{{Short description|Sovereign state in Europe before 1707}} {{For-multi|the current jurisdiction|England}} {{pp-move-indef}} {{Use British English|date=May 2017}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2026}} {{Infobox country | conventional_long_name = Kingdom of England | iso3166code = omit | native_name = {{Native name list|tag1=ang|name1=Ænglalonde rīċe|tag2=xno|name2=Realme d'Engleterre|tag3=enm|name3=Kingdom of Engelond|tag4=la|name4=Regnum Angliæ|tag5=cy|name5=Teyrnas Lloegr}} | image_flag = Flag of England.svg | image_flag2 = Royal standard of England (1406–1603).svg | flag_type = {{ubl|Top: [[Flag of England|Flag]] (from {{nwr|the 16th century)}} | Bottom: [[Royal Banner of England|Royal Banner]] (1406–1603)}} | image_coat = Coat of Arms of England (1558-1603).svg | symbol_type = [[Royal Arms of England|Royal Arms]] {{nwr|(1558-1603)}} | coa_size = 100px | symbol_width = | coat_alt = Royal Arms | national_motto = {{native name|fr|"[[Dieu et mon droit]]"|italics=off|parensize=90%}}
"God and my right"{{Cite web |title=The Royal Coat of Arms |website=The Royal Family |date=15 January 2016 |url=https://www.royal.uk/coats-arms |access-date=19 November 2018}} {{nwr|(from the 15th century)}} | image_map = Location map of England in 1700.svg | image_map2 = English overseas possessions in 1700.png | map_width = 220px | map2_width = 325px | image_map_caption = {{map_caption |location_color=green |country= the Kingdom, 1558–1707}} | life_span = 927–1707
(1649–1660: [[The Protectorate|Commonwealth]]) | event_start = Unification of the Angles, Saxons and Danes{{sfn|Keynes|2014|pp=534–536}} | year_start = 927 | date_start = 12 July | event1 = [[Battle of Hastings]] | date_event1 = 14 October 1066 | event2 = [[Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland]] | date_event2 = May 1169{{snd}}May 1177 | event3 = [[Magna Carta]] | date_event3 = 15 June 1215 | event4 = [[Model Parliament]] | date_event4 = 13 November 1295 | event5 = [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542|Annexation of Wales]] | date_event5 = 1535–1542 | event6 = [[Union of the Crowns]] | date_event6 = 24 March 1603 | event7 = [[Glorious Revolution]] | date_event7 = 11 December 1688 | event_end = [[Acts of Union 1707|Union with Scotland]] | date_end = 1 May | year_end = 1707 | p1 = Kingdom of Wessex | p2 = Principality of Wales | s1 = Kingdom of Great Britain | map_caption2 = English overseas possessions in 1700 | capital = {{ubl | [[Winchester]] (927–1066) | [[London]] (1066–1707) }} | official_languages = {{indented plainlist| * [[English language|English]] * [[Anglo-Norman French]] (1066–1707) * [[Latin]] }} | languages_type = Regional languages | languages = {{indented plainlist| * [[Cornish language|Cornish]] * [[Cumbric]] {{nwr|(until the 12th century)}} * [[Welsh language|Welsh]] }} | religion = {{indented plainlist| * [[Catholic Church in England and Wales|Roman Catholicism]] {{nwr|(c. 6th century–1534; 1553–1558)}} * [[Church of England|Anglicanism]] {{nwr|(1534–1553; 1558–1707)}}{{Sfn|Carey|2011|page=41}} }} | demonym = English | government_type = {{indented plainlist| * [[Elective monarchy]] {{nwr|(927–1066)}} * [[Feudal]] hereditary monarchy {{nwr|(1066–1295)}} * [[Parliamentary]] semi-constitutional monarchy {{nwr|(1295–1649; 1660–1707)}}}} | title_leader = [[List of English monarchs|Monarch]] | leader1 = [[Æthelstan]] | year_leader1 = 927–939 (first) | leader2 = [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]] | year_leader2 = 1702–1707 (last) | legislature = [[Parliament of England|Parliament]] | house1 = [[House of Lords]] | house2 = [[House of Commons of England|House of Commons]] | currency = [[Pound sterling]] | today = {{tree list}} * [[United Kingdom]] ** [[England]] ** [[Wales]] ** [[Scotland]] ([[Lothian]] and the [[Scottish Borders]]; partially) {{tree list/end}} }} {{History of England}} The '''Kingdom of England''' was a [[sovereign state]] on the island of [[Great Britain]] from 927, when all of the [[Heptarchy|Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]] were united under the rule of [[Æthelstan]], until 1 May 1707, when it relinquished its sovereignty along with [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] to form the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], which would later become the [[United Kingdom]]. The Kingdom of England was among the most powerful states in [[Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[Early modern period|early modern]] periods. The political unification of England was a complex process that took place over many decades. Beginning in the year 886,{{Sfn|Keynes|1998|pp=23–24}} [[Alfred the Great]] took [[City of London|London]] from the [[Danes (tribe)|Danes]] and adopted the title [[King of the Anglo-Saxons]] in order to reflect his control over both [[Wessex]] and western [[Mercia]]. This style would go on to be inherited by his son, [[Edward the Elder]] (reigned 899–924), and grandson, Æthelstan, both of whom greatly expanded the authority of the [[House of Wessex]] during their respective reigns. In 927, Æthelstan conquered the last remaining Viking kingdom, [[Scandinavian York|York]], thereby making him the first Anglo-Saxon ruler of the whole of England and the founder of the Kingdom of the English. In 1016, the kingdom became part of the [[North Sea Empire]] of [[Cnut]] the Great, a [[personal union]] between England, [[History of Denmark#Middle Ages|Denmark]] and [[Kingdom of Norway (872–1397)|Norway]]. The [[Norman Conquest]] in 1066 led to the transfer of the English capital city and chief royal residence from the Anglo-Saxon one at [[Winchester]] to [[Westminster]], and the City of London quickly established itself as England's largest and principal commercial centre.[https://books.google.com/books?id=bkGpFhiPtIEC&dq=History%20of%20London&pg=PA363 ''London, 800–1216: The Shaping of a City''], "''...rivalry between City and government, between a commercial capital in the City and the political capital of quite a different empire in Westminster.''", accessed November 2013. Histories of the Kingdom of England from the Norman Conquest of 1066 conventionally distinguish periods named after successive ruling dynasties: [[England in the High Middle Ages|Norman/Angevin]] 1066–1216, [[England in the late Middle Ages|Plantagenet]] 1216–1485, [[Tudor period|Tudor]] 1485–1603 and [[Stuart period|Stuart]] 1603–1707 (interrupted by the [[British Interregnum|Interregnum]] of 1649–1660). All English monarchs after 1066 ultimately descend from the [[Normans]], and the distinction of the Plantagenets is conventional—beginning with [[Henry II of England|Henry II]] (reigned 1154–1189) as from that time, the [[Angevin kings of England|Angevin kings]] became "more English in nature"; the houses of [[House of Lancaster|Lancaster]] and [[House of York|York]] are both Plantagenet cadet branches, the Tudor dynasty claimed descent from [[Edward III]] via [[John Beaufort, 1st Earl of Somerset|John Beaufort]] and [[James VI and I]] of the [[House of Stuart]] claimed descent from [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] via [[Margaret Tudor]]. The completion of the [[conquest of Wales]] by [[Edward I]] in 1284 put Wales under the control of the English crown. Edward III (reigned 1327–1377) transformed the Kingdom of England into one of the most formidable military powers in Europe; his reign also saw vital developments in legislation and government—in particular the evolution of the [[English Parliament]]. From the 1340s, [[English claims to the French throne]] were held in pretense, but after the [[Hundred Years' War]] and the outbreak of the [[Wars of the Roses]] in 1455, the English were no longer in any position to pursue their French claims and lost all their land on the continent, except for [[Pale of Calais|Calais]]. After the turmoils of the Wars of the Roses, the [[Tudor dynasty]] ruled during the [[English Renaissance]] and again extended English monarchical power beyond England proper, achieving the full union of England and the [[Principality of Wales]] under the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]]. [[Henry VIII]] oversaw the [[English Reformation]], and his daughter [[Elizabeth I]] (reigned 1558–1603) the [[Elizabethan Religious Settlement]], meanwhile establishing England as a [[great power]] and laying the foundations of the [[British Empire]] via [[British colonization of the Americas|colonization of the Americas]]. The accession of [[James VI and I]] in 1603 resulted in the [[Union of the Crowns]], with the [[Stuart dynasty]] ruling the kingdoms of England, [[kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and [[Kingdom of Ireland|Ireland]]. Under the Stuarts, England plunged into [[English Civil War|civil war]], which culminated in the [[execution of Charles I]] in 1649. The monarchy returned in 1660, but the Civil War had established the precedent that an English monarch cannot govern without the consent of Parliament. This concept became legally established as part of the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688. From this time the kingdom of England, as well as its successor state the United Kingdom, functioned in effect as a [[constitutional monarchy]].{{efn|The [[Constitution of the United Kingdom]] is [[uncodified constitution|uncodified]].}} On 1 May 1707, under the terms of the [[Acts of Union 1707]], the parliaments, and therefore Kingdoms, of both England and Scotland were mutually abolished. Their assets and estates united 'for ever, into the Kingdom by the name of Great Britain', forming the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]] and the [[Parliament of Great Britain]]."[http://www.parliament.uk/about/living-heritage/evolutionofparliament/legislativescrutiny/ Acts of Union 1707]", UK Parliament, accessed 27 January 2011.{{cite web |url-status=dead |url=http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/vli/visitingHolyrood/union_exhibition.pdf |title=Making the Act of Union 1707 |website=Scottish Parliament |access-date=27 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110511140052/http://www.scottish.parliament.uk/vli/visitingHolyrood/union_exhibition.pdf |archive-date=11 May 2011 }} ==Name== {{main|Name of England}} The [[Anglo-Saxons]] referred to themselves as the {{lang|ang|Engle}} or the {{lang|ang|Angelcynn}}, originally names of the [[Angles (tribe)|Angles]]. They called their land ''Engla land'', meaning "land of the English", by [[Æthelweard (historian)|Æthelweard]] Latinized ''Anglia'', from an original ''[[Angeln|Anglia vetus]]'', the purported homeland of the Angles (called ''Angulus'' by [[Bede]]).{{sfn|Harris|2004|pp=139–140}} The name ''Engla land'' became ''England'' by [[haplology]] during the [[Middle English]] period (''Engle-land'', ''Engelond'').A. L. Mayhew and Walter W. Skeat, (1888), '' A Concise Dictionary of Middle English From A.D. 1150 To 1580''{{page needed|date=March 2025}} The [[Middle Latin|Latin]] name was ''Anglia'' or ''Anglorum terra'', the [[Old French]] and [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] one ''Engleterre''." Anglia " (par L. Favre, 1883–1887), dans du Cange, et al., [http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/ANGLIA ''Glossarium mediae et infimae latinitatis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206100228/http://ducange.enc.sorbonne.fr/ANGLIA |date=6 February 2020 }}, éd. augm., Niort : L. Favre, 1883–1887, t. 1, col. 251c. The standard title for monarchs from [[Æthelstan]] until [[John, King of England|John]] was {{lang|la|Rex Anglorum}} ("King of the English"). [[Cnut]], a Dane, was the first to call himself "King of England". During the [[Norman England|Norman period]] ''{{lang|la|Rex Anglorum}}'' remained standard, with occasional use of ''{{lang|la|Rex Anglie}}'' ("King of England"). From John's reign onwards all other titles were eschewed in favour of ''{{lang|la|Rex}}'' or ''{{lang|la|Regina Anglie}}''. In 1604 [[James VI and I|James I]], who had inherited the English throne the previous year, adopted the title (now usually rendered in English rather than Latin) ''King of Great Britain''.{{Efn|English and Scot, James insisted, should "join and coalesce together in a sincere and perfect union, as two twins bred in one belly, to love one another as no more two but one estate".{{Sfn|Willson|1963|p=250}} }} ==History== ===Anglo-Saxon England=== {{main|History of Anglo-Saxon England}} [[File:Britain_peoples_circa_600.svg|right|thumb|Southern Britain in AD 600 after the Anglo-Saxon settlement, showing England's division into multiple [[Petty kingdom|petty kingdoms]]]] The Kingdom of England emerged from the gradual unification of the early medieval [[Heptarchy#List of Anglo-Saxon kingdoms|Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]] known as the [[Heptarchy]]: [[Kingdom of East Anglia|East Anglia]], [[Mercia]], [[Northumbria]], [[Kingdom of Kent|Kent]], [[Kingdom of Essex|Essex]], [[Kingdom of Sussex|Sussex]], and [[Wessex]]. The [[Viking invasions]] of the 9th century upset the balance of power between the English kingdoms, and native Anglo-Saxon life in general. The English lands were unified in the 10th century in a reconquest completed by 927.{{sfn|Keynes|2014|pp=534–536}} During the Heptarchy, the most powerful king among the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms might become acknowledged as [[Bretwalda]], a [[high king]] over the other kings. The decline of Mercia allowed Wessex to become more powerful, absorbing the kingdoms of Kent and Sussex in 825. The [[List of monarchs of Wessex|kings of Wessex]] increasingly dominated the other kingdoms of England during the 9th century. In 827, Northumbria submitted to [[Egbert of Wessex]] at [[Dore, South Yorkshire|Dore]], briefly making Egbert the first king to reign over a united England.Extract from the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. Translations available at [http://sunsite3.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/ Berkeley Digital Library] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050325211939/http://sunsite3.berkeley.edu/OMACL/Anglo/ |date=25 March 2005 }} and [https://gutenberg.org/etext/657 Project Gutenberg] In 886, [[Alfred the Great]] retook London, which he apparently regarded as a turning point in his reign. The ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' says that "all of the English people (''all Angelcyn'') not [[Danelaw|subject to the Danes]] submitted themselves to King Alfred."[http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180701234404/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/657/657.txt |date=1 July 2018 }} Freely licensed version at Gutenberg Project. Note: This electronic edition is a collation of material from nine diverse extant versions of the Chronicle. It contains primarily the translation of Rev. James Ingram, as published in the Everyman edition. Asser added that "Alfred, king of the Anglo-Saxons, restored the [[city of London]] splendidly ... and made it habitable once more."Asser's ''Life of King Alfred'', ch. 83, trans. Simon Keynes and Michael Lapidge, ''Alfred the Great: Asser's Life of King Alfred & Other Contemporary Sources'' (Penguin Classics) (1984), pp. 97–98. Alfred's restoration entailed reoccupying and refurbishing the nearly deserted Roman walled city, building [[Wharf|quays]] along the [[Thames]], and laying a new city street plan.[[Alan Vince|Vince, Alan]], ''Saxon London: An Archaeological Investigation'', The Archaeology of London series (1990).{{page needed|date=March 2025}} On 12 July 927 the monarchs of Britain gathered at [[Eamont Bridge]], now in Cumbria, to recognise Æthelstan as king of the English.{{sfn|Keynes|2014|pp=534–536}} The title "King of the English" or ''Rex Anglorum'' in Latin, was first used to describe Æthelstan in [[Æthelstan A|one of his charters]] in 928. The standard title for monarchs from Æthelstan until [[John, King of England|John]] was "King of the English". During the following years Northumbria repeatedly changed hands between the English kings and the Norwegian invaders, but was definitively brought under English control by [[Eadred]] in 954, completing the unification of England.{{sfn|Stenton|1971|p=361}} In 1018, [[Lothian]], a portion of the northern half of Northumbria [[Bernicia]] was ceded to the [[Kingdom of Scotland]].{{sfn|Rollason|2003|p=275}}{{cite web |title=Ancient Lothian Timeline |url=http://www.cyberscotia.com/ancient-lothian/leaves/features/lothian-timeline.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821082207/http://www.cyberscotia.com/ancient-lothian/leaves/features/lothian-timeline.html |archive-date=21 August 2010 |access-date=19 August 2009 |publisher=Cyberscotia.net}} [[File:Cnut 1014 1035.jpg|thumb|left|The dominions of [[Cnut]] (1014–1035)]] England has remained in political unity ever since. During the reign of [[Æthelred the Unready]] (978–1016), a new wave of Danish invasions was orchestrated by [[Swein Forkbeard]], King of Denmark, culminating after a quarter-century of warfare in the Danish conquest of England in 1013. But Sweyn died on 2 February 1014, and Æthelred was restored to the throne. In 1015, Sweyn's son [[Cnut]] (commonly known as Canute) launched a new invasion. The ensuing war ended with an agreement in 1016 between Canute and Æthelred's successor, [[Edmund Ironside]], to divide England between them, but Edmund's death on 30 November of that year left England united under Danish rule. This continued for 26 years until the death of [[Harthacnut]] in June 1042. He was the son of Canute and [[Emma of Normandy]] (the widow of Æthelred the Unready) and had no heirs of his own; he was succeeded by his half-brother, Æthelred's son, [[Edward the Confessor]].{{sfn|Giles|1914|p=114}} ===Norman Conquest=== {{main|Norman Conquest}} The peace lasted until the death of the childless Edward in January 1066. His brother-in-law was crowned [[Harold Godwinson|King Harold]], but his cousin [[William the Bastard]], Duke of Normandy, immediately claimed the throne for himself. William launched an invasion of England and landed in [[Sussex]] on 28 September 1066. Harold and his army were in [[York]] following their victory against the Norwegians at the [[Battle of Stamford Bridge]] (25 September 1066) when the news reached him. He decided to set out without delay and confront the Norman army in Sussex so marched southwards at once, despite the army not being properly rested following the battle with the Norwegians. The armies of Harold and William faced each other at the [[Battle of Hastings]] (14 October 1066), in which the English army, or ''[[Fyrd]]'', was defeated, Harold and his two brothers were slain, and William emerged as victor. William was then able to conquer England with little further opposition. He was not, however, planning to absorb the Kingdom into the [[Duchy of Normandy]]. As a mere duke, William owed allegiance to [[Philip I of France]], whereas in the independent Kingdom of England he could rule without interference. He was crowned on 25 December 1066 in [[Westminster Abbey]], London.{{sfn|Douglas|1964|pp=204–205}} ===High Middle Ages=== {{main|England in the High Middle Ages}} {{further|Angevin Empire|Norman invasion of Wales|Conquest of Wales by Edward I}} In 1092, [[William II of England|William II]] led an invasion of [[Kingdom of Strathclyde|Strathclyde]], a [[Celts|Celtic]] kingdom in what is now southwest Scotland and Cumbria. In doing so, he annexed what is now the county of [[Cumbria]] to England. In 1124, [[Henry I of England|Henry I]] ceded what is now southeast Scotland (called [[Lothian]]) to the [[Kingdom of Scotland]], in return for the King of Scotland's loyalty. This final cession established what would become the traditional [[England-Scotland border|borders]] of England which have remained largely unchanged since then (except for occasional and temporary changes). This area of land had previously been a part of the Anglian [[Kingdom of Northumbria]]. Lothian contained what later became the Scottish capital, [[Edinburgh]]. This arrangement was later finalized in 1237 by the [[Treaty of York]].{{sfn|Ramsay|1908|pp=82–83}} [[File:King John signing the Great Charter (Magna Carta) by English School.png|thumb|King John signs ''[[Magna Carta]]'' at [[Runnymede]] in 1215, surrounded by his baronage. Illustration from ''Cassell's History of England'', 1902.]] The [[Anglo-Norman invasion of Ireland]] took place during the late 12th century, when [[Anglo-Normans]] gradually conquered and acquired large swathes of land from the Irish, over which England then claimed sovereignty, all allegedly sanctioned by the Papal bull ''[[Laudabiliter]]''.{{Cite news|last=Johnston|first=Elva|title=The Irish Church, Its Reform and the English Invasion review|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/the-irish-church-its-reform-and-the-english-invasion-review-1.3164152|access-date=26 September 2021|newspaper=The Irish Times|language=en}} At the time, [[Gaelic Ireland]] was made up of several kingdoms, with a [[High King of Ireland|High King]] claiming lordship over most of the other kings.{{sfn|Byrne|2004|pp=40–47}} The [[Duchy of Aquitaine]] came into [[Angevin Empire|personal union]] with England upon the accession of [[Henry II of England|Henry II]], who had married [[Eleanor, Duchess of Aquitaine]]. They remained united until [[John, King of England|John Lackland]], Henry II's son and fourth-generation descendant of [[William the Conqueror]], lost the continental possessions to [[Philip II of France]] decisively after the [[Battle of Bouvines]] in 1214. A few remnants of [[Duchy of Normandy|Normandy]], including the [[Channel Islands]], remained in John's possession, together with most of the Duchy of Aquitaine.{{sfn|Turner|2009|p=103}} ====Conquest of Wales==== Up until the Norman Conquest of England, Wales had remained for the most part independent of the [[Anglo-Saxon kingdoms]], although some Welsh kings did sometimes acknowledge the [[Bretwalda]]. Soon after the [[Norman Conquest of England]], however, some Norman lords began to attack Wales. They conquered and ruled parts of it, acknowledging the overlordship of the Norman kings of England but with considerable local independence. Over many years these "[[Marcher Lords]]" conquered more and more of Wales, against considerable resistance led by various Welsh princes, who also often acknowledged the overlordship of the Norman kings of England.Nelson (1966), chapter 8{{page needed|date=March 2025}} [[Edward I]] defeated [[Llywelyn ap Gruffudd]] and his brother, [[Dafydd ap Gruffudd]], and so effectively conquered Wales, in 1282. He created the title [[Prince of Wales]] for his heir, the future [[Edward II]], in 1301. Edward I's conquest was brutal and the subsequent repression considerable, as the magnificent Welsh [[castle]]s such as [[Conwy Castle|Conwy]], [[Harlech Castle|Harlech]], and [[Caernarfon Castle|Caernarfon]] attest.{{sfn|Prestwich|1997|p=206}} ===Late Middle Ages=== {{Main|England in the Late Middle Ages}} {{further|Wars of the Roses|Hundred Years' War|Great Slump (15th century)}} [[File:Battle of Agincourt, St. Alban's Chronicle by Thomas Walsingham.jpg|thumb|Fifteenth-century miniature depicting the English victory over France at the [[Battle of Agincourt]]]] [[Edward III]] was the first English king to have a [[English claims to the French throne|claim to the throne of France]]. His pursuit of the claim resulted in the [[Hundred Years' War]] (1337–1453), which pitted five kings of England of the [[House of Plantagenet]] against five kings of France of the [[Capetian House of Valois]]. Extensive naval raiding was carried out by all sides during the war, often involving [[privateer]]s such as John Hawley of Dartmouth or the Castilian [[Pero Niño]]. Though the English won numerous victories, they were unable to overcome the French's numerical superiority and their strategic use of gunpowder weapons. England was defeated at the [[Battle of Formigny]] in 1450 and finally at the [[Battle of Castillon]] in 1453, retaining only a single town in France, [[Calais]].{{sfn|Seward|1978|p=260}} During the Hundred Years' War an [[English identity]] began to develop in place of the previous division between the Norman lords and their [[Anglo-Saxon]] subjects. This was a consequence of sustained hostility to the increasingly nationalist French, whose kings and other leaders (notably the charismatic [[Joan of Arc]]) used a developing sense of French identity to help draw people to their cause.{{sfn|Mock|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/symbolsofdefeati0000mock/page/145 145]}} The kingdom had little time to recover before entering the [[Wars of the Roses]] (1455–1487), a series of civil wars over possession of the throne between the [[House of Lancaster]] (whose heraldic symbol was the red rose) and the [[House of York]] (whose symbol was the white rose), each led by different branches of the descendants of Edward III. The end of these wars found the throne held by the descendant of an initially illegitimate member of the House of Lancaster, married to the eldest daughter of the House of York: [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] and [[Elizabeth of York]].{{sfn|Williams|1973|p=25}} ===Tudor period=== {{Main|Tudor period|Elizabethan era|Stuart period|English Reformation}} {{Also|Tudor conquest of Ireland}} Wales retained a separate legal and administrative system, which had been established by [[Edward I]] in the late 13th century. The country was divided between the [[Marcher Lords]], who gave feudal allegiance to the crown, and the [[Principality of Wales]]. Under the Tudor monarchy, [[Henry VIII]] replaced the laws of Wales with those of England (under the [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535–1542]]). Wales was incorporated into England, and henceforth was represented in [[Parliament of England|the Parliament]].{{Sfn|Williams|1993|p=124}} [[File:Elizabeth I (Armada Portrait).jpg|thumb|Portrait of Elizabeth I made to commemorate the defeat of the [[Spanish Armada]] (1588), depicted in the background. Elizabeth's international power is symbolised by the hand resting on the globe.]] During the 1530s, Henry overthrew the power of the Catholic Church within the kingdom, [[English Reformation|replacing]] the pope as head of his own English Church and seizing the Catholic Church's lands, thereby facilitating the creation of a [[Anglicanism|variation]] of Catholicism that became more Protestant over time. This aligned England with Scotland, which also gradually adopted a Protestant religion, whereas the most important continental powers, France and [[Spanish Empire|Spain]], remained Catholic.{{sfn|Elton|1977|p=185}} The "[[Tudor conquest of Ireland|Tudor conquest]]" (or ''reconquest'') of Ireland' took place under the Tudor dynasty. Following a [[Thomas FitzGerald, 10th Earl of Kildare#Kildare rebellion (1534–1535)|failed rebellion]] against the crown by [[Silken Thomas]], the [[Earl of Kildare]], in the 1530s, Henry VIII was declared [[King of Ireland]] in [[Crown of Ireland Act 1542|1542]] by statute of the [[Parliament of Ireland]], with the aim of restoring such central authority as had been lost throughout the country during the previous two centuries.{{sfn|Grattan|1822|p=114}} [[Pale of Calais|Calais]], the last remaining continental possession of the Kingdom, was lost in 1558, during the reign of [[Philip II of Spain|Philip]] and [[Mary I]]. Their successor, [[Elizabeth I]], consolidated the new and increasingly Protestant [[Church of England]]. She also began to build up the kingdom's [[Royal Navy|naval strength]], on the foundations Henry VIII had laid down. By 1588, her new navy was strong enough to defeat the [[Spanish Armada]], which had sought to invade England to halt English support for the [[Eighty Years' War|Dutch rebels]] and to put a Catholic monarch on the throne in her place.{{sfn|Mattingly|1962|p=401}}{{sfn|Martin|Parker|1999|p=5}}{{sfn|Vego|1999|p=148}} ===Early modern history=== {{main|Early modern Britain|Stuart period}} The House of Tudor ended with the death of Elizabeth I on 24 March 1603. [[James VI and I|James I]] ascended the throne of England and brought it into personal union with the Kingdom of Scotland. Despite the [[Union of the Crowns]], the kingdoms remained separate and independent states: a state of affairs which lasted for more than a century.{{cite web|author=John Daniel McVey |url= http://uotc.scran.ac.uk |title=The Union of The Crowns 1603 – 2003 |publisher=Uotc.scran.ac.uk |archive-date=3 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303165610/http://uotc.scran.ac.uk/ |url-status=dead | access-date=25 October 2013}} ====Civil War and Interregnum==== {{main|English Civil War|English Interregnum|English Commonwealth|English Protectorate}} [[File:Cromwell at Dunbar Andrew Carrick Gow.jpg|thumb|''[[Cromwell at Dunbar]]''. [[Oliver Cromwell]] united the whole of the [[British Isles]] by force and created the [[Commonwealth of England]].]] The Stuart kings overestimated the power of the English monarchy, and were cast down by Parliament in 1645 and 1688. In the first instance, [[Charles I of England|Charles I's]] introduction of new forms of taxation in defiance of Parliament led to the [[English Civil War]] (1641–1645), in which the king was defeated, and to the abolition of the monarchy under [[Oliver Cromwell]] during the [[English Interregnum|Interregnum]] of 1649–1660.{{sfn|Firth|Rait|1911|pp=18–20}} After the [[High Court of Justice for the trial of Charles I|trial]] and [[execution of Charles I]] in January 1649, the [[Rump Parliament]] passed an [[s:Act declaring England to be a Commonwealth|act declaring England to be a Commonwealth]] on 19 May 1649. The monarchy and the House of Lords were abolished, and so the House of Commons became a unitary legislative chamber with a new body, the [[Council of State (England)|Council of State]] becoming the executive. However the Army remained the dominant institution in the new republic and the most prominent general was [[Oliver Cromwell]]. The Commonwealth fought [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland|wars in Ireland]] and [[Scotland in the Wars of the Three Kingdoms|Scotland]] which were subdued and placed under Commonwealth military occupation.{{sfn|Bull|Seed|1998|p=100}} Meanwhile, relations with the [[Dutch Republic]] had deteriorated. Despite initial English support during the Dutch War of Independence against the Spanish, tensions arose as the Dutch Republic emerged as England's principal commercial and naval rival. By the mid-17th century, it had become the foremost trading nation. In response the English, alarmed by their waning competitiveness, implemented stricter trading policies to curb Dutch dominance. The [[First Anglo-Dutch War]] which followed, however, failed to resolve the commercial issues.{{sfn|Palmer|2007|pp=39–40}}{{sfn|Israel|1989a|pp=207–213}} In April 1653 Cromwell and the other ''[[Grandee (New Model Army)|Grandee]]s'' of the [[New Model Army]], frustrated with the members of the [[Rump Parliament]] who would not pass legislation to dissolve the Rump and to allow a new more representative parliament to be elected, stopped the Rump's session and declared the Rump dissolved.{{sfn|Robison|Fritze|1996|page=147}} After an experiment with a Nominated Assembly ([[Barebone's Parliament]]), the Grandees in the Army, through the Council of State imposed a new constitutional arrangement under a written constitution called the [[Instrument of Government]]. Under the Instrument of Government executive power lay with a [[Lord Protector (Protectorate)|Lord Protector]] (an office to be held for the life of the incumbent) and there were to be triennial Parliaments, with each sitting for at least five months. Article 23 of the Instrument of Government stated that Oliver Cromwell was to be the first Lord Protector. The Instrument of Government was replaced by a second constitution (the [[Humble Petition and Advice]]) under which the Lord Protector could nominate his successor. Cromwell nominated his son [[Richard Cromwell|Richard]] who became Lord Protector on the death of Oliver on 3 September 1658.{{sfn|Gaunt|1996|p=204}} ====Restoration and Glorious Revolution==== {{main|Restoration (England)|Glorious Revolution}} [[File:The arrival of King Charles II of England in Rotterdam, may 24 1660 (Lieve Pietersz. Verschuier, 1665).jpg|thumb|right|Charles sailed from his exile in the Netherlands to his restoration in England in May 1660. Painting by [[Lieve Verschuier]].]] Richard proved to be ineffectual and was unable to maintain his rule. He resigned his title and retired into obscurity. The Rump Parliament was recalled and there was a second period where the executive power lay with the Council of state. But this restoration of Commonwealth rule, similar to that before the Protectorate, proved to be unstable, and the exiled claimant, [[Charles II of England|Charles II]], was [[Restoration (England)|restored]] to the throne in 1660.{{sfn|Harris|2005|p=47}} In 1665 the unresolved commercial issues with the Dutch led to the [[Second Anglo-Dutch War]], which culminated in the disastrous [[Raid on the Medway]] and forced the humiliated Charles in to an [[Treaty of Breda (1667)|unfavourable peace treaty]]. The treaty eliminated a number of long-standing issues, and in the long-term made it possible for the two countries to unite against the expansionist policies pursued by [[Louis XIV]] of France. In the short-term however, Charles' desire to avenge this setback led to the [[Third Anglo-Dutch War]] in 1672. Despite attaining French support this time, Dutch naval successes made Parliament unwilling to support Charles' war effort any further, and he was again forced to make peace.{{sfn|Palmer|2007|pp=59–60}} Following the Restoration of the monarchy in 1660, an attempt by [[James II of England|James II]] to reintroduce Roman Catholicism—a century after its suppression by the Tudors—led to the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, in which he was overthrown by the Dutch prince [[William III of England|William of Orange]], whose Dutch forces occupied London. William and his wife [[Mary II]] were subsequently crowned by Parliament.{{sfn|Troost|2005|p=219}} William reoriented England's foreign policy to support the Dutch Republic in its wars against Louis XIV of France.{{efn|See the [[Nine Years' War]] and [[War of the Spanish Succession]].}}{{Sfn|Israel|1989b|pp=37–38}} ====Union with Scotland==== In the Scottish case, the attractions were partly financial and partly to do with removing English trade sanctions put in place through the [[Alien Act 1705]]. The English were more anxious about the royal succession. The death of [[William III of England|William III]] in 1702 had led to the accession of his sister-in-law [[Anne, Queen of Great Britain|Anne]] to the thrones of England and Scotland, but her only surviving child had died in 1700, and the English [[Act of Settlement 1701]] had given the succession to the English crown to the Protestant [[House of Hanover]]. Securing the same succession in Scotland became the primary object of English strategic thinking towards Scotland. By 1704, the [[Union of the Crowns]] was in crisis, with the Scottish [[Act of Security 1704|Act of Security]] allowing for the Scottish Parliament to choose a different monarch, which could in turn lead to an independent foreign policy during a major European war.{{sfn|Lynch|1992|p=311}} A [[Treaty of Union]] was agreed on 22 July 1706, and following the [[Acts of Union 1707|Acts of Union of 1707]], which created the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], the independence of the kingdoms of England and Scotland came to an end on 1 May 1707. The Acts of Union created a [[customs union]] and [[monetary union]] and provided that any "laws and statutes" that were "contrary to or inconsistent with the terms" of the Acts would "cease and become void".{{cite web | url = http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_union.html | title = 1 May 1707 – the Union comes into effect | publisher = UK Parliament website | year = 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090619224036/http://www.parliament.uk/actofunion/08_union.html | archive-date = 19 June 2009 | access-date = 5 February 2013}} The English and Scottish Parliaments were merged into the [[Parliament of Great Britain]], located in [[Palace of Westminster|Westminster]], London. At this point England ceased to exist as a separate political entity, and since then has had no national [[Government of England|government]]. The laws of England were unaffected, with the legal jurisdiction continuing to be that of [[England and Wales]], while Scotland continued to have its own laws and law courts. This continued after the [[Acts of Union 1800|1801 union]] between the kingdoms of Great Britain and Ireland, forming the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]]. In 1922 the [[Irish Free State]] seceded from the United Kingdom, leading to the latter being [[Royal and Parliamentary Titles Act 1927|renamed]] the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland.{{Cite web|title=The Irish War of Independence – A Brief Overview – The Irish Story|date=18 September 2012 |url=https://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview/|access-date=1 September 2021|language=en-GB|archive-date=1 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901001503/https://www.theirishstory.com/2012/09/18/the-irish-war-of-independence-a-brief-overview/|url-status=live}} == Government == {{Main|Government in medieval England|Elizabethan government}} {{Further|History of the English monarchy}} === Territorial divisions === {{further|Historic counties of England|List of earldoms|Domesday Book|County palatine|English county histories|English feudal barony}} The [[historic counties of England|counties of England]] were established for administration by the [[Normans]], in most cases based on earlier [[shire]]s established by the [[Anglo-Saxons]]. They ceased to be used for administration only with the creation of the [[administrative counties of England|administrative counties]] in 1889.[http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/types/type_page.jsp?unit_type=ANC_CNTY Vision of Britain]{{sfn|Youngs Jr.|1979|pp= xii–xiii}} Unlike the partly self-governing [[ancient borough|borough]]s that covered urban areas, the counties of medieval England existed primarily as a means of enforcing central government power, enabling monarchs to exercise control over local areas through their chosen representatives – originally [[high sheriff|sheriff]]s and later the [[lord-lieutenant]]s – and their subordinate [[justice of the peace|justices of the peace]].{{sfn|Chandler|2007|p=2}} Counties were used initially for the [[administration of justice]], collection of taxes and organisation of the military, and later for local government and electing parliamentary representation.{{Cite book |last=Hackwood |first=Frederick William |url=https://archive.org/download/storyofshirebein00hackuoft/storyofshirebein00hackuoft_bw.pdf |title=The Story of the Shire, being the Lore, History and Evolution of English County Institutions |publisher=Heath Cranton Limited |year=1920 |location=London}}; {{Cite book |last=Byrne |first=Tony |title=Local Government in Britain |year=1994 |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |location=[[Harmondsworth]] |isbn=978-0-14-017663-6}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}} Some outlying counties were from time to time accorded [[County palatine|palatine]] status with some military and central government functions vested in a local noble or bishop. The last such, the [[County Palatine of Durham]], did not lose this special status until the 19th century.The Durham (County Palatine) Act 1836 (6 & 7 Will 4 c 19){{page needed|date=March 2025}} Although all of England was divided into shires by the time of the Norman Conquest, some counties were formed considerably later, up to the 16th century. Because of their differing origins the counties [[List of counties of England by area in 1831|varied considerably in size]]. The county boundaries were fairly static between the 16th century [[Laws in Wales Acts 1535-1542|Laws in Wales acts]] and the [[Local Government Act 1888]].[http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Cen_Guide&c_id=19&show=ALL Vision of Britain] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416194539/http://www.visionofbritain.org.uk/text/chap_page.jsp?t_id=Cen_Guide&c_id=19&show=ALL |date=16 April 2017 }} – Census Geographies. Retrieved 19 October 2006. Each shire was responsible for gathering taxes for the central government; for local defence; and for justice, through [[assize courts]].{{Cite book |last=Winchester |first=Angus J L |title=Discovering Parish Boundaries |publisher=[[Shire Books|Shire Publications]] |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-7478-0060-6 |location=[[Oxford]]}}{{page needed|date=March 2025}} The power of the [[English feudal barony|feudal barons]] to control their landholding was considerably weakened in 1290 by the statute of ''[[Quia Emptores]]''. Feudal baronies became perhaps obsolete (but not extinct) on the abolition of feudal tenure during the [[English Civil War|Civil War]], as confirmed by the [[Tenures Abolition Act 1660]] passed under the [[English Restoration|Restoration]] which took away knight-service and other legal rights. Tenure by [[knight-service]] was abolished and discharged and the lands covered by such tenures, including once-feudal baronies, were henceforth held by [[socage]] (''i.e.'', in exchange for monetary rents). The English ''Fitzwalter Case'' in 1670 ruled that barony by tenure had been discontinued for many years and any claims to a [[peerage]] on such basis, meaning a right to sit in the [[House of Lords]], were not to be revived, nor any right of succession based on them.{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Page:The_Complete_Peerage_Ed_1_Vol_3.djvu/375|title=Page:The Complete Peerage Ed 1 Vol 3.djvu/375 - Wikisource, the free online library|website=en.wikisource.org}} The [[Statute of Rhuddlan]] in 1284 followed the [[Conquest of Wales by Edward I|conquest of Wales]] by [[Edward I]]. It assumed the lands held by the Princes of Gwynedd under the title "[[Prince of Wales]]" as legally part of the lands of England, and established shire counties on the English model over those areas. The [[Welsh Marches|Marcher Lords]] were progressively tied to the English kings by the grants of lands and lordships in England. The [[Council of Wales and the Marches]], administered from [[Ludlow Castle]], was initially established by [[Edward IV of England]] to govern the lands held under the Principality of Wales in 1472.{{sfn| Holdsworth|1913|p=502}} At the same time the Council of Wales was created in 1472, a [[Council of the North]] was set up for the [[North of England|northern counties]] of England. After falling into disuse, it was re-established in 1537 and abolished in 1641. A very short-lived [[Council of the West]] also existed for the [[West Country]] between 1537 and 1540.{{sfn|Youings|1960|pp=41–59}} === Taxation === In the Anglo-Saxon period, the [[Danegeld|geld]] or property tax was first levied in response to Danish invasions but later became a regular tax. The majority of the king's income derived from the [[Crown Estate|royal demesne]] and the annual "[[Farm (revenue leasing)|farm]]" from each shire (the fixed sum paid by sheriffs for the privilege of administering and profiting from royal lands). Kings also made income from judicial fines and regulation of trade.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|pp=29–30}} People owed the king service in the form of the {{lang|la|[[trinoda necessitas]]}}—[[fyrd]] service, [[burh]] building, and bridge building.{{Sfn|Jolliffe|1961|p=52}} After the Conquest of 1066, the Normans continued collecting the geld regularly. They also introduced new sources of revenue based on concepts of [[Feudalism in England|feudalism]]. The king was entitled to collect a [[feudal aid]] when his eldest son was knighted, his eldest daughter married, or if the king needed to pay his own ransom. The heir to a [[fief]] was also required to pay the king a [[feudal relief]] before he could take possession of his inheritance. The king was also entitled to his vassals military service, but vassals could pay [[scutage]] instead.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=90}} === Military === {{Main|English Army|History of the Royal Navy (before 1707)}} [[File:Flemish School, 16th century - The Meeting of Henry VIII and the Emperor Maximilian I - RCIN 405800 - Royal Collection.jpg|thumb|Flemish painting showing the encounter between [[Henry VIII]] and Emperor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian I]] in 1513. In the background is depicted the [[Battle of the Spurs]] against [[Louis XII]] of France.]] In the Anglo-Saxon period, England had no standing army. The king and magnates retained professional household troops (''see'' [[housecarl]]), and all free men were obligated to perform military service in the [[fyrd]]. In addition, holders of [[Bookland (law)|bookland]] were obligated to provide a certain number of men based on the number of [[Hide (unit)|hides]] they owned.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=31}} After the Norman Conquest, the king's household troops remained central to any royal army. The Anglo-Saxon fyrd also remained in use. But the Normans also introduced a new feudal element to the English military. The king's [[tenants-in-chief]] (his [[feudal baron]]s) were obligated to provide mounted knights for service in the royal army or to garrison [[Castles in Great Britain and Ireland|royal castles]]. The total number of knights owed was called the {{Lang|la|servitium debitum}} (Latin: "service owed"), and historian Richard Huscroft estimates this number was around 5,000. In reality, the {{Lang|la|servitium debitum}} was greater than any king would actually need in wartime. Its main purpose was for assessing how much scutage the king was owed. Scutage was used to pay for [[mercenaries]], which were an important part of any Norman army.{{Sfn|Huscroft|2016|p=97}} ==See also== * {{annotated link |Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom}} * {{annotated link |English overseas possessions}} * {{annotated link| List of English monarchs}} * {{annotated link |Privy Council of England}} ==Notes== {{Notelist}} ==Citations== {{reflist}} ==Bibliography== {{refbegin|3}} *{{cite book|last1=Bull|first1=Stephen|last2=Seed|first2=Mike|title=Bloody Preston: The Battle of Preston, 1648|publisher=Carnegie Publishing Ltd|location=Lancaster|year=1998|isbn=1-85936-041-6}} * {{Cite book |last=Carey |first=Hilary M. |title=God's Empire: Religion and Colonialism in the British World, c. 1801–1908 |date=2011 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-49409-0 |page=41 |author-link=Hilary Carey |orig-date=2010}} * {{cite book |last=Douglas |first=David C. |author-link= David C. 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B. Black|publisher=Clarendon Press|location=Oxford|isbn=9780198217015 }} * {{Cite book |last=Borman |first=Tracy |title=Thomas Cromwell: The Untold Story of Henry VIII's Most Faithful Servant|location=London|publisher=Hodder|isbn=9781444782882 |date=2020 |author-link=Tracy Borman}} * {{Cite book |last1=Clayton |first1=F. David Roberts |series=A History of England| volume=1 |title=Prehistory to 1714 |last2=Bisson |first2=Douglas |date=2016|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Elton |first=G. 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Jacob|location=Oxford =|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Elizabeth |title=Elizabeth the Great |date=1964 |publisher=Time Incorporated |author-link=Elizabeth Jenkins (writer)|location=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Jones |first=J. Gwynfor |title=Wales and the Tudor state: government, religious change and the social order, 1534–1603 |date=1989 |publisher=University of Wales Press|location=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Levin |first=Carole |title=The heart and stomach of a king: Elizabeth I and the politics of sex and power |date=2013 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Loades |first=David Michael |title=Politics and nation: England 1450–1660 |date=1999 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |author-link=David Michael Loades|location=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Loades |first=David Michael |title=Power in Tudor England |date=1997 |author-link=David Michael Loades|location=|publisher=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=McCaffrey |first=Wallace |title=Elizabeth I|location=London|publisher=Hodder|date=1993|isbn=034056167X }} * {{Cite book |last=McKisack |first=May |title=The Fourteenth Century, 1307–1399 |date=1959 |publisher=Oxford History of England |author-link=May McKisack|location=Oxford|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Neale |first=J.E. |title=Queen Elizabeth I: a biography |date=1957 |author-link=J.E. Neale|location=|publisher=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Penn |first=Thomas |title=Winter king: Henry VII and the dawn of Tudor England |date=2012 |author-link=Thomas Penn|location=|publisher=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Powicke |first=Maurice |title=The Thirteenth Century, 1216–1307 |date=1962 |publisher=Oxford History of England |author-link=Maurice Powicke|location=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Ridley |first=Jasper G. |title=Henry VIII |date=1985|location=|publisher=|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Thomson |first=John A.F. |title=The Transformation of Medieval England 1370–1529 |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn= }} * {{Cite book |last=Williams |first=Penry |title=The Later Tudors: England, 1547–1603 |date=1995 |publisher=Oxford University Press |author-link=Penry Williams (historian)|location=Oxford |isbn= }} {{Refend}} {{s-start}} {{s-bef | before = [[Wessex]]
c. 519–10th century }} {{s-ttl | title = Kingdom of England | years = 10th century{{spaced ndash}}1649 }} {{s-aft | after = [[English Interregnum]]
1649–1660 }} {{s-bef | before = [[English Interregnum]]
1649–1660 }} {{s-ttl | title = Kingdom of England | years = 1660–1707 }} {{s-aft | after = [[Kingdom of Great Britain]]
1707–1800 }} {{s-end}} {{British Isles}} {{Germanic peoples}} {{Kingdom of England}} {{Middle Ages}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:England, Kingdom Of}} [[Category:10th-century establishments in England]] [[Category:1707 disestablishments in Great Britain]] [[Category:Former Christian states]] [[Category:Former countries in the British Isles]] [[Category:Former kingdoms]] [[Category:Former monarchies of Europe]] [[Category:Kingdom of England| ]] [[Category:States and territories established in the 920s]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1649]] [[Category:States and territories established in 1660]] [[Category:States and territories disestablished in 1707]]