{{short description|Pre-Columbian cultural area in the Americas}} {{About|the cultural area|the economic region|Mesoamerican region|the geographic area|Middle America (Americas)|other uses|Mesoamerica (disambiguation)}} [[File:Mesoamerica english.PNG|thumb|upright=1.35|Cultural areas of Mesoamerica]] '''Mesoamerica''' is a [[historical region]] and [[cultural area]] comprising the modern day lands of central and southern [[Mexico]], all of [[Belize]], [[Guatemala]], [[El Salvador]], western [[Honduras]], and the [[:es: Gran Nicoya|Greater Nicoya]] region of [[Nicaragua]] and [[Costa Rica]].{{Cite web|url=https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-mesoamerica/|title= Mesoamerica |website=Education {{!}} National Geographic Society |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231230165141/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/resource-library-mesoamerica/ |archive-date= Dec 30, 2023 }}{{Cite book |last1=Wyatt |first1=Andrew R. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uyhTEAAAQBAJ |title=A Companion to Latin American History |last2=Monaghan |first2=John |date=2010-12-13 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-4443-3884-3 |editor-last=Holloway |editor-first=Thomas H. |pages=24–41 |language=en |chapter=Mesoamerica}}{{Cite web |title=Mesoamerica, an introduction |first1=Lauren |last1=Kilroy-Ewbank |work=Art of the Americas to World War I |url=https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/beginners-guide-art-of-the-americas/mesoamerica-beginner/a/mesoamerica-an-introduction |publisher=Khan Academy |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20231107122606/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/art-americas/beginners-guide-art-of-the-americas/mesoamerica-beginner/a/mesoamerica-an-introduction |archive-date= Nov 7, 2023 }}{{Citation |last1=Marcus |first1=Joyce |chapter=The Archaeology of Mesoamerica |date=2022-02-21 |title=Latin American Studies |chapter-url=https://oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766581/obo-9780199766581-0263.xml |access-date=2024-04-14 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199766581-0263 |isbn=978-0-19-976658-1|chapter-url-access=subscription }} As a cultural area, Mesoamerica is defined by a mosaic of cultural traits developed and shared by its [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] cultures.{{cite web|url=https://smarthistory.org/mesoamerica-an-introduction/ | title= Mesoamerica, an introduction |first1=Lauren |last1=Kilroy-Ewbank |date=September 12, 2017 | website=Smarthistory |access-date=2023-04-16}}{{Citation |last=Woodfill |first=Brent |chapter=Mesoamerican Archaeology |date=2018-10-25 |title=Anthropology |chapter-url=https://oxfordbibliographies.com/view/document/obo-9780199766567/obo-9780199766567-0194.xml |access-date=2024-04-14 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/obo/9780199766567-0194 |isbn=978-0-19-976656-7|chapter-url-access=subscription }} In the [[pre-Columbian era]], [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous]] societies flourished in Mesoamerica for more than 3,000 years before the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas]] began on [[Hispaniola]] in 1493. In world history, Mesoamerica was the site of two historical transformations: (i) primary urban generation, and (ii) the formation of New World cultures from the mixture of the indigenous Mesoamerican people with the European, African, and Asian people who were introduced by the Spanish colonization.{{sfn|Carrasco|2001}} Mesoamerica is one of the six areas in the world where ancient [[civilization]]s arose independently (see [[cradle of civilization]]), and the second in the Americas, alongside the [[Caral–Supe]] in modern-day [[Peru]]. Mesoamerica is also one of only five regions of the world where writing is known to have independently developed (the others being [[ancient Egypt]], [[Indus Valley Civilization|India]], [[Sumer]], and [[History of China|China]]).{{Sfn|Fagan|1996|p=762}} Beginning as early as 7000 BCE, the domestication of [[chocolate|cacao]], [[maize]], [[phaseolus|beans]], [[tomato]], [[avocado]], [[vanilla]], [[squash (plant)|squash]] and [[chili pepper|chili]], as well as the [[Meleagris gallopavo|turkey]] and [[Xoloitzcuintle|dog]], resulted in a transition from [[Paleo-Indians|paleo-Indian]] hunter-gatherer tribal groupings to the organization of sedentary agricultural villages. In the subsequent formative period, agriculture and cultural traits such as a complex [[Mesoamerican religion|mythological and religious tradition]], a [[vigesimal]] numeric system, a [[Mesoamerican calendars|complex calendric system]], a [[Mesoamerican ballgame|tradition of ball playing]], and a distinct [[Mesoamerican architecture|architectural style]], were diffused through the area. Villages began to become socially stratified and develop into [[chiefdom]]s, and large ceremonial centers were built, interconnected by a network of trade routes for the exchange of luxury goods, such as [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica|obsidian]], [[jade]], [[Cocoa bean|cacao]], [[cinnabar]], ''[[Spondylus]]'' shells, [[hematite]], and [[ceramics]]. While Mesoamerican civilization knew of the [[wheel]] and basic [[metallurgy]], neither of these became technologically relevant.{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|p=55}} Among the earliest complex civilizations was the [[Olmec]] culture, which inhabited the [[Gulf Coast of Mexico]] and extended inland and southwards across the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]]. Frequent contact and cultural interchange between the early Olmec and other cultures in [[Chiapas]], [[Oaxaca]], and Guatemala laid the basis for the Mesoamerican culture. This was facilitated by considerable [[regional communications in ancient Mesoamerica]], especially along the Pacific coast. In the subsequent [[Mesoamerican chronology|preclassic period]], complex urban polities began to develop among the [[Maya civilization|Maya]],{{Cite web|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/project/exploring-the-maya-world|title=Exploring the Maya World|website=Google Arts & Culture |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240125022237/https://artsandculture.google.com/project/exploring-the-maya-world |archive-date= Jan 25, 2024 }}{{Cite web|url=https://artsandculture.google.com/story/who-are-the-maya/PgWxMGGTRt0KDw|title=Who Are the Maya?|website=Google Arts & Culture}} with the rise of centers such as [[Aguada Fénix]] and [[Calakmul]] in Mexico; [[El Mirador]], and [[Tikal]] in Guatemala, and the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] at [[Monte Albán]]. During this period, the first true [[Mesoamerican writing systems]] were developed in the [[Epi-Olmec culture|Epi-Olmec]] and the Zapotec cultures. The Mesoamerican writing tradition reached its height in the Classic [[Maya script|Maya logosyllabic script]]. In Central Mexico, the city of [[Teotihuacan]] ascended at the height of the Classic period; it formed a military and commercial empire whose political influence stretched south into the Maya area and northward. Upon the collapse of Teotihuacán around 600 CE, competition between several important political centers in central Mexico, such as [[Xochicalco]] and [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]], ensued. At this time during the Epi-Classic period, the [[Nahua people]] began moving south into Mesoamerica from the North, and became politically and culturally dominant in central Mexico, as they displaced speakers of [[Oto-Manguean languages]]. During the early post-Classic period, central Mexico was dominated by the [[Toltec]] culture, and Oaxaca by the [[Mixtec]]. The lowland Maya area had important centers at [[Chichén Itzá]] and [[Mayapán]]. Towards the end of the post-Classic period, the [[Aztecs]] of central Mexico built a [[tributary state|tributary]] empire covering most of central Mesoamerica.{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=40–80}} The distinct Mesoamerican cultural tradition ended with the [[Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire|Spanish conquest]] in the 16th century. Eurasian diseases such as [[smallpox]] and [[measles]], which were endemic among the colonists but new to North America, caused the deaths of upwards of 90% of the indigenous people, resulting in great losses to their societies and cultures."Meso-America", ''[[Oxford English Dictionary|Oxford English Reference Dictionary]]'', 2nd ed. (rev.) 2002. ({{ISBN|0-19-860652-4}}) Oxford: Oxford University Press; p. 906.(2000): ''Atlas del México Prehispánico. Revista Arqueología mexicana''. Número especial 5. Julio de 2000. Raíces/ Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia. México. Over the next centuries, Mesoamerican indigenous cultures were gradually subjected to Spanish colonial rule. Aspects of the Mesoamerican cultural heritage still survive among the indigenous people who inhabit Mesoamerica. Many continue to speak their ancestral languages and maintain practices hearkening back to their Mesoamerican roots.{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|p={{page needed|date=August 2023}}}} == Etymology and definition == {{multiple image |perrow=2 |total_width=230 |header=Ancient Mesoamerican sites in [[El Salvador]] |image1=Pinturas Rupestres Corinto Morazan 06.JPG |caption1=[[Holy Spirit Grotto]] |image2=Temazcal en Joya de Cerén.jpg |caption2=[[Joya de Cerén]] |image3=Tazumal 10.jpg |caption3=[[Tazumal]] |image4=Casa Blanca 1.JPG |caption4=[[Casa Blanca, El Salvador|Casa Blanca]] |image5=ES SanAndres 06 2011 Panorama Estructura 1 y 2 La Acropolis 2194.jpg |caption5=[[San Andrés, El Salvador|San Andres]] |image6=Piramide Cihuatan.jpg |caption6=[[Cihuatán]] }} The term ''Mesoamerica'' means "middle America" in Greek. [[Middle America (Americas)|Middle America]] often refers to a larger area in the Americas, but it has also previously been used more narrowly to refer to Mesoamerica. An example is the title of the 16 volumes of ''The Handbook of Middle American Indians''. "Mesoamerica" is broadly defined as the area that is home to the Mesoamerican civilization, which comprises a group of peoples with close cultural and historical ties. The exact geographic extent of Mesoamerica has varied through time, as the civilization extended North and South from its heartland in southern Mexico. [[File:Proto Lencan Statue.jpg|thumb|upright|Anthropomorphic figure from the Proto-[[Lenca]]n culture found at [[Los Naranjos, Honduras|Los Naranjos]], Honduras. An example of Mesomerican art during the preclassic Period.]] The term was first used by the German [[ethnology|ethnologist]] [[Paul Kirchhoff]], who noted that similarities existed among the various [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian cultures]] within the region that included southern Mexico, [[Guatemala]], [[Belize]], [[El Salvador]], western [[Honduras]], and the Pacific lowlands of [[Nicaragua]] and northwestern [[Costa Rica]]. In the tradition of [[culture-historical archaeology|cultural history]], the prevalent [[archaeological theory]] of the early to middle 20th century, Kirchhoff defined this zone as a cultural area based on a suite of interrelated cultural similarities brought about by millennia of inter- and intra-regional interaction (i.e., [[trans-cultural diffusion|diffusion]]).{{sfn|Kirchhoff|1943}}{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=5–8}} Mesoamerica is recognized as a near-prototypical cultural area. This term is now fully integrated into the standard terminology of precolumbian [[cultural anthropology|anthropological]] studies. Conversely, the sister terms [[Aridoamerica]] and [[Oasisamerica]], which refer to northern Mexico and the western United States, respectively, have not entered into widespread usage. Some of the significant cultural traits defining the Mesoamerican cultural tradition are:{{cite book|first=John|last=Bierhorst|title=The Mythology of Mexico and Central America|publisher=William Morrow and Company, Inc.|page=12|location=New York|date=1990|isbn=0-688-06721-2}} * ''Horticulture and plant use'': [[sedentism]] based on [[maize]] [[agriculture]]; [[floating gardens]]; use of [[amate|bark paper]] and [[agave]] (see also [[maguey]]) for ritual purposes, as a medium for writing, and the use of agave for cooking and clothing; cultivation of [[Cocoa bean|cacao]]; grinding of maize softened with ashes or [[Lime (material)|lime]]; harpoon-shaped [[digging stick]] * ''Clothing and personal articles'': [[lip plugs]], mirrors of polished stone, turbans, sandals with heels, textiles adorned with [[rabbit hair]] * ''Architecture'': construction of [[mesoamerican pyramids|stepped pyramids]]; [[stucco]] floors; ball courts with stone rings (see the use of [[natural rubber]] and the practice of the ritual [[Mesoamerican ballgame]]) * ''Record keeping'': use of two different [[mesoamerican calendars|calendars]] (a 260-day ritual calendar and a 365-day calendar based on the [[solar year]]); use of locally developed [[pictogram|pictographic]] and [[hieroglyph]]ic (logo-syllabic) [[mesoamerican writing systems|writing systems]]; numbers (see also [[vigesimal]] (base 20) number system); "century" of fifty-two years; eighteen-month calendar; screen-fold books * ''Commerce'': specialized markets, "department store" markets subdivided according to specialty * ''Weapons and warfare'': wooden swords with stone chips set into the edges (see [[macuahuitl]]), military orders (eagle knights and jaguar knights), clay pellets for blowguns, cotton-pad armor, traveling merchants who act as spies, wars for the purpose of securing sacrificial victims * ''Ritual and myth'': the practice of various forms of ritual [[sacrifice]], including [[human sacrifice]] and quail sacrifice; paper and rubber as sacrificial offerings; a pantheon of gods or spirits; acrobatic flier dance (see the [[Danza de los Voladores]] and the Totonac flier dance); 13 as a ritual number; ritual period of 20 x 13 = 260 days; the mythic concept of one or more afterworlds and the difficult journey in reaching them; good and bad omen days; a [[mesoamerican religion|religious complex]] based on a combination of [[shamanism]] and natural deities, and a shared system of symbols * ''Language'': a [[sprachbund|linguistic area]] defined by a [[mesoamerican language area|number of grammatical traits]] that have spread through the area by diffusion{{sfn|Campbell|Kaufman|Smith-Stark|1986}} == Geography == [[File:Region_Mesoamerica.png|thumb|right|Mesoamerica is primarily situated in western and southern Mexico and Guatemala, above it is [[Aridoamerica]] and below is the [[Isthmo-Colombian Area]]]] {{Main|Geography of Mesoamerica}} [[File:Flickr - archer10 (Dennis) - Guatemala 1828 - La Danta at the Mayan site of El Mirador.jpg|thumb|[[El Mirador]] flourished from 600 BCE to 100 CE, and may have had a population of over 100,000.]] [[File:Puebla farmers.jpg|right|thumb|Landscape of the Mesoamerican highlands.]] Located on the [[Middle America (Americas)|Middle American]] [[isthmus]] joining North and South America between ''ca.'' 10° and 22° northern [[latitude]], Mesoamerica possesses a complex combination of ecological systems, topographic zones, and environmental contexts. These different [[ecological niche|niches]] are classified into two broad categories: the lowlands (those areas between [[sea level]] and 1000 meters) and the ''altiplanos'', or highlands (situated between 1,000 and 2,000 meters above sea level).{{sfn|Coe|1994}}{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=9–11}} In the low-lying regions, [[subtropical climate|sub-tropical]] and [[tropical climate]]s are most common, as is true for most of the coastline along the Pacific and [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the [[Caribbean Sea]]. The highlands show much more climatic diversity, ranging from dry tropical to cold [[mountain climate|mountainous climates]]; the dominant climate is [[temperateness|temperate]] with warm temperatures and moderate rainfall. The rainfall varies from the dry [[Oaxaca]] and north [[Yucatán]] to the humid southern Pacific and Caribbean lowlands. === Cultural sub-areas === Several distinct sub-regions within Mesoamerica are defined by a convergence of geographic and cultural attributes. These sub-regions are more conceptual than culturally meaningful, and the demarcation of their limits is not rigid. The Maya area, for example, can be divided into two general groups: the lowlands and highlands. The lowlands are further divided into the southern and northern Maya lowlands. The southern Maya lowlands are generally regarded as encompassing northern [[Guatemala]], southern [[Campeche]] and [[Quintana Roo]] in Mexico, and [[Belize]]. The northern lowlands cover the remainder of the northern portion of the [[Yucatán Peninsula]]. Other areas include Central Mexico, West Mexico, the Gulf Coast Lowlands, [[Oaxaca]], the Southern Pacific Lowlands, and Southeast Mesoamerica (including northern [[Honduras]]). === Topography === There is extensive topographic variation in Mesoamerica, ranging from the high peaks circumscribing the [[Valley of Mexico]] and within the central [[Sierra Madre de Chiapas|Sierra Madre]] mountains to the low flatlands of the northern Yucatán Peninsula. The tallest mountain in Mesoamerica is [[Pico de Orizaba]], a [[dormant volcano]] located on the border of [[Puebla]] and [[Veracruz]]. Its peak elevation is 5,636 m (18,490 ft). The Sierra Madre mountains, which consist of several smaller ranges, run from northern Mesoamerica south through [[Costa Rica]]. The chain is historically [[Volcano|volcanic]]. In central and southern Mexico, a portion of the Sierra Madre chain is known as the [[Eje Volcánico Transversal]], or the Trans-Mexican volcanic belt. There are 83 inactive and active volcanoes within the Sierra Madre range, including 11 in Mexico, 37 in Guatemala, 23 in El Salvador, 25 in Nicaragua, and 3 in northwestern Costa Rica. According to the Michigan Technological University,{{cite web |url=http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/world.html |title=MTU Volcanoes Page – World Reference Map |publisher=Geo.mtu.edu |access-date=2014-04-21 |archive-date=2011-04-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110408195420/http://www.geo.mtu.edu/volcanoes/world.html |url-status=live }} 16 of these are still active. The tallest active volcano is [[Popocatépetl]] at 5,452 m (17,887 ft). This volcano, which retains its [[Nahuatl]] name, is located 70 km (43 mi) southeast of Mexico City. Other volcanoes of note include Tacana on the Mexico–Guatemala border, [[Volcán Tajumulco|Tajumulco]] and [[Santamaría (volcano)|Santamaría]] in Guatemala, [[Izalco (volcano)|Izalco]] in El Salvador, [[Arenal Volcano|Arenal]] in Costa Rica, [[Cerro Negro]], along with [[Concepción (volcano)|Concepción]] and [[Maderas]] on [[Ometepe]], which is an island formed by both volcanoes rising out of [[Lake Cocibolca]] in Nicaragua. One important topographic feature is the [[Isthmus of Tehuantepec]], a low plateau that breaks up the Sierra Madre chain between the [[Sierra Madre del Sur]] to the north and the [[Sierra Madre de Chiapas]] to the south. At its highest point, the [[Isthmus]] is 224 m (735 ft) above mean sea level. This area also represents the shortest distance between the [[Gulf of Mexico]] and the Pacific Ocean in Mexico. The distance between the two coasts is roughly 200 km (120 mi). The northern side of the Isthmus is swampy and covered in dense jungle—but the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, as the lowest and most level point within the Sierra Madre mountain chain, was nonetheless a main transportation, communication, and economic route within Mesoamerica. === Bodies of water === [[File:Yojoa Lake.jpg|thumb|[[Lake Yojoa|Yojoa Lake]] in Honduras. ]] Outside of the northern Maya lowlands, [[river]]s are common throughout Mesoamerica. Some of the more important ones served as loci of human occupation in the area. The longest river in Mesoamerica is the [[Usumacinta]], which forms in Guatemala at the convergence of the [[Salinas River (Guatemala)|Salinas]] or [[Chixoy River|Chixoy]] and La [[Pasión River]] and runs north for 970 km (600 mi)—480 km (300 mi) of which are navigable—eventually draining into the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. Other rivers of note include the [[Río Grande de Santiago]], the [[Grijalva River]], the [[Motagua River]], the [[Ulúa River]], and the [[Hondo River (Belize)|Hondo River]]. The northern Maya lowlands, especially the northern portion of the Yucatán peninsula, are notable for their nearly complete lack of rivers (largely due to the absolute lack of topographic variation). Additionally, no lakes exist in the northern peninsula. The main source of water in this area is [[aquifer]]s that are accessed through natural surface openings called [[cenote]]s. With an area of 8,264 km2 (3,191 sq mi), [[Lake Cocibolca]] in Nicaragua is the largest lake in Mesoamerica, and second largest in all Latin America. [[Lake Chapala]] is Mexico's largest freshwater lake, but [[Lake Texcoco]] is perhaps most well known as the location upon which [[Tenochtitlan]], capital of the [[Aztec]] Empire, was founded. [[Lake Petén Itzá]], in northern Guatemala, is notable as where the last independent Maya city, [[Tayasal]] (or Noh Petén), held out against the Spanish until 1697. Other large lakes include [[Lake Atitlán]], [[Lake Izabal]], [[Geography of El Salvador|Lake Güija]], Lemoa and [[Lake Xolotlan]].{{cite journal |biorxiv= 10.1101/684431|last1= Powers|first1= Amanda K.|last2= Garita-Alvarado|first2= Carlos A.|last3= Rodiles-Hernández|first3= Rocío|last4= Berning|first4= Daniel J.|last5= Gross|first5= Joshua B.|last6= Ornelas-García|first6= Claudia Patricia|title= A geographical cline in craniofacial morphology across populations of Mesoamerican lake-dwelling fishes|journal= Journal of Experimental Zoology Part A: Ecological and Integrative Physiology|date= 2020|volume= 333|issue= 3|pages= 171–180|doi= 10.1002/jez.2339|pmid= 31904195|bibcode= 2020JEZA..333..171P|pmc= 7372644}} === Biodiversity === Almost all [[ecosystem]]s are present in Mesoamerica; the more well known are the [[Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System]], the second largest in the world, and [[Mosquito Coast|La Mosquitia]] (consisting of the [[Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve]], Tawahka Asangni, [[Patuca National Park]], and [[Bosawás Biosphere Reserve]]) a [[rainforest]] second in size in the Americas only to the [[Amazon rainforest|Amazonas]].{{cite web |url=http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2006/1718459.htm |title=Science Show – Bosawas Bioreserve Nicaragua |publisher=Abc.net.au |date=2006-08-19 |access-date=2014-04-21 |archive-date=2011-05-11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511122659/http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2006/1718459.htm |url-status=live }} The highlands present [[Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests|mixed]] and [[Pinophyta|coniferous]] forest. The biodiversity is among the richest in the world, though the number of species in the red list of the [[IUCN]] grows every year. == Chronology, culture and history == {{Main|Mesoamerican chronology}} [[File:Tikal mayan ruins 2009.jpg|thumb|[[Tikal]] is one of the largest archaeological sites, urban centers, and tourist attractions of the [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-Columbian]] [[Maya civilization]]. It is located in the archaeological region of the [[Petén Basin]] in what is now northern [[Guatemala]].]] The history of human occupation in Mesoamerica is divided into stages or periods. These are known, with slight variation depending on region, as the [[Paleo-Indian]], the [[Mesoamerican chronology#Archaic Era|Archaic]], the [[Mesoamerican chronology#Preclassic Era|Preclassic]] (or Formative), the [[Classic Period|Classic]], and the [[Postclassic period|Postclassic]]. The last three periods, representing the core of Mesoamerican cultural fluorescence, are further divided into two or three sub-phases. Most of the time following the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century is classified as the Colonial period. The differentiation of early periods (i.e., up through the end of the [[Mesoamerican chronology#Preclassic Era|Late Preclassic]]) generally reflects [[Sociocultural evolution|different configurations of socio-cultural organization]] that are characterized by [[Urgesellschaft|increasing socio-political complexity]], the adoption of new and different [[List of subsistence techniques|subsistence strategies]], and changes in economic organization (including increased interregional interaction). The [[Classic Period|Classic]] period through the [[Postclassic period|Postclassic]] are differentiated by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of the various political entities throughout Mesoamerica. === Paleo-Indian === The Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian period precedes the advent of agriculture and is characterized by a nomadic [[hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] subsistence strategy. Big-game hunting, similar to that seen in contemporaneous North America, was a large component of the subsistence strategy of the Mesoamerican Paleo-Indian. These sites had [[obsidian]] blades and [[Clovis point|Clovis]]-style fluted [[projectile point]]s. === Archaic === The Archaic period (8000–2000 BCE) is characterized by the rise of [[Agriculture in Mesoamerica|incipient agriculture]] in Mesoamerica. The initial phases of the Archaic involved the cultivation of wild plants, transitioning into informal domestication and culminating with [[sedentism]] and agricultural production by the close of the period. Transformations of natural environments have been a common feature at least since the mid Holocene.{{cite journal |last=Franco-Gaviria |first=Felipe |url=http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/vols/epoca04/7001/%284%29Franco.pdf |title=The human impact imprint on modern pollen spectra of the Mayan lands |journal=Boletín de la Sociedad Geológica Mexicana |date=2018 |volume=70, 1 |issue=1 |pages=61–78 |doi=10.18268/BSGM2018v70n1a4 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2018BSGMx..70...61F |access-date=2018-05-17 |archive-date=2018-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180518130357/http://boletinsgm.igeolcu.unam.mx/bsgm/vols/epoca04/7001/(4)Franco.pdf |url-status=live }} Archaic sites include ''[[Sipacate]]'' in [[Escuintla]], Guatemala, where maize [[pollen analysis|pollen samples]] date to c. 3500 BCE.{{cite journal|last=Roush|first=Wade|url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.276.5314.894|title=Archaeobiology: Squash Seeds Yield New View of Early American Farming|journal=Science|date=9 May 1997|volume=276|issue=5314|pages=894–95 |doi=10.1126/science.276.5314.894|s2cid=158673509|url-access=subscription}} === Preclassic/Formative === {{See also|Olmec influences on Mesoamerican cultures}} [[File:San Lorenzo Monument 3.jpg|thumb|[[Olmec colossal heads|Olmec Colossal Head]] No. 3 1200–900 BCE]] The first complex civilization to develop in Mesoamerica was that of the [[Olmec]], who inhabited the Gulf Coast region of [[Veracruz]] throughout the Preclassic period. The main sites of the Olmec include [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán]], [[La Venta]], and [[Tres Zapotes]]. Specific dates vary, but these sites were occupied from roughly 1200 to 400 BCE. Remains of other early cultures interacting with the Olmec have been found at [[Takalik Abaj]], [[Izapa]], and [[Teopantecuanitlan]], and as far south as in [[Honduras]].{{sfn|Diehl|2004|p=248}} Research in the Pacific Lowlands of Chiapas and Guatemala suggest that Izapa and the [[Monte Alto culture|Monte Alto Culture]] may have preceded the Olmec. [[Radiocarbon dating|Radiocarbon samples]] associated with various sculptures found at the Late Preclassic site of Izapa suggest a date of between 1800 and 1500 BCE.{{cite web|url=http://www.dartmouth.edu/~izapa/M-11.pdf|title=Pre-Columbian Magnetic Sculptures in Western Guatemala |author1=Paul A. Dunn |author2=Vincent H. Malmström |access-date=2006-12-31|archive-date=2012-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121109060157/http://www.dartmouth.edu/~izapa/M-11.pdf}} {{small|(10.1 KB)}} During the Middle and Late Preclassic period, the [[Maya civilization]] developed in the southern Maya highlands and lowlands, and at a few sites in the northern Maya lowlands. The earliest Maya sites coalesced after 1000 BCE, and include [[Nakbe]], [[El Mirador]], and [[Cerros]]. Middle to Late [[Preclassic Maya]] sites include [[Kaminaljuyú]], [[Cival]], [[Edzná]], [[Cobá]], [[Lamanai]], [[Komchen]], [[Dzibilchaltun]], and [[San Bartolo (Maya site)|San Bartolo]], among others. The Preclassic in the central Mexican highlands is represented by such sites as [[Tlapacoya (Mesoamerican site)|Tlapacoya]], [[Tlatilco]], and [[Cuicuilco]]. These sites were eventually superseded by [[Teotihuacán]], an important Classic-era site that eventually dominated economic and interaction spheres throughout Mesoamerica. The settlement of Teotihuacan is dated to the later portion of the Late Preclassic, or roughly 50 CE. In the [[Valley of Oaxaca]], [[San José Mogote]] represents one of the oldest permanent agricultural villages in the area, and one of the first to use pottery. During the Early and Middle Preclassic, the site developed some of the earliest examples of defensive [[palisade]]s, ceremonial structures, the use of [[adobe]], and [[Zapotec writing|hieroglyphic writing]]. Also of importance, the site was one of the first to demonstrate [[ascribed status|inherited status]], signifying a radical shift in socio-cultural and political structure. San José Mogote was eventually overtaken by [[Monte Albán]], the subsequent capital of the [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec empire]], during the Late Preclassic. The Preclassic in western Mexico, in the states of [[Nayarit]], [[Jalisco]], [[Colima]], and [[Michoacán]] also known as the Occidente, is poorly understood. This period is best represented by the thousands of figurines recovered by looters and ascribed to the "[[Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition|shaft tomb tradition]]". === Classic === ==== Early Classic ==== [[File:Piramide de la Luna 072006.jpg|thumb|[[Pyramid of the Moon]] viewed from atop of the [[Pyramid of the Sun]].]] The Classic period is marked by the rise and dominance of several polities. The traditional distinction between the Early and Late Classic is marked by their changing fortune and their ability to maintain regional primacy. Of paramount importance are Teotihuacán in central Mexico and [[Tikal]] in Guatemala; the Early Classic's temporal limits generally correlate to the main periods of these sites. Monte Albán in Oaxaca is another Classic-period polity that expanded and flourished during this period, but the Zapotec capital exerted less interregional influence than the other two sites. During the Early Classic, Teotihuacan participated in and perhaps dominated a far-reaching macro-regional interaction network. Architectural and artifact styles (talud-tablero, tripod slab-footed ceramic vessels) epitomized at Teotihuacan were mimicked and adopted at many distant settlements. [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica#Sources|Pachuca]] obsidian, whose trade and distribution is argued to have been economically controlled by Teotihuacan, is found throughout Mesoamerica. Tikal came to dominate much of the southern Maya lowlands politically, economically, and militarily during the Early Classic. An exchange network centered at Tikal distributed a variety of goods and commodities throughout southeast Mesoamerica, such as obsidian imported from central Mexico (e.g., Pachuca) and highland Guatemala (e.g., [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica#Sources|El Chayal]], which was predominantly used by the Maya during the Early Classic), and [[Jade use in Mesoamerica|jade]] from the [[Motagua River|Motagua valley]] in Guatemala. Tikal was often in conflict with other polities in the [[Petén Basin]], as well as with others outside of it, including [[Uaxactun]], [[Caracol]], [[Dos Pilas]], [[Naranjo]], and [[Calakmul]]. Towards the end of the Early Classic, this conflict lead to Tikal's military defeat at the hands of Caracol in 562, and a period commonly known as the [[Tikal#Tikal hiatus|Tikal Hiatus]]. ==== Late Classic ==== [[File:Xochicalco Serpiente Emplumada GR.jpg|thumb|[[Xochicalco]], Temple of the Feathered Serpent, 650–900 CE]] The Late Classic period (beginning c. 600 CE until 909 CE) is characterized as a period of interregional competition and factionalization among the numerous regional polities in the Maya area. This largely resulted from the decrease in Tikal's socio-political and economic power at the beginning of the period. It was therefore during this time that other sites rose to regional prominence and were able to exert greater interregional influence, including Caracol, [[Copán]], [[Palenque]], and Calakmul (which was allied with Caracol and may have assisted in the defeat of Tikal), and [[Dos Pilas]] [[Aguateca]] and [[Cancuén]] in the [[Petexbatún]] region of Guatemala. Around 710, Tikal arose again and started to build strong alliances and defeat its worst enemies. In the Maya area, the Late Classic ended with the so-called "[[Maya collapse]]", a transitional period coupling the general depopulation of the southern lowlands and development and florescence of centers in the northern lowlands. ==== Terminal Classic ==== [[File:0077 Uxmal.JPG|thumb|Detail of the Nunnery Quadrangle at [[Uxmal]], 10th century]] Generally applied to the Maya area, the Terminal Classic roughly spans the time between c. 800/850 and c. 1000 CE. Overall, it generally correlates with the rise to prominence of [[Puuc]] settlements in the northern [[Maya Lowlands|Maya lowlands]], so named after the hills where they are mainly found. Puuc settlements are specifically associated with a unique architectural style (the "Puuc architectural style") that represents a technological departure from previous construction techniques. Major Puuc sites include [[Uxmal]], [[Sayil]], [[Labna]], [[Kabah (Maya site)|Kabah]], and [[Oxkintok]]. While generally concentrated within the area in and around the [[Puuc hills]], the style has been documented as far away as at [[Chichen Itza]] to the east and [[Edzna]] to the south. Chichén Itzá was originally thought to have been a Postclassic site in the northern Maya lowlands. Research over the past few decades has established that it was first settled during the Early/Late Classic transition but rose to prominence during the Terminal Classic and Early Postclassic. During its apogee, this widely known site economically and politically dominated the northern lowlands. Its participation in the circum-peninsular exchange route, possible through its port site of [[Isla Cerritos]], allowed Chichén Itzá to remain highly connected to areas such as central Mexico and Central America. The apparent "Mexicanization" of architecture at Chichén Itzá led past researchers to believe that Chichén Itzá existed under the control of a Toltec empire. Chronological data refutes this early interpretation, and it is now known that Chichén Itzá predated the Toltec; Mexican architectural styles are now used as an indicator of strong economic and ideological ties between the two regions. === Postclassic === The Postclassic (beginning 900–1000 CE, depending on area) is, like the Late Classic, characterized by the cyclical crystallization and fragmentation of various polities. The main Maya centers were located in the northern lowlands. Following Chichén Itzá, whose political structure collapsed during the Early Postclassic, [[Mayapán]] rose to prominence during the Middle Postclassic and dominated the north for c. 200 years. After Mayapán's fragmentation, the political structure in the northern lowlands revolved around large towns or city-states, such as [[Oxkutzcab]] and [[Ti'ho]] ([[Mérida, Yucatán]]), that competed with one another. [[File:Aztec Empire.png|thumb|upright=1.5|The Aztec Empire in 1512]] [[File:Mesoamérica y Centroamerica prehispanica siglo XVI.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Mesoamerica and Central America in the 16th century before Spanish arrival {{According to whom|date=August 2020}}]] [[Toniná]], in the Chiapas highlands, and [[Kaminaljuyú]] in the central Guatemala highlands, were important southern highland Maya centers. The latter site, Kaminaljuyú, is one of the longest occupied sites in Mesoamerica and was continuously inhabited from c. 800 BCE to around 1200 CE. Other important highland Maya groups include the [[Kʼicheʼ people|Kʼicheʼ]] of [[Utatlán]], the [[Mam people|Mam]] in [[Zaculeu]], the [[Poqomam language|Poqomam]] in [[Mixco Viejo]], and the [[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]] at [[Iximche]] in the Guatemalan highlands. The [[Pipil people|Pipil]] resided in [[El Salvador]], the [[Nicarao people|Nicarao]] were in western [[Nicaragua]] and northwestern [[Costa Rica]], and the [[Ch'orti' people|Ch'orti']] were in eastern Guatemala and northwestern [[Honduras]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.buenastareas.com/ensayos/El-Reino-De-Este-Mundo/563206.html|title= the kingdom of this world}} In central Mexico, the early portion of the Postclassic correlates with the rise of the [[Toltec]] and an empire based at their capital, [[Tula, Hidalgo|Tula]] (also known as [[Tollan]]). [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]], initially an important Early Classic center contemporaneous with Teotihuacan, maintained its political structure (it did not collapse) and continued to function as a regionally important center during the Postclassic. The latter portion of the Postclassic is generally associated with the rise of the [[Mexica]] and the [[Aztec Empire]]. One of the more commonly known cultural groups in Mesoamerica, the Aztec politically dominated nearly all of central Mexico, the Gulf Coast, Mexico's southern Pacific Coast (Chiapas and into Guatemala), Oaxaca, and [[Guerrero]]. The [[Tarascan state|Tarascans]] (also known as the [[Purépecha]]) were located in [[Michoacán]] and Guerrero. With their capital at [[Tzintzuntzan (Mesoamerican site)|Tzintzuntzan]], the Tarascan state was one of the few to actively and continuously resist Aztec domination during the Late Postclassic. Other important Postclassic cultures in Mesoamerica include the [[Totonac]] along the eastern coast (in the modern-day states of [[Veracruz]], [[Puebla]], and [[Hidalgo (state)|Hidalgo]]). The [[Huastec people|Huastec]] resided north of the Totonac, mainly in the modern-day states of [[Tamaulipas]] and northern Veracruz. The [[Mixtec]] and Zapotec cultures, centered at [[Mitla]] and [[Zaachila]] respectively, inhabited Oaxaca. The Postclassic ends with the [[Spanish conquest of Mexico|arrival of the Spanish]] and their subsequent conquest of the Aztecs between 1519 and 1521. Many other cultural groups did not acquiesce until later. For example, Maya groups in the Petén area, including the [[Itza people|Itza]] at [[Tayasal]] and the [[Kowoj]] at [[Zacpeten]], remained independent until 1697. Some Mesoamerican cultures never achieved dominant status or left impressive archaeological remains but are nevertheless noteworthy. These include the [[Otomi people|Otomi]], [[Mixe–Zoquean languages|Mixe–Zoque]] groups (which may or may not have been related to the Olmecs), the northern [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] groups, often referred to as the [[Chichimeca]], that include the [[Cora people|Cora]] and [[Huichol people|Huichol]], the Chontales, the Huaves, and the Pipil, Xincan and Lencan peoples of Central America. ===Chronology in chart form=== {{Main|Mesoamerican chronology}} {| class="wikitable" |+Summary of the chronology and cultures of Mesoamerica |- ! scope="col"|Period ! scope="col"|Timespan ! scope="col"|Important cultures, cities |- style="background:silver" |[[History of Mesoamerica (Paleo-Indian)|Paleo-Indian]] |10,000–3500 BCE |Honduras, Guatemala, Belize, obsidian and pyrite points, Iztapan |-="background:silver" |[[Mesoamerican chronology#Archaic Era|Archaic]] |3500–1800 BCE |Agricultural settlements, [[Tehuacán, Puebla|Tehuacán]] |- style="background:silver" |[[Mesoamerican chronology#Preclassic Era|Preclassic (Formative)]] |2000 BCE – 250 CE |Unknown culture in [[La Blanca, San Marcos (archaeological site)|La Blanca]] and [[Ujuxte]], [[Monte Alto culture]] |- |Early Preclassic |2000–1000 BCE |[[Olmec]] area: [[San Lorenzo Tenochtitlan]]; Central Mexico: [[Chalcatzingo]]; Valley of Oaxaca: [[San José Mogote]]. The Maya area: [[Nakbe]], [[Cerros]] Central American Area: [[Los Naranjos, Honduras|Los Naranjos]] |- |Middle Preclassic |1000–400 BCE |Olmec area: [[La Venta]], [[Tres Zapotes]]; Maya area: [[El Mirador]], [[Izapa]], [[Lamanai]], [[Xunantunich]], [[Naj Tunich]], [[Takalik Abaj]], [[Kaminaljuyú]], [[Uaxactun]]; Valley of Oaxaca: [[Monte Albán]]; Central American area: [[Yarumela]] |- |Late Preclassic |400 BCE – 200 CE |[[Maya civilization|Maya]] area: [[Uaxactun]], [[Tikal]], [[Edzná]], [[Cival]], [[San Bartolo (Maya site)|San Bartolo]], [[Altar de Sacrificios]], [[Piedras Negras (Maya site)|Piedras Negras]], [[Seibal|Ceibal]], [[Rio Amarillo (Mayan Site)|Rio Amarillo]], [[Río Azul]]; Central Mexico: [[Teotihuacan]]; Gulf Coast: [[Epi-Olmec culture]]; Western Mexico: [[Western Mexico shaft tomb tradition|Shaft Tomb Tradition]] |- style="background:silver" |[[Classic Period|Classic]] |200–900 CE |Classic Maya Centers, Teotihuacan, Zapotec |- |Early Classic |200–600 CE |Maya area: [[Calakmul]], [[Caracol]], [[Chunchucmil]], [[Copán]], [[Naranjo]], [[Palenque]], [[El Puente (Maya site)|El puente]], [[Quiriguá]], [[Tikal]], [[Uaxactun]], [[Yaxha]]; Central Mexico: [[Teotihuacan]] apogee; [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] apogee; Western Mexico: [[Teuchitlan tradition]]; Central American area: [[Tenampua]] |- |Late Classic |600–900 CE |Maya area: [[Uxmal]], [[Toniná]], [[Cobá]], [[Waka']], [[Pusilha|Pusilhá]], [[Xultún]], [[Dos Pilas]], [[Cancuen]], [[Aguateca]], [[Yaxchilan]]; Central Mexico: [[Xochicalco]], [[Cacaxtla]]; Gulf Coast: [[El Tajín]] and [[Classic Veracruz culture]]; Western Mexico: [[Teuchitlan tradition]] |- |Terminal Classic |800–900/1000 CE |Maya area: [[Puuc]] sites: [[Uxmal]], [[Labna]], [[Sayil]], [[Kabah (Maya site)|Kabah]] |- style="background:silver" |[[Postclassic period|Postclassic]] |900–1519 CE |[[Aztec]], [[Tarascan state|Tarascans]], [[Mixtec]], [[Totonac]], [[Pipil people|Pipil]], [[Nicarao people|Nicarao]], [[Itza people|Itzá]], [[Kowoj]], [[Kʼicheʼ kingdom of Qʼumarkaj|Kʼiche]], [[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]], [[Poqomam language|Poqomam]], [[Mam people|Mam]] |- |Early Postclassic |900–1200 CE | [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]], [[Tula, Hidalgo|Tula]], [[Mitla]], [[El Tajín]], [[Tulum]], [[Topoxte]], [[Kaminaljuyú]], [[Joya de Cerén]] |- |Late Postclassic |1200–1521 CE |[[Tenochtitlan]], [[Cempoala]], [[Tzintzuntzan (Mesoamerican site)|Tzintzuntzan]], [[Mayapán]], [[Ti'ho]], [[Utatlán]], [[Iximche]], [[Mixco Viejo]], [[Zaculeu]], [[Peñol de Cerquín|Peñol de Cerquin]] |- style="background:silver" | Colonial | 1521–1821 | |[[Nahuas]], Maya, [[Mixtec]], [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]], [[Purépecha]], [[Chinantec]], [[Otomi]], [[Tepehuas|Tepehua]], [[Totonac]], [[Mazatec]], [[Tlapanec people|Tlapanec]], [[Amuzgo]] |- |Postcolonial |1821–present | |[[Nahuas]], Maya, [[Mixtec]], [[Lenca]], [[Zapotec peoples|Zapotec]], [[Purépecha]], [[Chinantec]], [[Otomi]], [[Tepehuas|Tepehua]], [[Totonac]], [[Mazatec]], [[Tlapanec people|Tlapanec]], [[Amuzgo]] |} == Other characteristics == === Subsistence === {{further|Agriculture in Mesoamerica|Maya diet and subsistence}} [[File:Zea mays.jpg|thumb|upright|Examples of the diversity of [[maize]]]] By roughly 6000 BCE, [[hunter-gatherer]]s living in the [[highland (geography)|highlands]] and lowlands of Mesoamerica began to develop agricultural practices with early cultivation of squash and chili. The earliest example of [[maize]] dates to c. 4000 BCE and comes from [[Guilá Naquitz]], a cave in Oaxaca. Earlier maize samples have been documented at the Los Ladrones cave site in [[Panama]], c. 5500 BCE.{{cite web|title=Los Ladrones cave site |publisher=UAC |url=http://www.uacam.mx/.../ee8480fb39dbff8e86256ad3004e1394/$FILE/ATT4M6OX/Campeche%202002%20paper.pdf|access-date=2007-01-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120215205412/http://www.uacam.mx/.../ee8480fb39dbff8e86256ad3004e1394/$FILE/ATT4M6OX/Campeche%202002%20paper.pdf|archive-date=2012-02-15}} Slightly thereafter, semi-[[agrarian community|agrarian communities]] began to cultivate other crops throughout Mesoamerica.{{sfn|O'Brien|2005|p=25}} Maize was the most common domesticate, but the common bean, tepary bean, scarlet runner bean, [[jicama]], [[tomato]] and squash all became common cultivates by 3500 BCE. At the same time, these communities exploited [[cotton]], [[yucca]], and [[agave]] for fibers and [[textile]] materials.{{sfn|Diamond|1999|pp=126–27}} By 2000 BCE, corn was the staple crop in the region, and remained so through modern times. The Ramón or [[Brosimum alicastrum|Breadnut tree]] (''[[Brosimum alicastrum]]'') was an occasional substitute for maize in producing flour. Fruit was also important in the daily diet of Mesoamerican cultures. Some of the main ones consumed include [[avocado]], [[papaya]], [[guava]], [[mamey (disambiguation)|mamey]], [[Sapote|zapote]], and [[annona]]. Mesoamerica lacked animals suitable for domestication, most notably domesticated large [[ungulate]]s. The lack of [[draft animals]] for transportation is one notable difference between Mesoamerica and the cultures of the South American Andes. Other animals, including the [[duck]], [[dog]]s, and [[wild turkey|turkey]], were [[domestication|domesticated]]. Turkey was the first to be domesticated locally, around 3500 BCE.{{Sfn|Diamond|1999|p=100}} [[Dog meat|Dogs]] were the primary source of animal protein in ancient Mesoamerica,Coe (1994), p. 45 ("The only domestic animals were dogs—the principal source of meat for much of Preclassic Mesoamerica—and turkeys—understandably rare because that familiar bird consumes very large quantities of corn and is thus expensive to raise".) and dog bones are common in midden deposits throughout the region. Societies of this region did hunt certain wild species for food. These animals included deer, [[rabbit]], birds, and various types of insects. They also hunted for luxury items, such as feline fur and bird plumage.{{Sfn|Diamond|1999}} Mesoamerican cultures that lived in the lowlands and coastal plains settled down in agrarian communities somewhat later than did highland cultures because there was a greater abundance of fruits and animals in these areas, which made a hunter-gatherer lifestyle more attractive.{{sfn|O'Brien|2005|p=25}} Fishing also was a major provider of food to lowland and coastal Mesoamericans creating a further disincentive to settle down in permanent communities. === Political organization === [[File:ChanBahlumCatherwood.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Kʼinich Kan Bahlam II]], the Classic period ruler of [[Palenque]], as depicted on a [[stele]]]] Ceremonial centers were the nuclei of Mesoamerican settlements. Temples and pyramids provided spatial orientation to the surrounding town, and the cities with their commercial and religious centers functioned as political entities comparable to the European [[city-state]].{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=40–80}}{{cite journal |last1=Chase |first1=Arlen F. |last2=Chase |first2=Diane Z. |title=States and Empires in Ancient Mesoamerica |journal=Ancient Mesoamerica |volume=7 |issue=1 |date=1996 |pages=1–12 |doi=10.1017/S0956536100001267}} Nearly all Mesoamerican cities served as capitals of polities, and public architecture—pyramids, plazas, and palaces—was overwhelmingly political and religious in function, designed and built by rulers who used urban planning to make political statements. Ceremonial centers were always built to be visible. Pyramids were meant to stand out from the rest of the city, to represent the gods and their powers. Another characteristic feature of the ceremonial centers is historic layers. All the ceremonial edifices were built in various phases, one on top of the other, to the point that what we now see is usually the last stage of construction. Ultimately, the ceremonial centers were the architectural translation of the identity of cities such as [[Teotihuacan]], as represented by the veneration of their gods.{{cite book |last1=Headrick |first1=Annabeth |title=The Teotihuacan trinity: the sociopolitical structure of an ancient Mesoamerican city |date=2007 |publisher=University of Texas Press |location=Austin |isbn=978-0-292-71665-0 |edition=1st}} [[Stela]]e were common public monuments throughout Mesoamerica and served to commemorate notable successes, events, and dates associated with the rulers and nobility of the various sites. === Economy === {{See also|Trade in Maya civilization}} Mesoamerica was broken into numerous and diverse ecological niches, and no single society was self-sufficient. Long-distance trade was generally limited to luxury goods and rare materials, while staple goods moved shorter distances between complementary ecological zones.{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=40–80}} From the last centuries of the [[Archaic period in the Americas|Archaic period]] (8000 BCE– 1000 BCE) onward, regions compensated for environmental inadequacies by specializing in the extraction of certain abundant natural resources and trading them through established commercial networks. The major specialized resources traded from each Mesoamerican sub-region included: [[cotton]] and [[cochineal]] from the Pacific lowlands; [[Cocoa bean|cacao]], [[vanilla]], [[jaguar]] skins, and tropical bird feathers (especially [[quetzal]] and [[macaw]]) from the Maya lowlands and Gulf Coast; [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica|obsidian]] from central Mexico ([[Pachuca]]) and the Guatemalan highlands ([[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica#Sources|San Martin Jilotepeque]], [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica#Sources|El Chayal]], and [[Obsidian use in Mesoamerica#Sources|Ixtepeque]]); [[pyrite]] and [[jade]] from the [[Motagua River]] valley in Guatemala; and [[salt]], dry [[fish]], [[Exoskeleton|shell]], and [[dye]]s from coastal areas.{{sfn|Coe|1994}}{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=40–80}} Cacao beans served as a widely accepted medium of exchange and were used as a form of currency throughout the region.{{cite book |last1=Coe |first1=Sophie D. |last2=Coe |first2=Michael D. |title=The True History of Chocolate |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2013 |edition=3rd |isbn=978-0-500-29074-3 |pages=55–60}} === Architecture === {{Main|Mesoamerican architecture}} [[File:Aerial view of Yarumela.jpg|thumb|Illustration that recreates the structures of the archaeological site of [[Yarumela]] or El Chircal in Honduras, this place reflects the Olmec influence that existed in Central America in the pre-classic period.]] Mesoamerican architecture is the collective name given to urban, ceremonial and public structures built by [[List of pre-Columbian cultures|pre-Columbian civilizations]] in Mesoamerica. Although very different in styles, all kinds of Mesoamerican architecture show some kind of interrelation, due to very significant cultural exchanges that occurred during thousands of years. Among the most well-known structures in Mesoamerica, the flat-top [[Mesoamerican pyramids|pyramids]] are a landmark feature of the most developed urban centers. Two characteristics are most notable in Mesoamerican architecture. Firstly, the intimate connection between geography, astronomy, and architecture: very often, urban centers or even single buildings are aligned to cardinal directions and/or along particular constellations.{{Cite journal|last=Šprajc|first=Ivan|title=El Sol en Chichén Itzá y Dzibilchaltún: la supuesta importancia de los equinoccios en Mesoamérica|journal=Arqueología Mexicana}} Secondly, iconography was considered integral part of architecture, with buildings often being adorned with images of religious and cultural significance.{{sfn|Miller|Taube|1993|p=30}} === Calendrical systems === {{main|Mesoamerican calendars}} [[File:Maya days.jpg|thumb|"Head Variant" or "Patron Gods" glyphs for Maya days]] [[File:Tikalemblem.jpg|thumb|The [[Maya script|emblem glyph]] of Tikal (Mutal)]] Agriculturally based people historically divide the year into four seasons. These included the two [[solstices]] and the two [[equinoxes]], which could be thought of as the four "directional pillars" that support the year. These four times of the year were, and still are, important as they indicate seasonal changes that directly impact the lives of Mesoamerican agriculturalists. The Maya closely observed and duly recorded the seasonal markers. They prepared almanacs recording past and recent solar and [[lunar eclipses]], the phases of the [[moon]], the periods of [[Venus]] and [[Mars]], the movements of various other planets, and conjunctions of celestial bodies. These almanacs also made future predictions concerning celestial events. These tables are remarkably accurate, given the technology available, and indicate a significant level of knowledge among Maya [[astronomer]]s.Roxanne V. Pacheco, [https://web.archive.org/web/20030718193206/http://www.unm.edu/~abqteach/ArcheoCUs/99-01-08.pdf Myths of Mesoamerican Cultures Reflect a Knowledge and Practice of Astronomy], University of New Mexico, ''archived'' July 18, 2003 (accessed January 25, 2016). Among the many types of calendars the Maya maintained, the most important include a 260-day cycle, a 360-day cycle or 'year', a 365-day cycle or year, a lunar cycle, and a Venus cycle, which tracked the [[Synodic period|synodic]] period of Venus. Maya of the European contact period said that knowing the past aided in both understanding the present and predicting the future (Diego de Landa). The 260-day cycle was a calendar to govern agriculture, observe religious holidays, mark the movements of celestial bodies, and memorialize public officials. The 260-day cycle was also used for divination, and (like the Catholic calendar of saints) to name newborns.Bernardino de Sahagun, Historia de las cosas de Nueva Espana; Diego Duran, The Book of The Gods and Rites, Oklahoma; The Books of [[Chilam Balam]] of Mani, Kaua, and Chumayel. The names given to the days, months, and years in the Mesoamerican calendar came, for the most part, from animals, flowers, heavenly bodies, and cultural concepts that held symbolic significance in Mesoamerican culture. This calendar was used throughout the history of Mesoamerica by nearly every culture. Even today, several Maya groups in Guatemala, including the [[Kʼicheʼ people|Kʼicheʼ]], [[Qʼeqchiʼ]], [[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]], and the [[Mixe people]] of Oaxaca continue using modernized forms of the Mesoamerican calendar. === Writing systems === {{Main|Mesoamerican writing systems}} [[File:La Mojarra Estela 1 (Escritura superior).jpg|thumb|One of the earliest examples of the [[Mesoamerican writing systems]], the [[Epi-Olmec script]] on the [[La Mojarra Stela 1]] dated to around 150 CE. Mesoamerica is one of the five places in the world where [[writing]] has developed independently.]] The Mesoamerican scripts deciphered to date are [[logosyllabary|logosyllabic]] combining the use of [[logograms]] with a [[syllabary]], and they are often called [[hieroglyph]]ic scripts. Five or six different scripts have been documented in Mesoamerica, but archaeological dating methods, and a certain degree of self-interest, create difficulties in establishing priority and thus the forebear from which the others developed. The best documented and deciphered Mesoamerican writing system, and therefore the most widely known, is the classic [[Maya script]]. Others include the [[Olmec hieroglyphs|Olmec]], Zapotec, and [[Epi-Olmec script|Epi-Olmec/Isthmian]] writing systems. An extensive [[Mesoamerican literature]] has been conserved partly in indigenous scripts and partly in the postinvasion transcriptions into [[Latin script]]. The other [[glyph (archaeology)|glyphic]] writing systems of Mesoamerica, and their interpretation, have been subject to much debate. One important ongoing discussion regards whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts can be considered examples of true writing or whether non-Maya Mesoamerican texts are best understood as [[pictographic]] conventions that express ideas, specifically religious ones, but don't represent the phonetics of spoken language. Mesoamerican writing is found in several mediums, including large stone monuments such as [[stelae]], carved directly onto architecture, carved or painted over stucco (e.g., [[murals]]), and on [[pottery]]. No Precolumbian Mesoamerican society is known to have had widespread literacy, and literacy was probably restricted to particular social classes, including scribes, painters, merchants, and the nobility. The Mesoamerican book was typically written with brush and colored inks on a paper prepared from the inner bark of the ''Ficus amacus''. The book consisted of a long strip of the prepared bark, which was folded like a screenfold to define individual pages. The pages were often covered and protected by elaborately carved book boards. Some books were composed of square pages while others were composed of rectangular pages. Following the Spanish conquests in the sixteenth century, Spanish friars taught indigenous scribes to write their languages in alphabetic texts. Many oral histories of the prehispanic period were subsequently recorded in alphabetic texts. The indigenous in central and southern Mexico continued to produce written texts in the colonial period, many with pictorial elements. An important scholarly reference work is the ''[[Handbook of Middle American Indians]], Guide to Ethnohistorical Sources''. [[Mesoamerican codices]] survive from the [[Aztec codices|Aztec]], [[Maya codices|Maya]], [[Mixtec codices|Mixtec]], and [[Zapotec civilization|Zapotec]] regions. === Arithmetic === {{See also|Maya numerals}} The Mesoamerican numbering system was [[vigesimal]] (base 20), likely derived from the practice of counting on fingers and toes.{{sfn|Coe|1994}} In representing numbers, a system of bars and dots was employed: dots had a value of one and bars a value of five.{{cite journal |last=Blume |first=Anna |title=Maya Concepts of Zero |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=155 |issue=1 |date=2011 |pages=51–88 |jstor=23208779}} Mesoamerican arithmetic also treated numbers as having symbolic as well as literal value, reflecting the [[Dualistic cosmology|dualistic]] nature of Mesoamerican ideology: '4' was linked to the four corners of the universe, '9' pertained to the underworld and the night, '13' was the number for light, and '20' represented completeness.{{sfn|Miller|Taube|1993|p=30}} One of the most significant Mesoamerican mathematical achievements was the independent development of the [[0 (number)|concept of zero]] as a positional placeholder, one of only a handful of times this concept was independently invented in human history.{{Sfn|Fagan|1996|p=762}} The earliest known Long Count inscriptions using positional notation date to the first century BCE in the Epi-Olmec cultural sphere: Stela 2 at [[Chiapa de Corzo (Mesoamerican site)|Chiapa de Corzo]] (corresponding to 36 BCE) and [[Tres Zapotes]] Stela C (corresponding to 32 BCE).{{cite journal |last1=Anderson |first1=W. French |last2=Blume |first2=Anna |last3=O'Brien |first3=Michael J. |title=Non-power positional number representation systems, bijective numeration, and the Mesoamerican discovery of zero |journal=Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences |volume=13 |issue=2 |date=2021 |page=30 |doi=10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06580 |doi-access=free |pmid=33851058 |pmc=8022160 |arxiv=2005.10207 |bibcode=2021Heliy...706580R }} The Maya represented zero with a shell glyph and used it extensively in their [[Mesoamerican Long Count calendar|Long Count calendar]] and astronomical calculations. === Food, medicine, and science === Mesoamerica's inhabitants developed a remarkable array of cultivated crops. In terms of harvest weight, [[maize]] is today the world's most important crop, and the region also produced [[tomato]]es, [[Bell peppers|peppers]], all the world's [[Squash (plant)|squashes]] (except for a few domesticated in the United States), and many of the [[beans]] on dinner plates around the world. One estimate suggests that Mesoamerican peoples developed three-fifths of the crops now in global cultivation.Mann, Charles C. ''1491: New Revelations of the Americas Before Columbus''. Vintage Books. 2005. pp. 196–97. Having secured their food supply, Mesoamerican societies turned to intellectual pursuits, independently inventing their own [[writing]], [[astronomy]], and [[mathematics]], including the [[0 (number)|zero]]. Maize played an important role in [[Mesoamerican feasts]] due to its symbolic meaning and abundance.Lecount, Lisa J. "Like Water for Chocolate: Feasting and Political Ritual among the Late Classic Maya at Xunantunich, Belize." ''American Anthropologist'' 103.4 (2001): 935–53. Web. Companion planting was practiced in various forms by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. They domesticated [[Cucurbita pepo|squash]] 8,000 to 10,000 years ago, then [[maize]], then [[Phaseolus vulgaris|common beans]], forming the [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|Three Sisters]] agricultural technique. The cornstalk served as a [[Trellis (architecture)|trellis]] for the beans to climb, and the beans [[Nitrogen fixation|fixed nitrogen]], benefitting the maize.{{Cite web|last=Landon|first=Amanda J. |date=2008|title=The "How" of the Three Sisters: The Origins of Agriculture in Mesoamerica and the Human Niche |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro|website=|archive-date=2021-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414163341/https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1039&context=nebanthro|url-status=live}} Fray [[Bernardino de Sahagún]] collected extensive information on plants, animals, soil types, among other matters from native informants in Book 11, The Earthly Things, of the twelve-volume ''General History of the Things of New Spain,'' known as the [[Florentine Codex]], compiled in the third quarter of the sixteenth century. Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic use of [[Psilocybe]] mushrooms known to the [[Aztecs]] as ''[[Psilocybin mushroom|teōnanācatl]]'' (agglutinative form of ''teōtl'' (god, sacred) and ''nanācatl'' (mushroom) in [[Nahuatl language|Náhuatl]]).{{Cite book |last=Hofmann |first=Albert |title=[[LSD, My Problem Child]] |date=1980 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=0-07-029325-2 |location=New York |oclc=6251390}}{{Cite book |last=de Sahagún |first=Bernardino |date=1577 |title=General History of the Things of New Spain by Fray Bernardino de Sahagún: The Florentine Codex |url=https://www.wdl.org/en/item/10096/view/1/1/ |access-date=2020-12-16 |via=World Digital Library |archive-date=2020-12-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201202195003/https://www.wdl.org/en/item/10096/view/1/1/ |url-status=live}} An earlier work, the [[Badianus Manuscript]] or [[Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis]] is another Aztec codex with written text and illustrations collected from the indigenous viewpoint. The [[Aztec use of entheogens|ancient Aztecs used a variety of entheogens]] within their society.{{Cite journal|last=Hofmann|first=Albert|date=1971 |title=Teonanácatl and Ololiuqui, two ancient magic drugs of Mexico. |journal=Bulletin on Narcotics}}{{Cite journal|last=Carod-Artal|first=F.J. |date=January–February 2015 |title=Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures|journal=Neurología (English Edition) |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=42–49 |pmid=21893367 |issn=2173-5808 |doi=10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010 |doi-access=free}} Evidence shows that wild animals were captured and traded for symbolic and ritual purposes.{{Sfn|Sugiyama|Fash|France|2018}} === Mythology and worldview === {{further|Mesoamerican religion|Mesoamerican creation myths|Mesoamerican world tree}} {{See also|Aztec religion|Olmec mythology|Maya religion|Maya mythology}} Shared traits in Mesoamerican mythology are characterized by their common basis as a religion that—though in many Mesoamerican groups developed into complex polytheistic religious systems—retained some shamanistic elements.{{sfn|Ortiz de Montellano|1990|pp=67–71}} [[File:Mexico.Xoloitzcuintle.01.jpg|thumb|The [[Mexican Hairless Dog|xoloitzcuintle]] is one of the [[nagual]]es of the god [[Quetzalcoatl]]. In this form, it helps the dead cross the Chicnahuapan, a river that separates the world of the living from the dead.]] [[File:Mascara Dios Murcielago.jpg|thumb|upright|Zapotec mask of the Bat God.]] The great breadth of the Mesoamerican [[Pantheon (gods)|pantheon]] of [[deities]] is due to the incorporation of ideological and religious elements from the first primitive religion of Fire, Earth, Water and Nature.{{Cite web|title=Transcript of "The Maya myth of the morning star"|url=https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_the_maya_myth_of_the_morning_star/transcript|access-date=2021-02-04|website=www.ted.com|date=21 October 2019|language=en|archive-date=2021-08-17|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210817215631/https://www.ted.com/talks/ted_ed_the_maya_myth_of_the_morning_star/transcript|url-status=live}} Astral divinities (the sun, stars, constellations, and Venus) were adopted and represented in anthropomorphic, [[zoomorphic]], and anthropozoomorphic sculptures, and in day-to-day objects.{{Cite web|title=Creation Story of the Maya {{!}} Living Maya Time|url=https://maya.nmai.si.edu/the-maya/creation-story-maya|access-date=2021-02-04|website=maya.nmai.si.edu|archive-date=2021-01-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120191742/https://maya.nmai.si.edu/the-maya/creation-story-maya|url-status=live}} The qualities of these gods and their attributes changed over time and with cultural influences from other Mesoamerican groups. The typical Mesoamerican cosmology sees the world as separated into a day world watched by the sun and a night world watched by the moon. More importantly, the three superposed levels of the world are united by a [[Ceiba]] tree (''Yaxche'' in Mayan). The geographic vision is also tied to the cardinal points. Certain geographical features are linked to different parts of this cosmovision. Thus mountains and tall trees connect the middle and upper worlds; caves connect the middle and nether worlds. ==== Sacrifice ==== Generally, sacrifice in Mesoamerica can be divided into two types: [[Bloodletting rituals in Maya culture|autosacrifice]] and [[human sacrifice]].{{Cite web|date=2018-06-21|title=Feeding the gods: Hundreds of skulls reveal massive scale of human sacrifice in Aztec capital|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/feeding-gods-hundreds-skulls-reveal-massive-scale-human-sacrifice-aztec-capital|access-date=2021-01-29|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|language=en|archive-date=2021-10-13|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211013074757/https://www.science.org/content/article/feeding-gods-hundreds-skulls-reveal-massive-scale-human-sacrifice-aztec-capital|url-status=live}} The different forms of sacrifice are reflected in the imagery used to evoke ideological structure and sociocultural organization in Mesoamerica. In the Maya area, for example, steles depict bloodletting rituals performed by ruling elites, eagles and jaguars devouring human hearts, jade circles or necklaces that represented hearts, and plants and flowers that symbolized both nature and the blood that provided life. Imagery also showed pleas for rain or pleas for blood, with the same intention to replenish the divine energy. Ritual sacrifice was done in efforts to appease the gods, and was done with the purpose of protection of the population. ===== Autosacrifice ===== {{Main|Bloodletting in Mesoamerica}} {{See also|Sacrifice in Maya culture}}[[File:Human sacrifice (Codex Laud, f.8).png|thumb|Ritual human sacrifice portrayed in [[Codex Laud]]]] Autosacrifice, also called [[bloodletting]], is the ritualized practice of drawing blood from oneself. It is commonly seen or represented through iconography as performed by ruling elites in highly ritualized ceremonies, but it was easily practiced in mundane sociocultural contexts (i.e., non-elites could perform autosacrifice). The act was typically performed with [[obsidian]] [[prismatic blade]]s or [[Stingray injury#Biological structure of the barb|stingray spines]], and blood was drawn from piercing or cutting the [[tongue]], [[earlobe]]s, and/or [[genitals]] (among other locations). Another form of autosacrifice was conducted by pulling a rope with attached thorns through the tongue or earlobes. The blood produced was then collected on [[amate]] held in a bowl. Autosacrifice was not limited to male rulers, as their female counterparts often performed these ritualized activities. They are typically shown performing the rope and thorns technique. A recently discovered queen's tomb in the Classic Maya site of [[El Perú (Maya site)|Waka]] (also known as El Perú) had a ceremonial stingray spine placed in her genital area, suggesting that women also performed bloodletting in their genitalia.{{cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/05/040506073833.htm|title=Archaeologists Announce Discoveries At The Ancient Maya Site Of Waka' In Northern Guatemala|date=May 6, 2004|access-date=2 April 2010|archive-date=10 May 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100510072239/http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2004/05/040506073833.htm|url-status=live}} ===== Human sacrifice ===== {{See also|Human sacrifice in Aztec culture|Human sacrifice in Maya culture}} Human sacrifice had great importance in the social and religious life of Mesoamerican cultures.{{Sfn|Fitzsimmons|2009}} Within this worldview, death through sacrifice was not an end but a continuation of the cosmic cycle: the vital energy contained in the heart and blood—what the Aztecs called ''teyolia'', a kind of divine fire animating the human body—was released through death and returned to the gods, enabling them to sustain the world.{{sfn|Ortiz de Montellano|1990|pp=67–71}}{{cite book |last=López Austin |first=Alfredo |title=The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas |publisher=University of Utah Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-87480-291-7 |volume=1}} The practice also served to justify warfare, since the most valued sacrificial offerings were warriors captured in battle. The Aztec belief that the sun required the energy of sacrificed warriors to complete its daily journey made warfare and captive-taking both a religious obligation and a means of social advancement.{{sfn|Carmack|Gasco|Gossen|1996|pp=40–80}} The ritual system reinforced the power of the two ruling classes: the priests, who controlled religious ideology, and the warriors, who supplied the sacrifices.{{Sfn|Fitzsimmons|2009}} Human sacrifice was a long-standing practice in Mesoamerica, with archaeological evidence suggesting it existed from at least the time of the Olmecs (1200–400 BCE) and continued through the Aztec period, though the scale of Aztec sacrifice was likely unprecedented in the region.{{Cite web|date=2018-06-21|title=Feeding the gods: Hundreds of skulls reveal massive scale of human sacrifice in Aztec capital|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/feeding-gods-hundreds-skulls-reveal-massive-scale-human-sacrifice-aztec-capital|access-date=2021-01-29|website=Science {{!}} AAAS|language=en}} It was also believed that some individuals were chosen by the gods for sacrifice, marked by signs such as being struck by lightning. ==== Ballgame ==== {{Main|Mesoamerican ballgame}} [[File:Tikal central ballcourt.jpg|thumb|A small ceremonial ballcourt at [[Tikal]].]] [[File:Pelota player - Chikultic Disc (591 CE) - Maya - National Museum of Antropology - Mexico 2024.jpg|thumb|[[Mesoamerican ballgame|Ballgame marker]] from the [[Mesoamerican chronology|classic]] [[Maya civilization|Lowland Maya]] site of [[Chinkultic]], Mexico depicting a ballplayer in full gear]] The Mesoamerican ballgame was a sport with ritual associations played for over 3000 years by nearly all pre-Columbian peoples of Mesoamerica. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modern version of the game, [[ulama (game)|ulama]], is still played in a few places. Over 1300 [[Mesoamerican ballcourt|ballcourts]] have been found throughout Mesoamerica.{{harvcoltxt|Taladoire|2001|p=98}} Slightly over 200 ballcourts have also been identified in the [[American Southwest]]. This total does not include those, since they are outside Mesoamerica, and there is discussion whether these areas were actually used for ballplaying. They vary considerably in size, but they all feature long narrow alleys with side walls to bounce the balls against. The rules of the ballgame are not known, but it was probably similar to volleyball, where the object is to keep the ball in play. In the most well-known version of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, though some versions used forearms or employed rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid rubber, and weighed up to 4 kg or more, with sizes that differed greatly over time or according to the version played.{{sfn|Filloy Nadal|2001|p=30}}{{sfn|Leyenaar|2001|pp=125–26}} While the game was played casually for simple recreation, including by children and perhaps even women, the game also had important ritual aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events, often featuring human sacrifice. ==== Astronomy ==== Mesoamerican [[astronomy]] included a broad understanding of the cycles of planets and other celestial bodies. Special importance was given to the [[sun]], [[moon]], and [[Venus]] as the morning and evening star.{{Sfn|Grofe|2016|pp=1–12}} Observatories were built at some sites, including the round observatory at [[Seibal|Ceibal]] and the "Observatorio" at [[Xochicalco]]. Often, the architectural organization of Mesoamerican sites was based on precise calculations derived from astronomical observations. Well-known examples of these include the [[El Castillo, Chichen Itza|El Castillo]] pyramid at Chichen Itza and the Observatorio at [[Xochicalco]]. A unique and common architectural complex found among many Mesoamerican sites is the [[E-Group]]; these are aligned to serve as astronomical observatories. The name of this complex is based on [[Uaxactun]]'s "Group E", the first known observatory in the Maya area. Perhaps the earliest observatory documented in Mesoamerica is that of the [[Monte Alto culture]]. This complex consisted of three plain stelae and a temple oriented with respect to the [[Pleiades]].{{Sfn|Šprajc|2011|pp=87–95}} ==== Symbolism of space and time ==== [[File:Mexico0047.jpg|thumb|The [[Teotihuacan#Site layout|Avenue of the Dead]] in [[Teotihuacan]], an example of a Mesoamerican settlement planned according to concepts of directionality]] Among Mesoamerican societies the concepts of [[space]] and [[time]] are associated with the four [[cardinal points|cardinal compass points]] and linked together by the [[calendar]].{{sfn|Duverger|1999}} Dates or events were always tied to a compass direction, and the calendar specified the symbolic geographical characteristic peculiar to that period. Resulting from the significance held by the cardinal directions, many Mesoamerican architectural features, if not entire settlements, were planned and oriented according to directionality. In Maya cosmology, each cardinal point was assigned a specific color and a specific jaguar deity ([[Maya mythology#Bacabs|Bacab]]).{{sfn|Miller|Taube|1993|p=30}} They are as follows: [[Hacha-kyum|Hobnil]], Bacab of the [[East]], associated with the color red and the ''Kan'' years; [[List of Maya gods and supernatural beings#C|Can Tzicnal]], Bacab of the [[North]], assigned the color white and the ''Muluc'' years; [[List of Maya gods and supernatural beings#Z|Zac Cimi]], Bacab of the [[West]], associated with the color black and the ''Ix'' years; and [[Hacha-kyum|Hozanek]], Bacab of the [[South]], associated with the color yellow and the ''Cauac'' years. Later cultures such as the [[Kaqchikel people|Kaqchikel]] and [[Kʼicheʼ people|Kʼicheʼ]] maintain the association of cardinal directions with each color, but use different names. Among the Aztecs, the name of each day was associated with a cardinal point, and each cardinal direction carried a cluster of symbolic associations.{{sfn|Miller|Taube|1993|p=30}} The East was linked to the world of priests and vegetative fertility, associated with the [[American crocodile|croco]][[Morelet's crocodile|dile]], the [[Serpent (symbolism)|serpent]], [[water]], cane, and movement. The North, by contrast, was conceptualized as dry, cold, and oppressive—the nocturnal part of the universe, including the dwellings of the dead—and was associated with wind, death, the dog, the jaguar, and [[flint]] (or [[chert]]). The dog ([[xoloitzcuintle]]) held a specific meaning, as it was believed to accompany the deceased during the journey to the lands of the dead and help them cross the river of death (''see also'' [[Dogs in Mesoamerican folklore and myth]]). The West was associated with the cycles of temperate vegetation, light rains, and the change of seasons, represented by the house, the deer, the [[New World monkey|monkey]], the [[eagle]], and rain. The South was related to the luminous sun and midday heat, associated with the rabbit, the [[lizard]], dried herbs, the [[New World vulture|buzzard]], and flowers. The rabbit, principal symbol of the South, was linked to farmers and to [[pulque]].{{sfn|Miller|Taube|1993|p=30}}{{sfn|Duverger|1999}} === Political and religious art === {{Category see also|Mesoamerican art}} [[File:Tzompantli Tovar.jpeg|thumb|Art with ideological and political meaning: depiction of an [[Aztec]] ''[[tzompantli]]'' (skull-rack) from the [[Ramirez Codex]]]] Mesoamerican [[art]]istic expression was conditioned by [[ideology]] and generally focused on themes of [[religion]] and/or sociopolitical [[Power (sociology)|power]]. This is largely based on the fact that most works that survived the Spanish conquest were public monuments. These monuments were typically erected by rulers who sought to visually legitimize their sociocultural and political position; by doing so, they intertwined their lineage, personal attributes and achievements, and legacy with religious concepts. As such, these monuments were specifically designed for public display and took many forms, including [[stele]], [[sculpture]], architectural [[relief]]s, and other types of architectural elements (e.g., roofcombs). Other themes expressed include tracking time, glorifying the city, and veneration of the gods—all of which were tied to explicitly aggrandizing the abilities and the reign of the ruler who commissioned the artwork. === Music === {{main|Maya music}} Archaeological studies have never discovered any written music from the [[pre-Columbian era]], but musical instruments were found, as well as carvings and depictions, that clearly show how music played a central role in the [[Maya civilization|Mayan]] religious and societal structures, for example, as accompaniment to celebrations and funerals.{{Cite book|last=Houston|first=Stephen|title=The Memory of Bones: Body, Being and Experience Among the Classic Maya|publisher=University of Texas Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-292-71319-2|location=Houston}} Some Mesoamerican civilizations, such as the Maya, commonly played various instruments such as drums, flutes and whistles.{{Cite thesis|last=Bourg|first=Cameron|date=2005|title=Ancient Maya music now with sound|url=https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/3498|type=MA thesis|publisher=Louisiana State University|doi=10.31390/gradschool_theses.3498|s2cid=51916845|access-date=2021-03-29|archive-date=2021-04-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210410120243/https://digitalcommons.lsu.edu/gradschool_theses/3498/|url-status=live|doi-access=free}} Although most of the original Mayan music disappeared following the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish colonization]], some of it mixed with the incoming Spanish music and exists to date.{{clear}} == See also == {{Portal|Mesoamerica|Geography|Latin America}} *[[Aridoamerica]] *[[Oasisamerica]] *[[Mesoamerican region|Mesoamerican Region]] *[[Americas (terminology)]] *[[Americas]] *[[North America]] *[[Central America]] *[[Middle America (Americas)]] *[[South America]] *[[Andean world]] *[[Hispanic America]] *[[Latin America]] *[[Hispanic and Latino Americans]] *[[Indigenous peoples of Mexico]] *[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas]] *[[Painting in the Americas before European colonization]] {{clear}} == References == {{Duplicated citations|reason=DuplicateReferences script detected: * https://www.science.org/content/article/feeding-gods-hundreds-skulls-reveal-massive-scale-human-sacrifice-aztec-capital (refs: 56, 60) |date=August 2026}} {{Reflist}} == Bibliography == {{refbegin|colwidth=30em}} * {{cite journal |last1=Campbell |first1=Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |last2=Kaufman |first2=Terrence |author-link2=Terrence Kaufman |first3=Thomas |last3=Smith-Stark |date=September 1986 |title=Meso-America as a linguistic area |journal=[[Language (journal)|Language]] |volume=62 |issue=3 |pages=530–58 |doi=10.2307/415477 |issn=0097-8507 |oclc=1361911 |jstor=415477 }} * {{cite book |last1=Carmack |first1=Robert M. |first2=Janine L. |last2=Gasco |first3=Gary H. |last3=Gossen |year=1996 |title=Legacy of Mesoamerica, The: History and Culture of a Native American Civilization |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-337445-2 }} *{{cite book |last=Carrasco |first=Davíd |chapter=Mesoamerica: An Overview |editor=Davíd Carrasco| title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Cultures |volume=2|pages=212–216 |location=New York |year=2001 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510815-6 |oclc=1169898498 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809084502/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195108156.001.0001/acref-9780195108156 |archive-date=2020-08-09 |url-status=live |author-link=David Carrasco}} * {{cite book |last=Coe |first=Michael D. |author-link=Michael D. Coe |year=1994 |orig-date=1962 |title=Mexico: from the Olmecs to the Aztecs |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=New York |edition=4th |isbn=978-0-500-27722-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/mexicofromolmecs00coem }} * {{cite book |last=Diehl |first=Richard A. |title=The Olmecs: America's First Civilization |location=London |year=2004 |publisher=Thames & Hudson |isbn=978-0-500-28503-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh }} * {{cite book |last=Diamond |first=Jared |author-link=Jared Diamond |year=1999 |title=Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies |location=New York |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |isbn=978-0-393-31755-8|title-link=Guns, Germs and Steel}} * {{cite book |last=Duverger |first=Ch. |title=La Méso-Amérique: L'art pré-hispanique du Mexique et de l'Amérique centrale |publisher=Flammarion |location=Paris |date=1999 |language=fr}} * {{cite book|editor-first=Brian M. |editor-last=Fagan |title=The Oxford Companion to Archaeology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ystMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA762 |year=1996 |publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-507618-9 |access-date=2017-03-03 |archive-date=2022-10-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221016160246/https://books.google.com/books?id=ystMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA762|url-status=live}} * {{cite book |last=Filloy Nadal |first=Laura |year=2001 |chapter=Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica |title=The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame |editor=E. Michael Whittington |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20 20–31] |isbn=978-0-500-05108-5 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20 }} * {{Cite book |last=Fitzsimmons |first=James L. |title=Death And The Classic Maya Kings, Chapter Three Royal Funerals |publisher=University of Texas Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-292-79370-5|location=Austin}} * {{Citation|last=Grofe|first=Michael J.|title=Astronomy in Mesoamerica|date=2016|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures]]|pages=1–12|editor-last=Selin|editor-first=Helaine|editor-link=Helaine Selin|place=Dordrecht|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-94-007-3934-5_10270-2|isbn=978-94-007-3934-5}} * {{cite journal |last=Kirchhoff |first=Paul |author-link=Paul Kirchhoff |year=1943 |title=Mesoamérica. Sus Límites Geográficos, Composición Étnica y Caracteres Culturales |journal=Acta Americana |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=92–107 |language=es}} * {{cite book |last=Leyenaar |first=Ted |year=2001 |chapter=The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/97 97–115] |title=The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame |editor=E. Michael Whittington |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=New York |isbn=978-0-500-05108-5 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/97 }} * {{cite book |last=López Austin |first=Alfredo |title=The Human Body and Ideology: Concepts of the Ancient Nahuas |publisher=University of Utah Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-87480-291-7 |volume=1}} * {{cite book |last1=Miller |first1=Mary |author-link=Mary Miller (art historian) |first2=Karl |last2=Taube |author-link2=Karl Taube |year=1993 |title=The Gods and Symbols of Ancient Mexico and the Maya: An Illustrated Dictionary of Mesoamerican Religion |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=London |isbn=978-0-500-05068-2 |oclc=27667317 |url=https://archive.org/details/godssymbolsofa00mill }} * {{cite book |editor-last=O'Brien |editor-first=Patrick |year=2005 |title=Oxford Atlas of World History |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press}} * {{Cite book |last=Ortiz de Montellano |first=B. |title=Aztec medicine, health, and nutrition |date=1990 |publisher=Rutgers University Press |others=Mazal Holocaust Collection |isbn=0-8135-1562-9 |location=New Brunswick |oclc=20798977}} * {{Cite journal|last=Šprajc|first=Ivan|date=June 2011|title=Astronomy and its role in ancient Mesoamerica |journal=The Role of Astronomy in Society and Culture|language=en|volume=260|pages=87–95 |bibcode=2011IAUS..260...87S |issn=1743-9221 |doi=10.1017/S1743921311002171 |doi-access=free}} * {{Cite journal |title=Jaguar and puma captivity and trade among the Maya: Stable isotope data from Copan, Honduras |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13|issue=9|article-number=e0202958 |first1=Nawa |last1=Sugiyama |first2=William L. |last2=Fash |first3=Christine A. M. |last3=France |pmid=30208053 |pmc=6135383 |year=2018 |bibcode=2018PLoSO..1302958S |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0202958 |doi-access=free}} * {{cite book |last=Taladoire |first=Eric |year=2001 |chapter=The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame |title=The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame |editor=E. Michael Whittington |publisher=Thames & Hudson |location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/97 97–115] |isbn=978-0-500-05108-5 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/97 }} {{refend}} == Further reading == {{refbegin}} * {{cite book |title=Cambridge History of the Native peoples of The Americas |volume=2: Mesoamerica |editor1-first=Richard E. W. |editor1-last=Adams |editor2-first=Murdo J. |editor2-last=MacLeod |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000}} * {{cite book |last=Braswell |first=Geoffrey E. |year=2003 |chapter=Introduction: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction |title=The Maya and Teotihuacan: Reinterpreting Early Classic Interaction |editor=Geoffrey E. Braswell |location=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |pages=1–44 |isbn=978-0-292-70587-6 |oclc=49936017}} * {{cite book |author=Campbell, Lyle |author-link=Lyle Campbell |year=1997 |title=American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America |series=Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics, 4 |editor=William Bright |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0-19-509427-5 |oclc=32923907}} * {{cite book |title=Mesoamerica's Classic Heritage: From Teotihuacan to the Aztecs |year=2002 |first1=Davíd |last1=Carrasco |first2=Lindsay |last2=Jones |first3=Scott |last3=Sessions |publisher=University Press of Colorado |location=Boulder, CO}} * {{cite book |last=Gamio |first=Manuel |author-link=Manuel Gamio |year=1922 |title=La Población del Valle de Teotihuacán: Representativa de las que Habitan las Regiones Rurales del Distrito Federal y de los Estados de Hidalgo, Puebla, México y Tlaxcala |publisher=Talleres Gráficos de la Secretaría de Educación Pública |location=Mexico City |language=es}} 2 vols. in 3. * {{cite book |author-link=Charles Gibson (historian) |last=Gibson |first=Charles |title=The Aztecs Under Spanish Rule |place=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |date=1964}} * {{cite book |last=Lockhart |first=James |author-link=James Lockhart (historian) |year=1992 |title=The Nahuas After the Conquest: A Social and Cultural History of the Indians of Central Mexico, Sixteenth Through Eighteenth Centuries |location=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |isbn=978-0-8047-1927-8 |oclc=24283718}} * {{cite book |last1=López Austin |first1=Alfredo |first2=Leonardo |last2=López Luján |year=1996 |title=El pasado indígena |publisher=El Colegio de México |location=Mexico City |isbn=978-968-16-4890-9 |language=es}} * {{cite book |last1=Markman |first1=Roberta H. |first2=Peter T. |last2=Markman |year=1992 |title=The Flayed God: the Mesoamerican Mythological Tradition; Sacred Texts and Images from pre-Columbian Mexico and Central America |location=San Francisco |publisher=Harper |isbn=978-0-06-250528-6 |oclc=25507756}} * {{Cite encyclopedia |last=Mendoza |first=Ruben G. |year=2001 |title=Mesoamerican Chronology: Periodization |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Mesoamerican Culture |volume=2 |pages=222–226 |isbn=978-0-19-510815-6}} * {{cite book |last=Palerm |first=Ángel |year=1972 |title=Agricultura y civilización en Mesoamérica |publisher=Secretaría de Educación Pública |location=Mexico |isbn=978-968-13-0994-7 |language=es}} * {{cite book |last=Restall |first=Matthew |author-link=Matthew Restall |year=2004 |title=Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest |edition=1st pbk |location=Oxford and New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517611-7 |oclc=56695639 |title-link=Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest}} * {{cite book |last=Sahagún |first=Bernardino de |author-link=Bernardino de Sahagún |year=1950–82 |orig-date=ca. 1540–85 |title=Florentine Codex: General History of the Things of New Spain |edition=translation of ''Historia General de las Cosas de la Nueva España'' |editor=[[Charles E. Dibble]] |editor2=[[Arthur J. O. Anderson]] |volume=I–XII |location=Santa Fe, NM and Salt Lake City |publisher=[[School of American Research]] and the University of Utah Press |isbn=978-0-87480-082-1 |oclc=276351 |title-link=Florentine Codex}} * {{cite book |last1=Sharer |first1=Robert J. |last2=Traxler |first2=Loa P. |title=The Ancient Maya |edition=6th |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2006}} * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=Michael E. |author-link=Michael E. Smith (archaeologist) |year=1997 |title=The Aztecs |edition=1st |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |location=Malden, MA |isbn=978-0-631-23015-1 |oclc=48579073}} * {{cite journal |last=Smith |first=Michael E. |author-link=Michael E. Smith (archaeologist) |date=May 2005 |title=City Size in Late Post-Classic Mesoamerica |journal=Journal of Urban History |volume=31 |issue=4 |pages=403–34 |issn=0096-1442 |oclc=1798556 |doi=10.1177/0096144204274396 |s2cid=145452272 |url=http://www.public.asu.edu/%7Emesmith9/1-CompleteSet/MES-05-CitySize.pdf |access-date=2013-04-22 |url-status=live |archive-date=2018-10-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181008222739/http://www.public.asu.edu/~mesmith9/1-CompleteSet/MES-05-CitySize.pdf}} * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Michael E. |last2=Masson |first2=Marilyn |year=2000 |title=The Ancient Civilizations of Mesoamerica: A Reader |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell}} * {{cite book |last=Suaréz |first=Jorge A. |year=1983 |title=The Mesoamerican Indian Languages |series=Cambridge Language Surveys |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-22834-3 |oclc=8034800 |url=https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanindi0009suar}} * {{cite book |author-link=Robert Wauchope (archaeologist) |editor-last=Wauchope |editor-first=Robert |title=Handbook of Middle American Indians |place=Austin |publisher=University of Texas Press |date=1964–1976}} * {{cite book |last=Weaver |first=Muriel Porter |year=1993 |title=The Aztecs, Maya, and Their Predecessors: Archaeology of Mesoamerica |edition=3rd |publisher=Academic Press |location=San Diego |isbn=978-0-01-263999-3}} * {{Cite book |first1=Robert N. |last1=Zeitlin |last2=Zeitlin |first2=Judith |year=2000 |title=The Paleoindian and Archaic Cultures of Mesoamerica |series=The Cambridge History of the Native Peoples of the Americas |volume=2 |pages=45–122 |isbn=978-0-521-35165-2}} {{refend}} == External links == {{Commons category|Mesoamerica}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20101205233059/http://authenticmaya.com/maya_culture.htm Maya Culture] * [http://www.mesoweb.com/ Mesoweb.com: a comprehensive site for Mesoamerican civilizations] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091213122020/http://www.templomayor.inah.gob.mx/ Museum of the Templo Mayor] (Mexico) {{in lang|es}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070224213250/http://www.mna.inah.gob.mx/ National Museum of Anthropology and History] (Mexico) {{in lang|es}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060626041644/http://naya.org.ar/biblioteca/bibliografia_militarismo_mesoamerica.htm Selected bibliography] concerning war in Mesoamerica {{in lang|es}} * [http://www.wayeb.org/ WAYEB: European Association of Mayanists] * [http://www.laiesken.net/arqueologia/index_en.html Arqueologia Iberoamericana]: Open access international scientific journal devoted to the archaeological study of the American and Iberian peoples. It contains research articles on Mesoamerica. * ''[http://www.fordham.edu/vistas Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820]'' * {{cite web|title=Google Scholar Citations: Mesoamerica|url=https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=search_authors&hl=en&mauthors=label:mesoamerica}} {{Cultural areas of indigenous North Americans}} {{Regions of the world}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Mesoamerica| ]] [[Category:Classic period in the Americas]] [[Category:History of Indigenous peoples of North America]] [[Category:History of Central America]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of Central America]] [[Category:Indigenous peoples of Mexico]] [[Category:Pre-Columbian cultural areas]] [[Category:Cultural regions]] [[Category:Historical regions of North America]]