press]] |isbn=978-0-5202-9874-3}}
**{{harvc |last=Hodous |first=Florence |c=Guo Kan: Military Exchanges between China and the Middle East |in=Biran |in2=Brack |in3=Fiaschetti |year=2020 |pages=27–43}}
**{{harvc |last=Yildiz |first=Sarah Nur |c=Baiju: The Mongol Conqueror at the Crossfire of Dynastic Struggle |in=Biran |in2=Brack |in3=Fiaschetti |year=2020 |pages=44–63}}
**{{harvc |last=Qiu |first=Yihao |c=Jaʿfar Khwāja: Sayyid, Merchant, Spy, and Military Commander of Chinggis Khan |in=Biran |in2=Brack |in3=Fiaschetti |year=2020 |pages=143–159}}
* {{cite book |date=2023 |title=The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire |editor-last1=Biran |editor-first1=Michal |editor-last2=Kim |editor-first2=Hodong |editor-link2=Kim Ho-dong |isbn=978-1-3163-3742-4 |location=Cambridge |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}
**{{harvc |last=Dunnell |first=Ruth W. |c=The Rise of Chinggis Khan and the United Empire |in=Biran |in2=Kim |year=2023 |pages=19–106}}
**{{harvc |last=May |first=Timothy |c=The Military Machine |in=Biran |in2=Kim |year=2023 |pages=460–487}}
* {{Cambridge History of Iran |last=Boyle |first=John Andrew |editor-first1=J. A. | editor-last1=Boyle |title=The Cambridge History of Iran |author-link=John Andrew Boyle |chapter=Dynastic and Political History of the Il-khans |volume=5 |pages=303–421 |chapter-page=303}}
* {{cite book |last=Broadbridge |first=Anne F. |date=2018 |title=Women and the Making of the Mongol Empire |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge |series=Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilization |isbn=978-1-1086-3662-9 }}
* {{cite book |last=Chambers |first=James |date=1979 |title=The Devil's Horsemen: The Mongol Invasion of Europe |publisher=[[Atheneum Books|Atheneum]] |location=New York |isbn=978-0-6891-0942-3}}
* {{cite book |title=Warfare in Inner Asian History (500–1800) |editor-last=Di Cosmo |editor-first=Nicola |editor-link=Nicola Di Cosmo |date=2002 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=[[Leiden]] |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies |isbn=978-9-0041-1949-9}}
**{{harvc |last=Golden |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Benjamin Golden |year=2002 |c=War and Warfare in the Pre-Cinggisid Western Steppes of Eurasia |in=Di Cosmo |pages=105–172}}
**{{harvc |last=Amitai |first=Reuven |author-link=Reuven Amitai |year=2002 |c=Whither the Ilkhanid Army? Ghazan's First Campaign into Syria (1299-1230) |in=Di Cosmo |pages=221–264}}
**{{harvc |last=Allsen |first=Thomas |author-link=Thomas T. Allsen |year=2002 |c=The Circulation of Military Technology in the Mongolian Empire |in=Di Cosmo |pages=265–294}}
**{{harvc |last=Herman |first=John E. |year=2002 |c=The Mongol Conquest of Dali: The Failed Second Front |in=Di Cosmo |pages=295–336}}
* {{cite book |last=Favereau |first=Marie |author-link=Marie Favereau |date=2021 |title=The Horde: How the Mongols Changed the World |location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts|Cambridge]] |publisher=[[Harvard University Press]] |doi=10.2307/j.ctv322v4qv |jstor=j.ctv322v4qv |isbn=978-0-6742-7865-3 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv322v4qv}}
*{{cite book |date=1994 |title=Volume 6: Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368 |editor-last1=Franke |editor-first1=Herbert |editor-link1=Herbert Franke (sinologist) |editor-last2=Twitchett |editor-first2=Denis C. |editor-link2=Denis Twitchett |series=[[The Cambridge History of China]] |isbn=978-1-1390-5474-4 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |location=Cambridge}}
**{{harvc |last=Franke |first=Herbert |author-link=Herbert Franke (sinologist) |in=Franke |in2=Twitchett |year=1994 |c=3. The Chin dynasty |pages=215–320}}
**{{harvc |last=Allsen |first=Thomas T. |author-link=Thomas T. Allsen |in=Franke |in2=Twitchett |year=1994 |c=4. The rise of the Mongolian empire and Mongolian rule in north China |pages=321–413}}
* {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |title=The Mongols and the West: 1221–1410 |date=2014 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames|Abingdon]] |isbn=978-0-5823-6896-5}}
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass, adds duplicate --> |last=Jackson |first=Peter |author-link=Peter Jackson (historian) |date=2017 |title=The Mongols and the Islamic World: From Conquest to Conversion |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |location=[[New Haven, Connecticut|New Haven]] |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1n2tvq0 |isbn=978-0-3001-2533-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Kolbas |first=Judith |date=2006 |title=The Mongols in Iran |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London |isbn=978-0-4155-9932-0}}
* {{cite journal |last=Kwanten |first=Luc |author-link=Luc Kwanten |date=1978 |title=The Career of Muqali: A Reassessment |journal=[[Bulletin of Sung and Yüan Studies]] |volume=14 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/23497511 |pages=31–38 }}
* {{cite book |last=Lane |first=George |author-link=George E. Lane |title=Daily Life in the Mongol Empire |date=2006 |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |isbn=978-0-3133-3226-5 |location=[[Westport, Connecticut|Westport]]}}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2007 |title=The Mongol Art of War: Chinggis Khan and the Mongol Military System |location=[[Yardley, Pennsylvania|Yardley]] |publisher=Westholme |url=https://archive.org/details/mongolartofwarch0000mayt |isbn=978-1-5941-6046-2}}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |title=The Mongol Conquests in World History |year=2012 |publisher=[[Reaktion Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-8618-9971-2 |url=https://archive.org/details/Book_1080}}
* {{cite book |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2016 |chapter=Mongol Conquest Strategy in the Middle East |title=The Mongols' Middle East: Continuity and Transformation in Ilkhanid Iran |editor-last1=De Nicola |editor-first1=Bruno |editor-last2=Melville |editor-first2=Charles |editor-link2=Charles P. Melville |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Publishing|Brill]] |isbn=978-9-0043-1472-6 |pages=13–37}} 
* {{cite encyclopedia |title=The Mongol Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia |date=2017 |editor-last=May |editor-first=Timothy |publisher=[[ABC-CLIO]] |location=[[Santa Barbara, California|Santa Barbara]] |isbn=978-1-6106-9339-4}}
**{{harvc |last=May |first=Timothy |year=2017 |anchor-year=2017a |in=May |c=Xi Xia (1038–1227) |pages=204–206 }} 
* {{cite book <!-- Citation bot bypass, adds duplicate--> |last=May |first=Timothy |date=2018 |title=The Mongol Empire |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctv1kz4g68 |location=Edinburgh |publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]] |isbn=978-0-7486-4237-3}}
* {{cite book |date=2022 |title=The Mongol World |editor-last1=May |editor-last2=Hope |editor-first1=Timothy |editor-first2=Michael |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames|Abingdon]] |isbn=978-1-3151-6517-2}}
**{{harvc |last=May |first=Timothy |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022a |c=2. The rise of Chinggis Khan |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=51–67}}
**{{harvc |last=Wright |first=David Curtis |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022a |c=4. The Mongol conquest of Xi Xia |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=89–100}}
**{{harvc |last=Wright |first=David Curtis |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022b |c=5. The Mongol conquest of the Jin Empire, 1211–1234 |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=101–117}}
**{{harvc |last=Wright |first=David Curtis |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022c |c=6. The Mongol conquest of the Song Empire, 1234–1279 |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=118–136}}
**{{harvc |last=May |first=Timothy |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022b |c=7. The conquest of Qara Khitai and western Siberia |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=137–149}}
**{{harvc |last=May |first=Timothy |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022c |c=8. The conquest of the Dasht-i-Qipchaq |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=150–163}}
**{{harvc |last=Maiorow |first=Alexander V. |year=2022 |c=9. The Mongol conquest of Rus' |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=164–182}}
**{{harvc |last=Pow |first=Stephen |year=2022 |c=10. The Mongol invasions of Europe |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=183–195}}
**{{harvc |last=Forbes Manz |first=Beatrice |year=2022 |c=11. The Mongol conquest of Iran |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=196–212}}
**{{harvc |last=Latham-Sprinkle |first=John |year=2022 |c=12. The Mongol conquest of Caucasia |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=213–226}}
**{{harvc |last=May |first=Timothy |year=2022 |anchor-year=2022d |c=13. The Mongol conquest of the Near East |in=May |in2=Hope |pages=227–242}}
* {{cite book |last=Morton |first=Nicholas |date=2023 |title=The Mongol Storm: Making and Breaking Empires in the Medieval Near East |publisher=[[Basic Books]] |location=London |isbn=978-1-3998-0357-1}}
* {{cite journal |last=Pow |first=Stephen |date=2017 |title=The Last Campaign and Death of Jebe Noyan |journal=[[Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society]] |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=31–51 |doi=10.1017/S135618631600033X}}
* {{cite book |last=Ratchnevsky |first=Paul |year=1991 |translator=Thomas Haining |translator-link=Thomas Haining |title=Genghis Khan: His Life and Legacy |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=Oxford |url=https://archive.org/details/genghiskhan00paul/ |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-6311-6785-3}}
* {{cite book |date=2017 |publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]] |location=[[Leiden]] |editor-last=Rossabi |editor-first=Morris |editor-link=Morris Rossabi |title=How Mongolia Matters: War, Law, and Society |isbn=978-9-0043-4340-5}}
** {{harvc |last=Atwood |first=Christopher P. |author-link=Christopher Atwood |year=2017 |c=Jochi and the Early Western Campaigns |in=Rossabi |pages=35–56}}
** {{harvc |last=Morgan |first=David |author-link=David O. Morgan |year=2017 |c=Iran's Mongol Experience |in=Rossabi |pages=57–68}}
* {{cite book |last=Waterson |first=James |title=Defending Heaven: China's Mongol Wars, 1209–1370 |date=2013 |publisher=[[Frontline Books]] |isbn=978-1-7834-6943-7 |location=[[Barnsley]]}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Hildinger |first=Erik |date=1997 |title=Warriors of the Steppe: A Military History of Central Asia, 500&nbsp;B.C. to 1700&nbsp;A.D. |publisher=Sarpedon |location=New York |url=https://archive.org/details/warriorsofsteppe0000hild/ |isbn=978-0-3068-1065-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Morgan |first=David |author-link=David O. Morgan |date=1986 |title=The Mongols |series=The Peoples of Europe |publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] |location=[[Oxford]] |isbn=978-0-6311-7563-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/mongolspeoplesof00davi}}
* {{cite journal <!-- Citation bot bypass, adds duplicate-->|last=Smith |first=John Masson |date=1975 |title=Mongol Manpower and Persian Population |journal=Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=271–299 |jstor=3632138 |doi=10.2307/3632138}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mongol conquests}}
* [http://necrometrics.com/pre1700a.htm Worldwide death toll]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110427075859/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/citd/RussianHeritage/4.PEAS/4.L/12.III.5.html The Destruction of Kiev]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080423014420/http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta%27s_Trip_Three.html Battuta's Travels: Part Three{{snd}}Persia and Iraq]
* [https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm Central Asian world cities?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118054002/https://faculty.washington.edu/modelski/CAWC.htm |date=2012-01-18 }}
* [http://countrystudies.us/vietnam/9.htm The Tran Dynasty and the Defeat of the Mongols]

{{Mongol Empire}}

[[Category:Invasions by the Mongol Empire| ]]
[[Category:Wars involving the Mongol Empire| ]]
[[Category:13th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:14th-century conflicts]]
[[Category:Military expeditions]]