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[[File:De Ludiciis Natiuitatum Albohali Nuremberg 1546.jpg|thumb|[[Albohali]]'s ''De Iudiciis Natiuitatum'' was translated into Latin by [[Plato of Tivoli]] in 1136, and again by [[John of Seville]] in 1153.<ref>{{harvnb|Suter|Samsó|1960–2007}}.</ref> Here is the [[Nuremberg]] edition of [[John of Seville]]'s translation, 1546.]]
'''Latin translations of the 12th century''' were spurred by a major search by European scholars for new learning unavailable in western Europe [[Renaissance of the 12th century|at the time]]; their search led them to areas of southern Europe, particularly in [[Taifa of Toledo|central Spain]] and [[Sicily#Arab period (827–1091)|Sicily]], which recently had come under Christian rule following their reconquest in the late 11th century. These areas had been under [[Muslim]] rule for a considerable time, and still had substantial Arabic-speaking populations to support their search. The combination of this accumulated knowledge and the substantial numbers of Arabic-speaking scholars there made these areas intellectually attractive, as well as culturally and politically accessible to [[Latin]] scholars.<ref>See, e.g., {{harvnb|Sarton|1952|pp=31–32}}.</ref> A typical story is that of [[Gerard of Cremona]] (c. 1114–87), who is said to have made his way to Toledo, well after its reconquest by Christians in 1085, because he:

{{blockquote|arrived at a knowledge of each part of [philosophy] according to the study of the Latins, nevertheless, because of his love for the ''[[Almagest]]'', which he did not find at all amongst the Latins, he made his way to [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], where seeing an abundance of books in Arabic on every subject, and pitying the poverty he had experienced among the Latins concerning these subjects, out of his desire to translate he thoroughly learnt the Arabic language.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|2001|p=255}}.</ref>}}

Many Christian theologians were highly suspicious of ancient philosophies and especially of the attempts to synthesize them with Christian doctrines. [[Jerome|St. Jerome]], for example, was hostile to [[Aristotle]], and [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]] had little interest in exploring philosophy, only applying logic to theology.<ref>{{harvnb|Laughlin|1995|pp=128–129}}.</ref>  For centuries, ancient Greek ideas in Western Europe were all but non-existent. Only a few monasteries had Greek works, and even fewer of them copied these works.<ref>{{harvnb|Laughlin|1995|p=139}}.</ref>

There was a brief period of revival, when the [[Anglo-Saxons|Anglo-Saxon]] monk [[Alcuin]] and others reintroduced some Greek ideas during the [[Carolingian Renaissance]].<ref>{{harvnb|Laughlin|1995|p=141}}.</ref> After [[Charlemagne]]'s death, however, intellectual life again fell into decline. Excepting a few persons promoting [[Boethius]], such as [[Pope Sylvester II|Gerbert of Aurillac]], philosophical thought was developed little in Europe for about two centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Laughlin|1995|pp=143–146}}.</ref> By the 12th century, however, [[scholasticism|scholastic]] thought was beginning to develop, leading to the rise of [[universities]] throughout Europe. These universities gathered what little Greek thought had been preserved over the centuries, including Boethius' commentaries on Aristotle. They also served as places of discussion for new ideas coming from new translations from Arabic throughout Europe.<ref>{{harvnb|Laughlin|1995|pp=147–148}}.</ref>

By the 12th century, [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], in Spain, had fallen from Arab hands in 1085, Sicily in 1091, and Jerusalem in 1099.<ref>{{harvnb|Watt|1972|pp=59–60}}; {{harvnb|Lindberg|1978|pp=58–59}}.</ref> The small population of the [[Crusader states|Crusader Kingdoms]] contributed very little to the translation efforts, though Sicily, still largely Greek-speaking, was more productive. Sicilians, however, were less influenced by Arabic than the other regions and instead are noted more for their translations directly from Greek to Latin. Spain, on the other hand, was an ideal place for translation from Arabic to Latin because of a combination of rich Latin and Arab cultures living side by side.<ref>{{harvnb|Lindberg|1978|pp=58–59}}.</ref>

Unlike the interest in the literature and history of [[classical antiquity]] during the [[Renaissance]], 12th century translators sought new [[Islamic science|scientific]], [[Early Islamic philosophy|philosophical]] and, to a lesser extent, religious texts. The latter concern was reflected in a renewed interest in translations of the Greek [[Church Fathers]] into [[Latin]], a concern with translating Jewish teachings from [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and an interest in the [[Qur'an]] and other [[Islam]]ic religious texts.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=426–433}}.</ref> In addition, some [[Arabic literature]] was also translated into Latin.<ref>{{harvnb|Irwin|2003|p=93}}.</ref>

==Translators in Italy==
Just before the burst of translations in the 12th century, [[Constantine the African]], a Christian from [[Carthage]] who studied medicine in [[History of Arab Egypt|Egypt]] and ultimately became a monk at the monastery of [[Monte Cassino]] in Italy, translated [[Islamic medicine|medical works]] from Arabic. Constantine's many translations included [[Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi]]'s medical encyclopedia ''[[Liber pantegni|The Complete Book of the Medical Art]]'' (as ''Liber Pantegni''),<ref name=Bieber>Bieber, Jerome B. [http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~jbieber/HS/trans2.htm Medieval Translation Table 2: Arabic Sources] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010318000221/http://inst.santafe.cc.fl.us/~jbieber/HS/trans2.htm |date=18 March 2001 }}, [[Santa Fe Community College (Florida)|Santa Fe Community College]].</ref> the ancient medicine of [[Hippocrates]] and [[Galen]] as adapted by [[Islamic medicine|Arabic physicians]],<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=422–426}}.</ref> and the ''Isagoge ad Tegni Galeni''<ref name=Jacquart-981>{{harvnb|Jacquart|1996|p=981}}.</ref> by [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] (Johannitius) and his nephew Hubaysh ibn al-Hasan.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1926|pp=4–5}}.</ref> Other medical works he translated include [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]]'s ''Liber Febribus, Liber de Dietis universalibus et particularibus'' and ''Liber de Urinis''; Ishaq ibn Imran's [[Islamic psychology|psychological]] work ''al-Maqala fi al-Malikhukiya'' as ''De Melancolia''; and [[Ibn al-Jazzar]]'s ''De Gradibus, Viaticum, Liber de Stomacho, De Elephantiasi, De Coitu'' and ''De Oblivione''.<ref name=Jacquart-981/>

[[Sicily]] had been part of the Byzantine Empire until 878, was under [[Emirate of Sicily|Muslim control]] from 878–1060, and came under Norman control between 1060 and 1090. As a consequence the Norman [[Kingdom of Sicily]] maintained a trilingual bureaucracy, which made it an ideal place for translations. Sicily also maintained relations with the [[Greek East]], which allowed for exchange of ideas and manuscripts.<ref>{{harvnb|Haskins|1924|pp=155–157}}.</ref>

[[File:Ibn Butlan Receuil de Sante Rhenanie 2nd half 15th century.jpg|thumb|[[Ibn Butlan]]'s ''[[Tacuinum sanitatis]]'', [[Rhineland]], 2nd half of the 15th century.]]
A copy of [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'' was brought back to Sicily by [[Henry Aristippus]], as a gift from the Emperor to [[William I of Sicily|King William I]].  Aristippus, himself, translated [[Plato]]'s ''[[Meno]]'' and ''[[Phaedo]]'' into Latin, but it was left to an anonymous student at Salerno to travel to Sicily and translate the ''Almagest'', as well as several works by [[Euclid]], from Greek to Latin.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=433–434}}.</ref> Although the Sicilians generally translated directly from the Greek, when Greek texts were not available, they would translate from Arabic. [[Eugenius of Palermo|Admiral Eugene of Sicily]] translated Ptolemy's ''[[Ptolemy#Optics|Optics]]'' into Latin, drawing on his knowledge of all three languages in the task.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|p=435}}.</ref> Accursius of [[Province of Pistoia|Pistoja]]'s translations included the works of [[Galen]] and [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]].<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1926|p=3}}.</ref> Gerard de Sabloneta translated [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' and [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]]'s ''Almansor''. [[Fibonacci]] presented the first complete European account of the [[Hindu–Arabic numeral system]] from [[Arabic numerals|Arabic sources]] in his ''[[Liber Abaci]]'' (1202).<ref name=Bieber/> The ''Aphorismi'' by [[Masawaiyh]] (Mesue) was translated by an anonymous translator in late 11th or early 12th century Italy.<ref name=Jacquart-982>{{harvnb|Jacquart|1996|p=982}}.</ref>

[[James of Venice]], who probably spent some years in Constantinople, translated Aristotle's ''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' from Greek into Latin in the mid-12th century,<ref>{{harvnb|Reynolds|Wilson|1968|p=106}}.</ref> thus making the complete Aristotelian logical corpus, the ''[[Organon]]'', available in Latin for the first time.

In 13th century [[Padua]], Bonacosa translated [[Averroes]]' medical work ''Kitab al-Kulliyyat'' as ''Colliget'',<ref name=Jacquart-983>{{harvnb|Jacquart|1996|p=983}}.</ref> and [[John of Capua]] translated the ''Kitab al-Taysir'' by [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) as ''Theisir''. In 13th century [[Sicily]], [[Faraj ben Salim|Faraj ben Salem]] translated [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|Rhazes]]' ''al-Hawi'' as ''Continens'' as well as [[Ibn Butlan]]'s ''[[Tacuinum Sanitatis]]''. Also in 13th century Italy, Simon of Genoa and Abraham Tortuensis translated [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]]' ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' as ''Liber Servitoris'', Alcoati's ''Congregatio sive Liber de Oculis'', and the ''Liber de Simplicibus Medicamentis'' by a [[Serapion the Younger|pseudo-Serapion]]<ref name=Jacquart-984>{{harvnb|Jacquart|1996|p=984}}.</ref>

==Translators on the Spanish frontier==
As early as the end of the 10th century, European scholars travelled to Spain to study.  Most notable among these was [[Gerbert of Aurillac]] (later Pope Sylvester II) who [[Islamic mathematics|studied mathematics]] in the region of the [[Spanish March]] around [[Barcelona]].  Translations, however, did not begin in Spain until after 1085 when Toledo was reconquered by Christians.<ref>{{harvnb|Haskins|1924|pp=8–10}}.</ref> The early translators in Spain focused heavily on [[Islamic science|scientific works]], especially [[Islamic mathematics|mathematics]] and [[Islamic astronomy|astronomy]], with a second area of interest including the [[Qur'an]] and other [[Islam]]ic texts.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=429–430, 451–452}}.</ref> Spanish collections included many scholarly works written in Arabic, so translators worked almost exclusively from Arabic, rather than Greek texts, often in cooperation with a local speaker of Arabic.<ref>{{harvnb|Haskins|1927|p=288}}.</ref>

One of the more important translation projects was sponsored by [[Peter the Venerable]], the [[Abbot of Cluny|abbot]] of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]].  In 1142 he called upon [[Robert of Ketton]] and [[Herman of Carinthia]], [[Peter of Poitiers (secretary)|Peter of Poitiers]], and a [[Muslim]] known only as "Mohammed" to produce the first Latin translation of the Qur'an (the ''[[Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete]]'').<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|p=429}}.</ref>

Translations were produced throughout Spain and [[Provence]]. [[Plato Tiburtinus|Plato of Tivoli]] worked in [[Catalonia]], Herman of Carinthia in Northern Spain and across the [[Pyrenees]] in [[Languedoc]], [[Hugh of Santalla]] in [[Aragon]], Robert of Ketton in [[Navarre]] and [[Robert of Chester]] in [[Segovia]].<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=444–448}}.</ref>  The most important center of translation was the great cathedral library of [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]].

Plato of Tivoli's translations into Latin include [[Muhammad ibn Jābir al-Harrānī al-Battānī|al-Battani]]'s astronomical and [[trigonometry|trigonometrical]] work ''De Motu Stellarum'', [[Abraham bar Hiyya]]'s ''Liber Embadorum'', [[Theodosius of Bithynia]]'s [[Theodosius' Spherics|''Spherics'']], and [[Archimedes]]' ''[[Measurement of a Circle]]''. Robert of Chester's translations into Latin included [[al-Khwarizmi]]'s ''[[The Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing|Algebra]]'' and astronomical tables (also containing trigonometric tables).<ref name=Katz/> Abraham of Tortosa's translations include [[Serapion the Younger]]'s ''Liber de Simplicibus Medicamentis'' and [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]]' ''[[al-Tasrif]]'' as ''Liber Servitoris''.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1926|p=3}}.</ref> In 1126, [[Muḥammad ibn Ibrāhīm al-Fazārī|Muhammad al-Fazari]]'s ''Great Sindhind'' (based on the [[Sanskrit]] works of ''[[Surya Siddhanta]]'' and [[Brahmagupta]]'s ''[[Brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta]]'') was translated into Latin.<ref>{{harvnb|Joseph|2000|p=306}}.</ref>

In addition to philosophical and scientific literature, the Jewish writer [[Petrus Alphonsi]] translated a collection of 33 tales from [[Arabic literature]] into [[Latin]]. Some of the tales he drew on were from the ''[[Panchatantra]]'' and ''[[One Thousand and One Nights|Arabian Nights]]'', such as the story cycle of "[[Sinbad the Sailor]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Irwin|2003|p=93}}.</ref> The [[Pseudo-Plato]]nic ''[[Book of the Cow]]'', a 9th-century Arabic work on [[natural magic]], was translated into Latin in the 12th century, probably in Spain.{{sfn|Pingree|2014|p=464}}

===The Toledo School of Translators===
{{Main|Toledo School of Translators}}
[[File:Las Siete Partidas.jpg|250px|thumb|King [[Alfonso X]] (the Wise)]]
Toledo, with a large population of Arabic-speaking Christians ([[Mozarabs]]) had been an important center of learning since as early as the end of the 10th century, when European scholars traveled to Spain to study subjects that were not readily available in the rest of Europe. Among the early translators at Toledo were an Avendauth (who some have identified with [[Abraham ibn Daud]]), who translated [[Avicenna]]'s encyclopedia, the ''[[The Book of Healing|Kitāb al-Shifa]]'' (''The Book of Healing''), in cooperation with [[Domingo Gundisalvo]], Archdeacon of Cuéllar.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp= 444–446, 451}}.</ref> The translating efforts at Toledo are often overemphasized into a “school of translation,” however the representation of Toledo translating activity creates a false sense that a formal school arose around the Archbishop Raymond. Only one translation, by [[John of Seville]], can be definitively dedicated to the archbishop. It is more accurate to consider Toledo as a geographically bilingual environment where local interests were favorable to translation efforts, making it a practical and appealing location for translators to work. As a result, many translators became active in the area and Toledo became the focus of translating activity.<ref>{{harvnb|Lindberg|1978|p=64}}.</ref>

However translating efforts were not properly organized until Toledo was reconquered by the Christian forces in 1085. [[Raymond de Sauvetât|Raymond of Toledo]] started the first translation efforts at the library of the [[Toledo Cathedral|Cathedral of Toledo]], where he led a team of translators that included Mozarabic Toledans, Jewish scholars, [[Madrasa]] teachers and monks from the [[Cluniac Reforms|Order of Cluny]]. They worked in the translation of many works from Arabic into Castilian, from Castilian into Latin, or directly from Arabic into Latin or Greek, and also made available important texts from Arabic and Hebrew philosophers who the Archbishop deemed important for an understanding of [[Aristotle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Taton|1963|p=481}}.</ref> As a result of their activities, the cathedral became a translations center known as the ''Escuela de Traductores de Toledo'' ([[Toledo School of Translators]]), which was on a scale and importance not matched in the history of western culture.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|2001|pp=249–51, 270}}.</ref>

[[File:Al Razi Receuil de traite de medecine translated by Gerard de Cremone Second half of 13th century.jpg|thumb|[[Abu Bakr al-Razi|Al-Razi]]'s ''Recueil des traités de médecine'' translated by [[Gerard of Cremona]], second half of the 13th century.]]
[[File:Al-RaziInGerardusCremonensis1250.JPG|thumb|Depiction of the Persian physician [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|al-Razi]], in Gerard of Cremona's "Recueil des traités de medecine" 1250–1260.]]
The most productive of the Toledo translators at that time was [[Gerard of Cremona]],<ref>{{harvnb|Haskins|1927|p=287}}: "More of Arabic science passed into Western Europe at the hands of Gerard of Cremona than in any other way."</ref> who translated 87 books,<ref>For a list of Gerard of Cremona's translations see {{harvnb|Burnett|2001|pp=275–281}}.</ref> including [[Ptolemy]]'s ''[[Almagest]]'', many of the works of [[Aristotle]], including his [[Posterior Analytics]], [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]], [[On the Heavens]], [[On Generation and Corruption]], and [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]], [[al-Khwarizmi]]'s ''[[Al-Jabr|On Algebra and Almucabala]]'', [[Archimedes]]' ''[[Measurement of a Circle|On the Measurement of the Circle]]'', [[Euclid]]'s ''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements of Geometry]]'', [[Jabir ibn Aflah]]'s ''Elementa Astronomica'',<ref name=Katz/> [[al-Kindi]]'s ''On Optics'', [[al-Farghani]]'s ''On Elements of Astronomy on the Celestial Motions'', [[al-Farabi]]'s ''On the Classification of the Sciences'', the [[Alchemy (Islam)|chemical]] and [[Islamic medicine|medical]] works of [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Rhazes),<ref name=Bieber/> the works of [[Thābit ibn Qurra|Thabit ibn Qurra]] and [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]],<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1926|p=6}}.</ref> and the works of [[al-Zarqali]], [[Jabir ibn Aflah]], the [[Banū Mūsā|Banu Musa]], [[Abu Kamil]], [[Al-Zahrawi|Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]], and [[Ibn al-Haytham]] (Not including the ''[[Book of Optics]]'', because the catalog of the works of Gerard of Cremona does not list that title; however the Risner compilation of ''Opticae Thesaurus Septem Libri'' also includes a work by Witelo and also ''de Crepusculis'', which Risner incorrectly attributed to Alhazen, and which ''was'' translated by Gerard of Cremona).<ref>{{harvnb|Smith|2001|p=clxviii}} has found that there were at least two translators from Ibn al-Haytam's ''Kitab al-Manazir'' (in Arabic) to Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'' (in Latin), one of them a master as skilled as Gerard of Cremona, and the other(s) less skilled.</ref> The medical works he translated include [[Ali ibn Ridwan|Haly Abenrudian]]'s ''Expositio ad Tegni Galeni''; ''Practica, Brevarium Medicine'' by [[Yahya ibn Sarafyun|Yuhanna ibn Sarabiyun]] (Serapion); [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]]' ''[[De Gradibus]]''; [[Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi|Rhazes]]' ''Liber ad Almansorem, Liber Divisionum, Introductio in Medicinam, De egritudinibus iuncturarum, Antidotarium'' and ''Practica Puerorum''; [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]]'s ''De Elementis'' and ''De Definitionibus'';<ref name=Jacquart-982/> [[Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi|Abulcasis]]' ''[[Al-Tasrif]]'' as ''Chirurgia''; [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[The Canon of Medicine]]'' as ''Liber Canonis''; and ''Liber de Medicamentis Simplicus'' by [[Ibn al-Wafid|Abenguefit]].<ref name=Jacquart-983/> At the close of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries, [[Mark of Toledo]] translated the [[Qur'an]] (once again) and various [[Islamic medicine|medical works]].<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=429, 455}}.</ref> He also translated [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]]'s medical work ''Liber Isagogarum''.<ref name=Jacquart-983/>

Under King [[Alfonso X of Castile]], Toledo rose even higher in importance as a translation center. By insisting that the translated output was "llanos de entender" ("easy to understand"),<ref>{{harvnb|Larramendi|Cañada|Parrilla|2000|p=109}}.</ref> they reached a much wider audience both within Spain and in other European countries, as many scholars from places like Italy, Germany, England or the Netherlands, who had moved to Toledo in order to translate medical, religious, classical and philosophical texts, brought back to their countries the acquired knowledge. Others were selected and hired with very high salaries by the King himself from many places in Spain, like Seville or Córdoba and foreign places like Gascony or Paris.

[[Michael Scot]] (c. 1175–1232)<ref>{{harvnb|Wightman|1953|p=332}}.</ref> translated the works of (Alpetragius) [[Nur ad-Din al-Bitruji|al-Betrugi]]' On the Motions of the Heavens in 1217,<ref name=Bieber/> and [[Averroes]]' influential commentaries on the scientific works of [[Aristotle]].<ref>{{harvnb|Kann|1993}}.</ref>

===Later translators===
David the Jew (c. 1228–1245) translated the works of [[Abu Bakr al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Rhazes) into Latin. [[Arnaldus de Villa Nova]]'s (1235–1313) translations include the works of [[Galen]] and [[Avicenna]]<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1926|p=5}}.</ref> (Including his ''Maqala fi Ahkam al-Adwiya al-Qalbiya'' as ''De Viribus Cordis''), the ''De Medicinis Simplicibus'' by [[Abu al-Salt]] (Albuzali),<ref name=Jacquart-983/> and [[Qusta ibn Luqa|Costa ben Luca]]'s ''De Physicis Ligaturis''.<ref name=Jacquart-982/>

In 13th century Portugal, [[Giles of Santarém]] translated [[Rhazes]]' ''De Secretis Medicine, Aphorismi Rasis'' and [[Masawaiyh|Mesue]]'s ''De Secretis Medicine''. In [[Murcia]], Rufin of [[Alexandria]] translated the ''Liber questionum medicinalium discentium in medicina'' by [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]] (Hunen), and Dominicus Marrochinus translated the ''Epistola de cognitione infirmatum oculorum'' by [[Ali ibn Isa al-Asturlabi|Ali Ibn Isa]] (Jesu Haly).<ref name=Jacquart-983/> In 14th century [[Lleida|Lerida]], John Jacobi translated Alcoati's medical work ''Libre de la figura del uyl'' into [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and then Latin.<ref name=Jacquart-984/>

[[William of Moerbeke|Willem van Moerbeke]], known in the English speaking world as [[William of Moerbeke]] (c. 1215–1286) was a prolific medieval translator of philosophical, medical, and scientific texts from Greek into Latin. At the request of Aquinas, so it is assumed—the source document is not clear—he undertook a complete translation of the works of [[Aristotle]] or, for some portions, a revision of existing translations. He was the first translator of the ''Politics'' (c. 1260) from Greek into Latin. The reason for the request was that the many copies of Aristotle in Latin then in circulation had originated in Spain (see [[Gerard of Cremona]]). These earlier translations were assumed to have been influenced by the rationalist [[Averroes]], who was suspected of being a source of philosophical and theological errors found in the earlier translations of Aristotle. Moerbeke's translations have had a long history; they were already standard classics by the 14th century, when Henricus Hervodius put his finger on their enduring value: they were literal (''de verbo in verbo''), faithful to the spirit of Aristotle and ''without elegance.'' For several of William's translations, the Greek texts have since disappeared, without him the works would be lost. William also translated mathematical treatises by [[Hero of Alexandria]] and [[Archimedes]]. Especially important was his translation of the ''Elements of Theology'' of [[Proclus]] (made in 1268), because the  ''Elements of Theology'' is one of the fundamental sources of the revived [[Neo-Platonic]] philosophical currents of the 13th century. The [[Vatican Library|Vatican]] collection holds William's own copy of the translation he made of the greatest [[Hellenistic]] mathematician, [[Archimedes]], with commentaries of [[Eutocius of Ascalon|Eutocius]], which was made in 1269 at the papal court in Viterbo. William consulted two of the best Greek manuscripts of Archimedes, both of which have since disappeared.

==Other European translators==
[[Adelard of Bath]]'s ([[floruit|fl.]] 1116–1142) translations into Latin included [[al-Khwarizmi]]'s astronomical and trigonometrical work ''Astronomical Tables'' and his [[arithmetic]]al work ''Liber Isagogarum Alchorismi'', the ''Introduction to Astrology'' of [[Abu Ma'shar al-Balkhi|Abu Ma'shar]], as well as Euclid's ''Elements''.<ref>{{harvnb|Burnett|1999|p=xi}}.</ref> Adelard associated with other scholars in Western England such as [[Petrus Alphonsi|Peter Alfonsi]] and [[Walcher of Malvern]] who translated and developed the astronomical concepts brought from Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|D'Alverny|1982|pp=440–443}}.</ref> [[Abu Kamil]]'s ''Algebra'' was also translated into Latin during this period, but the translator of the work is unknown.<ref name=Katz>{{harvnb|Katz|1998|p=291}}.</ref>

[[Alfred of Sareshel]]'s (c. 1200–1227) translations include the works of [[Nicolaus of Damascus]] and [[Hunayn ibn Ishaq]]. Antonius Frachentius Vicentinus' translations include the works of [[Avicenna|Ibn Sina]] (Avicenna). [[Armengaud Blaise]]'s translations include the works of Avicenna, [[Averroes]], Hunayn ibn Ishaq, and [[Maimonides]]. [[Berengarius of Valentia]] translated the works of [[Al-Zahrawi|Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi]] (Abulcasis). Drogon (Azagont) translated the works of [[al-Kindi]]. Farragut (Faradj ben Salam) translated the works of Hunayn ibn Ishaq, ibn Zezla (Byngezla), [[Masawaiyh]] (Mesue), and [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|al-Razi]] (Rhazes). Andreas Alphagus Bellnensis' translations include the works of Avicenna, Averroes, [[Serapion the Younger|Serapion]], al-Qifti, and Albe'thar.<ref>{{harvnb|Campbell|1926|p=4}}.</ref>

In 13th century [[Montpellier]], Profatius and Bernardus Honofredi translated the ''Kitab al-Aghdhiya'' by [[Ibn Zuhr]] (Avenzoar) as ''De regimine sanitatis''; and Armengaud translated the ''al-Urjuza fi al-Tibb'', a work combining the medical writings of [[Avicenna]] and [[Averroes]], as ''Cantica cum commento''.<ref name=Jacquart-984/>

Other texts translated during this period include a number of [[Alchemy and chemistry in Islam|alchemical works]], the first of which appears to have been the {{lang|la|[[Liber de compositione alchemiae]]}} ("Book on the Composition of Alchemy"), translated by [[Robert of Chester]] in 1144 and containing a dialogue between Morienus and [[Calid|Khālid ibn Yazīd]].<ref>{{harvnb|Dapsens|2016}}.</ref> Also notable are translations from alchemical works attributed to [[Jabir ibn Hayyan]] (Geber), such as the ''Book of the Seventy'' (Arabic: ''Kitāb al-Sabʿīn'', translated by [[Gerard of Cremona]], before 1187, as ''Liber de Septuaginta''), ''The Great Book of Mercy'' (Arabic: ''Kitāb al-Raḥma al-Kabīr'', anonymously translated as ''Liber Misericordiae''), and ''The Book of the Kingship'' (Arabic: ''Kitāb al-Mulk'', translated as ''Liber Regni'').<ref>On the Latin translations of Arabic works attributed to [[Jabir ibn Hayyan]], see {{harvnb|Moureau|2020|pp=111–112}}. As noted by Moureau, other Latin works attributed to [[Pseudo-Geber|Geber]] (''Summa perfectionis'', ''De inventione veritatis'', ''De investigatione perfectionis'', ''Liber fornacum'', ''Testamentum Geberi'', and ''Alchemia Geberi'') are pseudepigraphic.</ref> Another work translated during this period was ''[[De Proprietatibus Elementorum]]'', an [[Islamic science|Arabic work]] on [[Islamic geography|geology]] written by a [[pseudo-Aristotle]].<ref name=Bieber/> A pseudo-[[Masawaiyh|Mesue]]'s ''De consolatione medicanarum simplicum, Antidotarium,'' was also translated into Latin by an anonymous translator.<ref name=Jacquart-983/>

==Vernacular languages==
In the  12th century in southern France and Italy, many Arabic scientific texts were translated into Hebrew. France and Italy had large Jewish communities where there was little knowledge of Arabic, requiring translations to provide access to Arabic science. The translation of Arabic texts into Hebrew was used by translators, such as [[Profatius Judaeus]], as an intermediate step between translation from Arabic into Latin. This practice was most widely used from the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries.<ref>{{harvnb|Lindberg|1978|p=69}}.</ref>

==List of translations==

This list is of translations after c. 1100 of works written originally in Greek.

*[[Hippocrates]] and school (5th, 4th centuries B.C.)
**''Aphorisms'': [[Burgundio of Pisa]], from Greek, 12th century
**Various treatises: [[Gerard of Cremona]] and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
**[[William of Moerbeke]], from Greek, after 1260
*[[Aristotle]] (384-322 B.C.)
**''[[Posterior Analytics]]'' (a founding document of the ''[[logica nova]]''): two versions from Greek, 12th century; from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
**''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorologica]]'' (Book 4): [[Henry Aristippus|Henricus Aristippus]], from Greek, Sicily c. 1156
**''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physica]]'', ''[[On Generation and Corruption|De Generatione et Corruptione]]'', ''[[Parva Naturalia]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysica]]'' (first 4 books), ''[[On the Soul|De Anima]],'' from Greek, 12th century
**''[[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorologica]]'' (Books 1-3), ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physica]]'', ''[[On the Heavens|De Cælo et Mundo]]'', ''[[On Generation and Corruption|De Generatione et Corruptione]]'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
**''De Animalibus'' (''[[History of Animals|Historia Animalium]]'', ''[[Parts of Animals|De Partibus Animalium]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals|De Generatione Animalium]]''): [[Michael Scot]], from a [[Kitāb al-Hayawān|9th-century Arabic translation]], Spain c. 1217-20
**Almost complete works: William of Moerbeke, new or revised translations from Greek c. 1260-71
*[[Euclid]] (c. 330-260 B.C.)
**''[[Euclid's Elements|Elements]]'' (15 books, 13 genuine):  [[Adelard of Bath]] from Arabic, c. 1126; revised by [[Campanus of Novara]], c. 1254
**''[[Euclid's Optics|Optica]]'' and ''[[Catoptrics|Catoptrica]]'': from Greek,  probably Sicily
*[[Apollonius of Perga|Apollonius]] (3rd century B.C.)
**''Conica'': perhaps Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, 12th century
*[[Archimedes]] (287-212 B.C.)
**''[[Measurement of a Circle|De Mensura Circuli]]'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
**''[[On Floating Bodies|De Iis quæ in Humido Vehuntur (On Floating Bodies)]]'':  William of Moerbeke from Greek  1269
*[[Diocles (mathematician)|Diocles]] ( 2nd century B.C.)
**''De Speculis Comburentibus (On Burning Mirrors)'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
*[[Hero of Alexandria]] (1st century B.C.?)
**''Pneumatica'': from Greek, Sicily 12th century
**''Catoptrica'' (attributed to Ptolemy in Middle Ages): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, after 1260
*[[Pseudo-Aristotle]]
**''[[Mechanics (Pseudo-Aristotle)|Mechanica]]'': from Greek, early 13th century; [[Bartholomew of Messina]], from Greek, Sicily c.1260
**[[On Plants|''De Plantis'' or ''De Vegetabilibus'']] (now attributed to [[Nicolaus of Damascus]], 1st century B.C.): [[Alfred of Sareshel]], from Arabic, Spain probably before 1200
*[[Pseudo-Euclid]]
**''Liber Euclidis de Ponderoso et Levi'' (on [[statics]]): from Arabic, 12th century
*[[Galen]] (129-200 A.D.)
**Various treatises: Burgundio of Pisa, from Greek, c. 1185
**Various treatises: Gerard of Cremona and others, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
**Various treatises: William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1277
*[[Ptolemy]] (2nd century A.D.)
**''[[Almagest]]'': from Greek, Sicily c. 1160; Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic,  Toledo 1175
**''Optica'': [[Eugenius of Palermo]], from Arabic, c. 1154
*[[Alexander of Aphrodisias]] (fl. 193 -217 A.D.)
**''Commentary on the [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorologica]]'':  William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
**''De Motu et Tempore'': Gerard of Cremona, from Arabic, Toledo 12th century
*[[Proclus]] (412-485 A.D.)
**''Elements of Physics (De motu)'': from Greek, Sicily 12th century
**''Elements of Theology'': William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1268
**''Three opuscules'' (''On Providence,'' ''On Providence and Fate,'' and ''On the Existence of Evils''): William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
**''Commentary on Plato's Parmenides'': William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century
*[[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius]] (6th century A.D.)
**Part of ''Commentary on Aristotle's [[On the Heavens|De Cælo]]'': [[Robert Grosseteste]], from Greek, 13th century
**''Commentary on Aristotle's [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physica]]:''  from Greek, 13th century
**''Commentary on Aristotle's De Cælo'': William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 1271
**''Commentary on Aristotle's Categories'': William of Moerbeke, from Greek, 13th century

==See also==
* [[Toledo School of Translators]]
* [[Renaissance of the 12th century]]
* [[Islamic world contributions to Medieval Europe]]
* [[Lex Mahumet pseudoprophete]]
* [[List of translators]]
* [[Graeco-Arabic translation movement]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Burnett|editor1-first=Charles|year=1999|title=Adelard of Bath: Conversations with His Nephew|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Burnett|first1=Charles|year=2001|title=The Coherence of the Arabic-Latin Translation Program in Toledo in the Twelfth Century|journal=Science in Context|volume=14|issue=1–2|pages=249–288|doi=10.1017/S0269889701000096|s2cid=143006568}}
*{{cite book|last1=Campbell|first1=Donald|year=1926|title=Arabian Medicine and Its Influence on the Middle Ages|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-23188-4}}
*{{cite book|last1=D'Alverny|first1=Marie-Thérèse|author-link=Marie-Thérèse d'Alverny|year=1982|chapter=Translations and Translators|editor1-last=Benson|editor1-first=Robert L.|editor2-last=Constable|editor2-first=Giles|editor2-link=Giles Constable|title=Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=421–462}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Dapsens|first1=Marion|year=2016|title=De la Risālat Maryānus au De Compositione alchemiae: Quelques réflexions sur la tradition d'un traité d'alchimie|journal=Studia graeco-arabica|volume=6|pages=121–140|url=http://learningroads.cfs.unipi.it/wp-content/uploads/2016/12/%D9%8DSGA-6-2016_Dapsens.pdf}}
*{{cite book|last1=Haskins|first1=Charles Homer|author-link=Charles Homer Haskins|year=1924|title=Studies in the History of Mediaeval Science|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press|oclc=836689268}}
*{{cite book|last1=Haskins|first1=Charles Homer|author-link=Charles Homer Haskins|year=1927|title=The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press}} (see especially chapter 9, "The Translators from Greek and Arabic")
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Kann|first1=Christoph|year=1993|title=Michael Scotus|editor1-last=Bautz|editor1-first=Traugott|encyclopedia=Biographisch-Bibliographisches Kirchenlexikon (BBKL)|volume=5|location=Herzberg|publisher=Bautz|at=cols. 1459–1461|isbn=3-88309-043-3}}
*{{cite book|last1=Irwin|first1=Robert|year=2003|title=The Arabian Nights: A Companion|location=London|publisher=Tauris Parke Paperbacks|isbn=1-86064-983-1}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Jacquart|first1=Danielle|year=1996|title=The Influence of Arabic Medicine in the Medieval West|editor1-last=Rashed|editor1-first=Roshdi|editor1-link=Roshdi Rashed|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of the History of Arabic Science|volume=3|pages=963–984|location=London|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-12410-7}}
*{{cite book|last1=Joseph|first1=George G.|year=2000|title=The Crest of the Peacock. Non-European Roots of Mathematics|location=Princeton|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-00659-8}}
*{{cite book|last1=Katz|first1=Victor J.|author-link=Victor J. Katz|year=1998|title=A History of Mathematics: An Introduction|location=Reading|publisher=Addison Wesley|isbn=0-321-01618-1}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Larramendi|editor1-first=Miguel Hernando de|editor2-last=Cañada|editor2-first=Luis Miguel Pérez|editor3-last=Parrilla|editor3-first=Gonzalo Fernández|year=2000|title=La traducción de literatura árabe contemporánea: antes y después de Naguib Mahfuz|publisher=Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha|isbn=84-8427-050-5}}
*{{cite book|last1=Laughlin|first1=Burgess|year=1995|title=The Aristotle Adventure. A Guide to the Greek, Arabic, and Latin Scholars Who Transmitted Aristotle's Logic to the Renaissance|location=Flagstaff Ariz.|publisher=Albert Hale Pub.}}
*{{cite book|last1=Lindberg |first1= David C.|author-link=David C. Lindberg|year= 1978|chapter= The Transmission of Greek and Arabic Learning to the West|editor1-last=Lindberg|editor1-first=David C.|title= Science in the Middle Ages|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|pages=52–90|isbn=9780226482330|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lOCriv4rSCUC&pg=PA52}}
*{{cite journal|last1=Moureau|first1=Sébastien|year=2020|title=Min al-kīmiyāʾ ad alchimiam. The Transmission of Alchemy from the Arab-Muslim World to the Latin West in the Middle Ages|journal=Micrologus|volume=28|issue=|pages=87–141|hdl=2078.1/211340|url=http://hdl.handle.net/2078.1/211340}}
*{{cite journal |last=Pingree |first=David E. |title=Plato's Hermetic ''Book of the Cow'' |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=104 |issue=3 |year=2014 |pages=463–475}} {{ProQuest|1636557067}}
*{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|first1=L.D.|last2=Wilson|first2=Nigel G.|year=1968|title=Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature|location=London|publisher=Oxford University Press|oclc=895660376}}
*{{cite book|last1=Sarton|first1=George|author-link=George Sarton|year=1952|title=A Guide to the History of Science|location=Waltham|publisher=Chronica Botanica Company|isbn=9781298825681}}
*{{cite book|last1= Smith|first1= A. Mark|year= 2001|title= Alhacen's Theory of Visual Perception: A Critical Edition with English Translation and Commentary of the First Three Books of Alhacen's ''De Aspectibus'', the Medieval Latin Version of Ibn al-Haytam's ''Kitab al-Manazir''. Volume One: Introduction and Latin Text|journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society|series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, 91, 4|volume=91|issue=4|pages=i–337|location=Philadelphia|publisher=American Philosophical Society|doi= 10.2307/3657358|isbn=9780871699145|jstor=3657358}}
*{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Suter|first1=H.|last2=Samsó|first2=J.|year=1960–2007|title=al-Khayyāṭ|editor1-last=Bearman|editor1-first=P.|editor2-last=Bianquis|editor2-first=Th.|editor3-last=Bosworth|editor3-first=C.E.|editor4-last=van Donzel|editor4-first=E.|editor5-last=Heinrichs|editor5-first=W.P.|encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition|doi=10.1163/1573-3912_islam_SIM_4264}}
*{{cite book|last1=Taton|first1=René|year=1963|title=History of Science: Ancient and Medieval Science|location=New York|publisher=Basic Books|oclc=797291798}}
*{{cite book|last1=Watt|first1=W. Montgomery|author-link=W. Montgomery Watt|year=1972|title=The Influence of Islam on Medieval Europe|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press}}
*{{cite book|last1=Wightman|first1=William P. D.|year=1953|title=The Growth of Scientific Ideas|location=New Haven|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=1-135-46042-6}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110621061209/http://sites.univ-lyon2.fr/lesmondeshumanistes/category/dialogue-chretiens-islam/ Robert of Ketton's Qu'ran, as edited by Bibliander (1550 revised edition)]
*[http://libro.uca.edu/alfonso10/emperor5.htm Norman Roth, "Jewish Collaborators in Alfonso's Scientific Work,"] in Robert I. Burns, ed., ''Emperor of Culture: Alfonso X the Learned of Castile and His Thirteenth-Century Renaissance Culture''
* [http://marcmanley.com/media/pdfs/Makdisi%20-%20Scholasticism%20and%20Humanism%20in%20Classical%20Islam%20and%20the%20Christian%20West.pdf Makdisi - Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Latin Translations Of The 12th Century}}
[[Category:History of translation]]
[[Category:12th-century Latin literature]]
[[Category:Translations into Latin]]