{{Short description|none}}
{{for-multi|the history of science and technology of modern China|History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China|the science and technology of modern China|Science and technology in China}}
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{{History of science and technology in China}}
{{History of China |related |width = 20.2em |BC = yes}}
[[File:YiXiangKaoCheng 02.JPG|thumb|218px|Instructions for making [[Chinese astronomy|astronomical instruments]] from the time of the [[Qing dynasty]].]]
Ancient [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] scientists and engineers made significant scientific innovations, findings and technological advances across various scientific disciplines including the [[natural science]]s, [[engineering]], [[medicine]], [[military technology]], [[mathematics]], [[geology]] and [[astronomy]].

Among the earliest [[List of Chinese inventions|inventions]] were the [[abacus]], the [[sundial]], and the [[Kongming lantern]]. The ''[[Four Great Inventions]]'' – the [[compass]], [[gunpowder]], [[papermaking]], and [[printing]] – were among the most important technological advances, only known to Europe by the end of the [[Middle Ages]] 1000 years later. The [[Tang dynasty]] (AD 618–906) in particular was a time of great innovation.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} A good deal of exchange occurred between Western and [[List of Chinese discoveries|Chinese discoveries]] up to the [[Qing dynasty]].

The [[Jesuit China missions]] of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, while undergoing its own [[Scientific Revolution|scientific revolution]], at the same time bringing Chinese knowledge of technology back to Europe.<ref name="Thomas Woods 2005">[[Thomas Woods]], ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'' (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005)</ref><ref name="Udias">Agustín Udías, p. 53.</ref> In the 19th and 20th centuries the introduction of Western technology was a major factor in the modernization of China. Much of the early Western work in the [[history of science]] in China was done by [[Joseph Needham]] and his Chinese partner, [[Lu Gwei-djen]].

== Ancient China ==
The [[Warring States period]] began 2500 years ago at the time of the invention of the [[crossbow]].<ref>{{harvnb|Needham|Robinson|Huang|2004}}, p. 218.</ref> Needham notes that the invention of the crossbow "far outstripped the progress in defensive armor", which made the wearing of armor useless to the princes and dukes of the states.<ref name="Needham 2004">{{harvnb|Needham|Robinson|Huang|2004}}, p. 10.</ref> At this time, there were also many nascent schools of thought in China—the [[Hundred Schools of Thought]] (諸子百家), scattered among many polities. The schools served as communities which advised the rulers of these states. [[Mo Di]] (墨翟 Mozi, 470 BCE–c. 391 BCE) introduced concepts useful to one of those rulers, such as defensive fortification. One of these concepts, ''fa'' (法 principle or method)<ref>{{harvnb|Needham|1956}} p. 185.</ref> was extended by the [[School of Names]] (名家 ''Ming jia'', ''ming''=name), which began a systematic exploration of logic. The development of a school of logic was cut short by the defeat of [[Mohism]]'s political sponsors by the [[Qin dynasty]], and the subsumption of ''fa'' as law rather than method by the [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalists]].

Needham further notes that the [[Han dynasty]], which conquered the short-lived Qin, were made aware of the need for law by [[Lu Jia (Western Han)|Lu Jia]] and by [[Shusun Tong]], as defined by the scholars, rather than the generals.<ref name="Needham 2004"/>
{{blockquote
 | You conquered the empire on horseback, but from horseback you will never succeed in ruling it.
 | [[Lu Jia (Western Han)|Lu Jia]]<ref>[[Lu Jia (Western Han)|Lu Jia]] (196 BCE, [[Book of Han|前漢書 ''(Chi'en Han Shu)'' (History of the former Han dynasty)]] ch. 43, p. 6b and ''Tung Chien Kang Mu'' (Essential Mirror of Universal History) ch. 3, p. 46b) as referenced in {{harvnb|Needham|Robinson|Huang|2004}}, p.&nbsp;10.</ref>
}}

Derived from [[Taoist]] philosophy, one of the newest longstanding contributions of the ancient Chinese are in [[Traditional Chinese medicine]], including acupuncture and [[Chinese herbology|herbal medicine]]. The practice of acupuncture can be traced back as far as the 1st millennium BC and some scientists believe that there is evidence that practices similar to acupuncture were used in [[Eurasia]] during the early [[Bronze Age]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Die neuen Akupunkturpunkte zur Beeinflussung der Hirnnerven an der Hand|url=http://www.ogka.at/aerzte/artikel/oetziLancet.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061208234912/http://www.ogka.at/aerzte/artikel/oetziLancet.htm|archive-date=2006-12-08|access-date=2007-02-19}}, [http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673698122420/fulltext]</ref>

Early Taoism cautioned against using technologies that could create chaos or "sully the spirit."<ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last1=Greenspan |first1=Anna |title=Machine Decision is Not Final: China and the History and Future of Artificial Intelligence |last2=Konior |first2=Bogna |publisher=Urbanomic, [[MIT Press]] |year=2025 |isbn=978-1-913029-99-9 |editor-last=Bratton |editor-first=Benjamin |chapter=Introduction: Fleeting Forces and Clever Machinations |editor-last2=Greenspan |editor-first2=Anna |editor-last3=Ireland |editor-first3=Amy |editor-last4=Konior |editor-first4=Bogna}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=4}} A story in the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' about a master gardened who refuses to use a well-sweep warns against the use of "clever machines," suggesting that those walking the righteous path should avoid them.<ref name=":1" />{{Reference page|page=4}}

Using shadow clocks and the abacus (both invented in the ancient [[Near East]] before spreading to China), the Chinese were able to record observations, documenting the first recorded solar eclipse in 2137 BC, and making the first recording of any planetary grouping in 500 BC.<ref name="OtherAstronomy">[http://home.cwru.edu/~sjr16/advanced/pre20th_ancients_others.html Ancient Chinese Astronomy] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222181543/http://home.cwru.edu/~sjr16/advanced/pre20th_ancients_others.html |date=2006-02-22 }}</ref> These claims, however, are highly disputed and rely on much supposition.<ref>{{cite web |author=F. Espenak |title=Solar Eclipses of Historical Interest |url=http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhistory/SEhistory.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080309073832/http://sunearth.gsfc.nasa.gov/eclipse/SEhistory/SEhistory.html |archive-date=2008-03-09 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author=F.R. Stephenson |title=Historical Eclipses and Earth's Rotation |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year= 1997}}</ref> The ''[[Book of Silk]]'' was the first definitive atlas of comets, written ''c.'' 400 BC. It listed 29 [[comets]] (referred to as ''sweeping stars'') that appeared over a period of about 300 years, with renderings of comets describing an event its appearance corresponded to.<ref name="OtherAstronomy"/>

In architecture, the pinnacle of Chinese technology manifested itself in the [[Great Wall of China]], under the first [[Chinese Emperor]] [[Qin Shi Huang]] between 220 and 200 BC. Typical Chinese architecture changed little from the succeeding Han dynasty until the 19th century.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} The Qin dynasty also developed the crossbow, which later became the mainstream weapon in Europe. Several remains of crossbows have been found among the soldiers of the [[Terracotta Army]] in the tomb of Qin Shi Huang.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20010425114009/http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Academy/7547/weapon.html Weapons of the terracotta army]</ref>

== Han dynasty ==
[[File:ChineseCrossbow.JPG|thumb|left|Remains of a Chinese [[crossbow]], 2nd century BC]]
{{main|Science and technology of the Han dynasty}}

The [[Eastern Han dynasty]] scholar and astronomer [[Zhang Heng]] (78–139 AD) invented the first water-powered rotating [[armillary sphere]] (the first armillary sphere having been invented by the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Eratosthenes]]), and catalogued 2,500 stars and over 100 constellations. In 132, he invented the [[Seismometer#Ancient era|first seismological detector]], called the "''Houfeng Didong Yi''" ("Instrument for inquiring into the wind and the shaking of the earth").<ref name="Zhang">{{cite web|url=http://english.people.com.cn/200506/13/eng20050613_189957.html|title=People's Daily Online -- China resurrects world's earliest seismograph|last=english@peopledaily.com.cn|website=english.people.com.cn}}</ref> According to the ''History of Later Han Dynasty'' (25–220 AD), this seismograph was an urn-like instrument, which would drop one of eight balls to indicate when and in which direction an earthquake had occurred.<ref name="Zhang"/> On June 13, 2005, Chinese [[seismologist]]s announced that they had created a replica of the instrument.<ref name="Zhang"/>

The mechanical engineer [[Ma Jun (mechanical engineer)|Ma Jun]] (c. 200–265 AD) was another impressive figure from ancient China. Ma Jun improved the design of the silk [[loom]],<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 39">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 39.</ref> designed mechanical [[chain pump]]s to [[irrigate]] palatial gardens,<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 39"/> and created a large and intricate mechanical [[puppet]] [[theatre]] for [[Cao Rui|Emperor Ming of Wei]], which was operated by a large hidden [[waterwheel]].<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 158">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 158.</ref> However, Ma Jun's most impressive invention was the [[south-pointing chariot]], a complex mechanical device that acted as a mechanical [[compass]] vehicle. While the exact mechanism is unclear, scholars think it incorporated the use of a [[differential (mechanical device)|differential gear]] in order to apply equal amount of [[torque]] to wheels rotating at different speeds, a device that is found in all modern [[automobile]]s.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 40">Needham, Volume 4, Part 2, 40.</ref>

[[Calipers#History|Sliding calipers]] were invented in China almost 2,000 years ago.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} The Chinese civilization was the earliest civilization to experiment successfully with [[aviation]], with the [[kite]] and [[Kongming lantern]] (proto [[Hot air balloon]]) being the first [[flying machine]]s.

== Four Great Inventions ==
[[File:Jingangjing.jpg|thumb|The intricate frontispiece of the [[Diamond Sutra]] from [[Tang dynasty]] China, 868 AD ([[British Library]])]]
{{main|Four Great Inventions}}

The "[[Four Great Inventions]]" ({{lang-zh|t=四大發明|s=四大发明|p=sì dà fāmíng}}) are the [[compass]], [[gunpowder]], [[papermaking]] and [[printing]]. Paper and printing were developed first. Printing was recorded in [[China]] in the [[Tang dynasty]], although the earliest surviving examples of printed cloth patterns date to before 220.<ref name="cave">Shelagh Vainker</ref> [[Buddhism in China|Buddhists]] were among the earliest adopters of print technology.<ref name=":1" />{{Reference page|page=5}}

Pin-pointing the development of the compass can be difficult: the magnetic attraction of a needle is attested by the ''Louen-heng'', composed between AD 20 and 100,<ref>"A lodestone attracts a needle." Li Shu-hua, p. 176.</ref> although the first undisputed magnetized needles in [[Chinese literature]] appear in 1086.<ref>Li Shu-hua, p. 182f.</ref>

By AD 300, Ge Hong, an [[Alchemy|alchemist]] of the [[Jin dynasty (265–420)|Jin dynasty]], recorded the chemical reactions caused when saltpetre, pine resin and charcoal were heated together, in ''Book of the Master of the Preservations of Solidarity''.<ref>Liang, pp. Appendix C VII</ref>  Another report, from c. 850 AD,says that some people <!--"Classified Essentials of the Mysterious Tao of the True Origin of Things"--> "heated together [[sulfur]], [[realgar]] and [[Potassium nitrate|saltpeter]] with [[honey]]; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down."<ref>Kelly, p. 4.</ref>

These four discoveries had an enormous impact on the development of Chinese civilization and a far-ranging global impact. Gunpowder, for example, spread to the Arabs in the 13th century and thence to Europe.<ref>Kelly, p. 22. "Around 1240 the Arabs acquired knowledge of saltpeter ("Chinese snow") from the East, perhaps through India. They knew of gunpowder soon afterward. They also learned about fireworks ("Chinese flowers") and rockets ("Chinese arrows")."</ref> According to [[England|English]] [[philosophy|philosopher]] [[Francis Bacon]], writing in ''[[Novum Organum]]'':
{{blockquote
 | Printing, gunpowder and the compass: These three have changed the whole face and state of things throughout the world; the first in [[literature]], the second in [[war]]fare, the third in [[navigation]]; whence have followed innumerable changes, in so much that no empire, no sect, no star seems to have exerted greater power and influence in human affairs than these mechanical discoveries.
 |<ref>[[:s:la:Novum Organum - Liber Primus|Novum Organum, Liber I, CXXIX]] – Adapted from the [[wikisource:Novum Organum|1863 translation]]</ref>
}}

One of the most important military treatises of all Chinese history was the ''Huo Long Jing'' written by [[Jiao Yu]] in the 14th century. For gunpowder weapons, it outlined the use of [[fire arrow]]s and [[rocket]]s, [[fire lance]]s and [[firearms]], [[land mine]]s and [[naval mine]]s, [[bombard (weapon)|bombard]]s and [[cannon]]s, [[two stage rocket]]s, along with different compositions of gunpowder, including 'magic gunpowder', 'poisonous gunpowder', and 'blinding and burning gunpowder' (refer to his article).

For the 11th century invention of ceramic [[movable type]] printing by [[Bi Sheng]] (990–1051), it was enhanced by the wooden movable type of [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]] in 1298 and the bronze metal movable type of [[Hua Sui]] in 1490.

== China's Scientific Revolution ==
[[File:WorldShips1460.jpg|thumb|left|Ships of the world in 1460 ([[Fra Mauro map]]). Chinese [[Junk (ship)|junk]]s are described as very large, three- or four-masted ships.]]
{{Further|Science and technology of the Tang dynasty}}
Among the engineering accomplishments of early China were [[match]]es, [[graving dock|dry docks]], the double-action [[piston pump]], [[cast iron]], the [[iron]] [[plough]], the [[horse collar]], the multi-tube [[seed drill]], the [[wheelbarrow]], the [[suspension bridge]], the [[parachute]], [[natural gas]] as fuel, the [[raised-relief map]], the [[propeller]], the [[sluice]] gate, and the [[pound lock]]. The [[Tang dynasty]] (AD 618–907) and [[Song dynasty]] (AD 960–1279) in particular were periods of great innovation.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

In the 7th century, book-printing was developed in China, Korea and [[Japan]], using delicate hand-carved wooden blocks to print individual pages.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} The 9th century ''[[Diamond Sutra]]'' is the earliest known printed document.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Movable type was also used in China for a time, but was abandoned because of the number of characters needed; it would not be until [[Johannes Gutenberg]] that the technique was reinvented in a suitable environment.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}

In addition to gunpowder, the Chinese also developed improved delivery systems for the [[Byzantine]] weapon of [[Greek fire]], [[Meng Huo You]] and [[Pen Huo Qi]] first used in China ''c.'' 900.<ref name="Turnbull">Turnbull, p. 43.</ref> Chinese illustrations were more realistic than in Byzantine manuscripts,<ref name="Turnbull"/> and detailed accounts from 1044 recommending its use on city walls and ramparts show the brass container as fitted with a horizontal pump, and a nozzle of small diameter.<ref name="Turnbull"/> The records of a battle on the [[Yangtze]] near [[Nanjing]] in 975 offer an insight into the dangers of the weapon, as a change of wind direction blew the fire back onto the Song forces.<ref name="Turnbull"/>

===Song dynasty===
{{main|Science and technology of the Song dynasty}}
The [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279) brought a new stability for China after a century of civil war, and started a new area of modernisation by encouraging examinations and [[meritocracy]]. The [[Emperor Taizu of Song|first Song Emperor]] created political institutions that allowed a great deal of freedom of discourse and thought, which facilitated the growth of [[science in China|scientific advance]], economic reforms, and achievements in arts and literature.<ref name="Money">''Money of the World'' Special Christmas Edition, Orbis Publishing Ltd, 1998.</ref> Trade flourished both within China and overseas, and the encouragement of technology allowed the mints at [[Kaifeng]] and [[Hangzhou]] to gradually increase in production.<ref name="Money"/> In 1080, the mints of [[Emperor Shenzong of Song China|Emperor Shenzong]] had produced 5 billion coins (roughly 50 per Chinese citizen), and the first banknotes were produced in 1023.<ref name="Money"/> These coins were so durable that they would still be in use 700 years later, in the 18th century.<ref name="Money"/>

There were many famous inventors and early scientists in the Song dynasty period. The statesman [[Shen Kuo]] is best known for his book known as the ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' (1088 AD). In it, he wrote of use for a [[drydock]] to repair boats, the navigational magnetic [[compass]], and the discovery of the concept of [[true north]] (with magnetic declination towards the [[North Pole]]). Shen Kuo also devised a geological theory for land formation, or [[geomorphology]], and theorized that there was [[Climate change (general concept)|climate change]] in geological regions over an enormous span of time.

The equally talented statesman [[Su Song]] was best known for his engineering project of the [[Astronomical]] [[Clock tower|Clock Tower]] of [[Kaifeng]], by 1088 AD. The clock tower was driven by a rotating waterwheel and [[escapement]] mechanism. Crowning the top of the clock tower was the large bronze, mechanically driven, rotating [[armillary sphere]]. In 1070, Su Song also compiled the ''Ben Cao Tu Jing'' (Illustrated Pharmacopoeia, original source material from 1058 to 1061 AD) with a team of scholars. This [[pharmaceutical]] treatise covered a wide range of other related subjects, including [[botany]], [[zoology]], [[mineralogy]], and [[metallurgy]].

[[Chinese astronomy|Chinese astronomers]] were the first to record observations of a [[supernova]], the first being the [[SN 185]], recorded during the [[Han dynasty]]. Chinese astronomers made two more notable supernova observations during the Song dynasty: the [[SN 1006]], the brightest recorded supernova in history; and the [[SN 1054]], making the [[Crab Nebula]] the first astronomical object recognized as being connected to a supernova explosion.<ref name="Mayall">Mayall N.U. (1939), ''[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-data_query?bibcode=1939ASPL....3..145M&link_type=ARTICLE&db_key=AST The Crab Nebula, a Probable Supernova]'', Astronomical Society of the Pacific Leaflets, v. 3, p. 145.</ref>

====Archaeology====
{{main|History of Chinese archaeology}}
During the early half of the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), the study of [[archaeology]] developed out of the [[antiquarian]] interests of the [[Gentry (China)|educated gentry]] and their desire to revive the use of ancient vessels in state rituals and ceremonies.<ref name="fraser haber 227">Julius Thomas Fraser and Francis C. Haber, ''Time, Science, and Society in China and the West'' (Amherst: [[University of Massachusetts Press]], {{ISBN|0-87023-495-1}}, 1986), pp. 227.</ref> This and the belief that ancient vessels were products of 'sages' and not common people was criticized by Shen Kuo, who took an [[Interdisciplinarity|interdisciplinary]] approach to archaeology, incorporating his archaeological findings into studies on metallurgy, optics, astronomy, geometry, and ancient [[Bar (music)|music measures]].<ref name="fraser haber 227"/> His contemporary [[Ouyang Xiu]] (1007–1072) compiled an analytical catalogue of ancient rubbings on stone and bronze, which Patricia B. Ebrey says pioneered ideas in early [[epigraphy]] and archaeology.<ref>Patricia B. Ebrey, The Cambridge Illustrated History of China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999, {{ISBN|0-521-66991-X}}), pp. 148.</ref> In accordance with the beliefs of the later [[Leopold von Ranke]] (1795–1886), some Song gentry—such as [[Zhao Mingcheng]] (1081–1129)—supported the primacy of contemporaneous archaeological finds of ancient inscriptions over historical works written after the fact, which they contested to be unreliable in regard to the former evidence.<ref name="rudolph">Rudolph, R.C. "Preliminary Notes on Sung Archaeology," ''The Journal of Asian Studies'' (Volume 22, Number 2, 1963): 169–177.</ref> Hong Mai (1123–1202) used ancient Han dynasty era vessels to debunk what he found to be fallacious descriptions of Han vessels in the ''Bogutu'' archaeological catalogue compiled during the latter half of [[Emperor Huizong of Song|Huizong's reign]] (1100–1125).<ref name="rudolph"/>

====Geology and climatology====
In addition to his studies in meteorology, astronomy, and archaeology mentioned above, Shen Kuo also made hypotheses in regards to [[geology]] and [[climatology]] in his ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' of 1088, specifically his claims regarding [[geomorphology]] and [[Climate change (general concept)|climate change]]. Shen believed that land was reshaped over time due to perpetual [[erosion]], uplift, and deposition of [[silt]], and cited his observance of horizontal strata of fossils embedded in a [[Taihang Mountains|cliffside at Taihang]] as evidence that the area was once the location of an ancient seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles east over an enormous span of time.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 603–604, 618.</ref><ref>Nathan Sivin, ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections.'' (Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 23.</ref><ref name="chan clancey loy">[[Alan Kam-leung Chan]], Gregory K. Clancey, and Hui-Chieh Loy, ''Historical Perspectives on East Asian Science, Technology and Medicine'' (Singapore: Singapore University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|9971-69-259-7}}) pp. 15.</ref> Shen also wrote that since petrified bamboos were found underground in a dry northern climate zone where they had never been known to grow, climates naturally shifted geographically over time.<ref name="chan clancey loy" /><ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 618.</ref>

====Chemistry====

Until the Song dynasty, Chinese medicine classified drugs under the system of the ''Zhenghe bencao'' (Herbal of the Zhenghe Era):

#Superior drugs, associated with immortality, were used for the realization of vital powers
#Medium drugs that enrich one's nature
#Inferior drugs were those used to treat diseases

These early forms of drugs were made using primitive methods, usually just simple dried herbs, or unprocessed minerals. They were developed into combinations known as "elixirs of immortality". These early magical practices, supported by the imperial courts of [[Qin Shi Huang]] (259–210 BCE) and [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] (156–87 BCE) eventually led to the first observations of chemistry in ancient China. Chinese alchemists searched for ways to make [[cinnabar]],  gold and other minerals [[water soluble]] so they could be ingested, such as using a solution of [[potassium nitrate]] in vinegar . Solubilzation of cinnabar was found to occur only if an impurity ([[chloride]] [[ion]]) was present. Gold also was soluble when [[iodate]] was present in crude niter deposits.<ref>{{cite book |author1=Anthony R. Butler |author2=Christopher Glidewell |chapter=Chemistry in China |editor1-last=Selin |editor1-first=Helaine |editor-link=Helaine Selin |title=[[Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures]] |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |page=89}}</ref>

===Mongol transmission===
{{see also|Science and technology of the Yuan dynasty}}
[[Mongol Empire|Mongol]] rule under the [[Yuan dynasty]] saw technological advances from an economic perspective, with the first mass production of paper [[banknote]]s by [[Kublai Khan]] in the 13th century.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} Numerous contacts between Europe and the Mongols occurred in the 13th century, particularly through the unstable [[Franco-Mongol alliance]]. Chinese corps, expert in siege warfare, formed an integral part of the Mongol armies campaigning in the West. In 1259–1260 military alliance of the Franks knights of the ruler of [[Antioch]], [[Bohemond VI]] and his father-in-law [[Hetoum I]] with the [[Mongols]] under [[Hulagu]], in which they fought together for the conquests of Muslim [[Syria]], taking together the city of [[Aleppo]], and later [[Damascus]].<ref>"Histoire des Croisades", René Grousset, p. 581, {{ISBN|2-262-02569-X}}</ref> [[William of Rubruck]], an ambassador to the Mongols in 1254–1255, a personal friend of [[Roger Bacon]], is also often designated as a possible intermediary in the transmission of [[gunpowder]] know-how between the East and the West.<ref>"The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization", John M.Hobson, p. 186, {{ISBN|0-521-54724-5}}</ref> The [[compass]] is often said to have been introduced by the Master of the [[Knights Templar]] [[Pierre de Montaigu]] between 1219 and 1223, from one of his travels to visit the Mongols in [[Persia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://templis.free.fr/maitre.htm#16|title=Grand maitre|website=templis.free.fr}}</ref>

[[Chinese astronomy|Chinese]] and [[Islamic astronomy|Arabic astronomy]] intermingled under Mongol rule. [[Muslim]] astronomers worked in the Chinese [[Astronomical Bureau]] established by Kublai Khan, while some Chinese astronomers also worked at the [[History of Iran|Persian]] [[Maragheh observatory|Maragha observatory]].<ref>{{cite journal|url=http://abstractairanica.revues.org/document4985.html|title=Islamic and Chinese Astronomy under the Mongols: a Little-Known Case of Transmission |type=Review |first=Živa|last=Vesel|date=15 May 2004|journal=Abstracta Iranica|volume=25 |article-number=268 |doi=10.4000/abstractairanica.4985 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Before this, in ancient times, [[Indian astronomy|Indian astronomers]] had lent their expertise to the Chinese court.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nybooks.com/|title=Home|via=www.nybooks.com}}</ref>

===Theory and hypothesis===
[[File:Sea island survey.jpg|thumb|right|180px|A 1726 illustration of ''[[Haidao Suanjing]]'', written by [[Liu Hui]] in the 3rd century]]
As Toby E. Huff notes, pre-modern Chinese science developed precariously without solid [[scientific theory]], while there was a lacking of consistent systemic treatment in comparison to contemporaneous European works such as the ''Concordance and Discordant Canons'' by [[Gratian (jurist)|Gratian]] of [[Bologna]] ([[floruit|fl.]] 12th century).<ref name="huff 303">{{Cite book |last=Huff |first=Toby E. |title=The Rise of Early Modern Science: Islam, China and the West |date=2003-08-18 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-82302-9 |edition=2 |page=303 |doi=10.1017/cbo9781316257098}}</ref> This drawback to Chinese science was lamented even by the mathematician [[Yang Hui]] (1238–1298), who criticized earlier mathematicians such as [[Li Chunfeng]] (602–670) who were content with using methods without working out their theoretical origins or principle, stating:
{{blockquote
 | The men of old changed the name of their methods from problem to problem, so that as no specific explanation was given, there is no way of telling their theoretical origin or basis.
 |<ref name="needham volume 3 104">Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 104.</ref>
}}

Despite this, Chinese thinkers of the Middle Ages proposed some hypotheses which are in accordance with modern principles of science. Yang Hui provided theoretical proof for the proposition that the complements of the [[parallelogram]]s which are about the diameter of any given parallelogram are equal to one another.<ref name="needham volume 3 104"/> Sun Sikong (1015–1076) proposed the idea that [[rainbow]]s were the result of the contact between sunlight and moisture in the air, while [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) expanded upon this with description of [[atmospheric refraction]].<ref name="sivin 24">Nathan Sivin, ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections.'' (Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 24.</ref><ref name="kim 171">Yung Sik Kim, ''The Natural Philosophy of Chu Hsi (1130–1200)'' (DIANE Publishing, 2002, {{ISBN|0-87169-235-X}}), pp. 171.</ref><ref name="dong 72">Paul Dong, ''China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic'' (San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, Inc., 2000, {{ISBN|0-8351-2676-5}}), pp. 72.</ref> Shen believed that rays of sunlight refracted before reaching the surface of the Earth, hence the appearance of the observed Sun from Earth did not match its exact location.<ref name="dong 72"/> Coinciding with the astronomical work of his colleague [[Wei Pu]], Shen and Wei realized that the old calculation technique for the mean Sun was inaccurate compared to the apparent Sun, since the latter was ahead of it in the accelerated phase of motion, and [[apparent retrograde motion|behind it in the retarded phase]].<ref>Nathan Sivin, ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections.'' (Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 16–19.</ref> Shen supported and expanded upon beliefs earlier proposed by [[Han dynasty]] (202 BCE – 220 CE) scholars such as [[Jing Fang]] (78–37 BCE) and [[Zhang Heng]] (78–139 CE) that [[lunar eclipse]] occurs when the Earth obstructs the sunlight traveling towards the Moon, a [[solar eclipse]] is the Moon's obstruction of sunlight reaching Earth, the Moon is spherical like a ball and not flat like a disc, and moonlight is merely sunlight reflected from the Moon's surface.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 227 & 414–416.</ref> Shen also explained that the observance of a full moon occurred when the Sun's light was slanting at a certain degree and that crescent [[Lunar phase|phases of the moon]] proved that the Moon was spherical, using a metaphor of observing different angles of a silver ball with white powder thrown onto one side.<ref>"Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 415–416.</ref><ref>Paul Dong, ''China's Major Mysteries: Paranormal Phenomena and the Unexplained in the People's Republic'' (San Francisco: China Books and Periodicals, Inc., 2000, {{ISBN|0-8351-2676-5}}), pp. 71–72.</ref> Although the Chinese accepted the idea of spherical-shaped heavenly bodies, the concept of a [[spherical Earth]] (as opposed to a [[flat Earth]]) was not accepted in Chinese thought until the works of Italian Jesuit [[Matteo Ricci]] (1552–1610) and Chinese astronomer [[Xu Guangqi]] (1562–1633) in the early 17th century.<ref>Dainian Fan and Robert Sonné Cohen, ''Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology'' (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996, {{ISBN|0-7923-3463-9}}), pp. 431–432.</ref>

The terminology of "science", in the sense of a distinct field, began developing in China in the 1850s.<ref name=":63">{{Cite book |last=Kennedy|first=Andrew B.|title=Rebellious Follower: China's Search for Science, Technology, + Innovation|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=2026|isbn=9780197824658|doi=10.1093/9780197824689.001.0001}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=34}} The existing term ''gewu zhizhi'' or ''gezhi'' (meaning the investigation of things and the extension of knowledge) was adapted to mean "science".<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=34}} Some intellectuals criticized this usage, contending that ''gezhi'' was too rooted in classical learning to stand in for the more modern concept of science.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=34}} 

In the 1890s, the Japanese [[neologism]] for "science" was adapted into Chinese as ''kagaku'' or ''kexue''; it began to replace the previous usage of ''gezhi''.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=34}} In the 1900s, schools began distinguishing concepts of ''ziran kexue'' ("natural sciences") from ''shehui kexue'' ("social sciences").<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=34}}

===Pharmacology===
{{Main|Traditional Chinese medicine}}

There were noted advances in [[traditional Chinese medicine]] during the Middle Ages. [[Emperor Gaozong of Tang|Emperor Gaozong]] (reigned 649–683) of the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a ''[[materia medica]]'' in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops.<ref>Charles Benn, ''China's Golden Age: Everyday Life in the Tang Dynasty''. Oxford University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-19-517665-0}}), pp. 235.</ref> In his ''Bencao Tujing'' ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'), the scholar-official [[Su Song]] (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized [[Botany|herbs]] and [[Mineralogy|minerals]] according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest in [[zoology]].<ref name="wu 5">Wu Jing-nuan, ''An Illustrated Chinese Materia Medica''. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2005), pp. 5.</ref><ref name="needham volume 3 648 649">Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 648–649.</ref><ref name="needham volume 6 part 1 174 175">Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 6, Biology and Biological Technology, Part 1, Botany''. (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 174–175.</ref><ref name="schafer">Schafer, Edward H. "Orpiment and Realgar in Chinese Technology and Tradition," ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' (Volume 75, Number 2, 1955): 73–89.</ref> For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater [[crab]] ''Eriocher sinensis'' found in the [[Huai River]] running through [[Anhui]], in waterways near [[Kaifeng|the capital city]], as well as reservoirs and marshes of [[Hebei]].<ref>West, Stephen H. "Cilia, Scale and Bristle: The Consumption of Fish and Shellfish in The Eastern Capital of The Northern Song," ''Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies'' (Volume 47, Number 2, 1987): 595–634.</ref>

===Horology and clockworks===
Although the ''Bencao Tujing'' was an important pharmaceutical work of the age, Su Song is perhaps better known for his work in [[horology]]. His book ''Xinyi Xiangfayao'' (新儀象法要; lit. 'Essentials of a New Method for Mechanizing the Rotation of an Armillary Sphere and a Celestial Globe') documented the intricate mechanics of his [[Astronomical clock|astronomical clock tower]] in [[Kaifeng]]. This included the use of an [[Escapement|escapement mechanism]] and world's first known [[chain drive]] to power the rotating [[armillary sphere]] crowning the top as well as the 133 clock jack figurines positioned on a rotating wheel that [[Striking clock|sounded the hours]] by banging drums, clashing gongs, striking bells, and holding plaques with special announcements appearing from open-and-close shutter windows.<ref name="needham volume 4 part 2 111 165 445 448">Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 1986)  pp. 111 & 165 & 445–448.</ref><ref>Liu, Heping. ""The Water Mill" and Northern Song Imperial Patronage of Art, Commerce, and Science," The Art Bulletin (Volume 84, Number 4, 2002): 566–595.</ref><ref>Tony Fry, ''The Architectural Theory Review: Archineering in Chinatime'' (Sydney: University of Sydney, 2001), pp. 10–11.</ref><ref>Derk Bodde, ''Chinese Thought, Society, and Science'' (Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1991), pp. 140.</ref> While it had been Zhang Heng who applied the first [[Power (physics)|motive power]] to the armillary sphere via [[hydraulics]] in 125 CE,<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 1986), pp. 30.</ref><ref>W. Scott Morton and Charlton M. Lewis, China: Its History and Culture. (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 2005), pp. 70.</ref> it was [[Yi Xing]] (683–727) in 725 CE who first applied an escapement mechanism to a water-powered celestial globe and striking clock.<ref name="autogenerated1">Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 1986) pp. 470–475.</ref> The early Song dynasty horologist [[Zhang Sixun]] (fl. late 10th century) employed [[Mercury (element)|liquid mercury]] in his astronomical clock because there were complaints that water would freeze too easily in the clepsydra tanks during winter.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2: Mechanical Engineering'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. 1986), pp. 469–471.</ref>

===Magnetism and metallurgy===
Shen Kuo's written work of 1088 also contains the first written description of the magnetic needle [[compass]], the first description in China of experiments with [[camera obscura]], the invention of [[movable type]] printing by the artisan [[Bi Sheng]] (990–1051), a method of repeated forging of [[cast iron]] under a cold blast similar to the modern [[Bessemer process]], and the mathematical basis for [[spherical trigonometry]] that would later be mastered by the astronomer and engineer [[Guo Shoujing]] (1231–1316).<ref>Sal Restivo, ''Mathematics in Society and History: Sociological Inquiries'' (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1992, {{ISBN|1-4020-0039-1}}), pp 32.</ref><ref>Nathan Sivin, ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections.'' (Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 21, 27, & 34.</ref><ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 1, Physics'' (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 98 & 252.</ref><ref name="hsu">Hsu, Mei-ling. "Chinese Marine Cartography: Sea Charts of Pre-Modern China," ''Imago Mundi'' (Volume 40, 1988): 96–112.</ref><ref>Jacques Gernet, ''A History of Chinese Civilization'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996, {{ISBN|0-521-49781-7}}), pp. 335.</ref><ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 1: Paper and Printing'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd, 1986), pp 201.</ref><ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1017/S0022050700061842|title=Markets, Technology, and the Structure of Enterprise in the Development of the Eleventh-Century Chinese Iron and Steel Industry|journal=The Journal of Economic History|volume=26|pages=29–58|year=1966|last1=Hartwell|first1=Robert|s2cid=154556274 }}</ref> While using a sighting tube of improved width to correct the position of the [[pole star]] (which had shifted over the centuries), Shen discovered the concept of [[true north]] and [[magnetic declination]] towards the [[North Magnetic Pole]], a concept which would aid navigators in the years to come.<ref>Nathan Sivin, ''Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections.'' (Brookfield, Vermont: VARIORUM, Ashgate Publishing, 1995), Chapter III, pp. 22.</ref><ref>Peter Mohn, ''Magnetism in the Solid State: An Introduction'' (New York: Springer-Verlag Inc., 2003, {{ISBN|3-540-43183-7}}), pp. 1.</ref>

In addition to the method similar to the Bessemer process mentioned above, there were other notable advancements in Chinese metallurgy during the Middle Ages. During the 11th century, the growth of the iron industry caused vast [[deforestation]] due to the use of [[charcoal]] in the smelting process.<ref name="wagner">Wagner, Donald B. "The Administration of the Iron Industry in Eleventh-Century China," Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient (Volume 44 2001): 175–197.</ref><ref name="ebrey walthall palais 158">Patricia B. Ebrey, Anne Walthall, and James B. Palais, ''East Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2006, {{ISBN|0-618-13384-4}}), pp. 158.</ref> To remedy the problem of deforestation, the Song Chinese discovered how to produce [[Coke (fuel)|coke]] from [[bituminous coal]] as a substitute for charcoal.<ref name="wagner"/><ref name="ebrey walthall palais 158"/> Although hydraulic-powered [[bellows]] for heating the [[blast furnace]] had been written of since [[Du Shi]]'s (d. 38) invention of the 1st century CE, the first known drawn and printed illustration of it in operation is found in a book written in 1313 by [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]] (fl. 1290–1333).<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 2, Mechanical Engineering'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 376.</ref>

===Mathematics===
{{main|Chinese mathematics}}
[[Qin Jiushao]] (c. 1202–1261) was the first to introduce the [[0 (number)|zero symbol]] into Chinese mathematics.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 43.</ref> Before this innovation, blank spaces were used instead of zeros in the system of [[counting rods]].<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 62–63.</ref> [[Pascal's triangle]] was first illustrated in China by Yang Hui in his book ''Xiangjie Jiuzhang Suanfa'' (详解九章算法), although it was described earlier around 1100 by [[Jia Xian]].<ref>Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 134–137.</ref> Although the ''Introduction to Computational Studies'' (算学启蒙) written by [[Zhu Shijie]] (fl. 13th century) in 1299 contained nothing new in Chinese [[algebra]], it had a great impact on the development of [[Japanese mathematics]].<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986) pp. 46.</ref>

===Alchemy and Taoism===
[[File:てつはう（震天雷）.JPG|thumb|Stoneware bombs, known in Japanese as ''Tetsuhau'' (iron bomb), or in Chinese as ''Zhentianlei'' ([[thunder crash bomb]]), excavated from the Takashima shipwreck, October 2011. Excavated bombs contain a {{Convert|3-6|cm|abbr=on}} opening at the top where the fuse was placed. Once the fuse was lit, the bomb was thrown either by hand or catapult. According to the ''Mōko Shūrai Ekotoba'' scroll, these bombs made a large noise and emitted bright fire upon explosion. Prior to the shipwreck's discovery, observers believed the bombs depicted in the scroll were a later addition.]]
{{Main|Chinese alchemy}}

In their pursuit for an [[elixir of life]] and desire to create gold from various mixtures of materials, [[Taoism|Taoist]]s became heavily associated with [[alchemy]].<ref name="fairbank 81">John King Fairbank and Merle Goldman, ''China: A New History'' (Cambridge: MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2nd ed., 2006, {{ISBN|0-674-01828-1}}), pp. 81.</ref> [[Joseph Needham]] labeled their pursuits as proto-scientific rather than merely [[pseudoscience]].<ref name="fairbank 81"/> Fairbank and Goldman write that the futile experiments of [[Chinese alchemy|Chinese alchemists]] did lead to the discovery of new metal [[alloy]]s, [[porcelain]] types, and [[dye]]s.<ref name="fairbank 81"/> However, [[Nathan Sivin]] discounts such a close connection between Taoism and [[alchemy]], which some [[Sinology|sinologists]] have asserted, stating that alchemy was more prevalent in the secular sphere and practiced by laymen.<ref>Nathan Sivin, [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsivin/7tao.html "Taoism and Science" in ''Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in Ancient China''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080623085807/http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsivin/7tao.html |date=2008-06-23 }} (Variorum, 1995). Retrieved on 2008-08-13.</ref>

Experimentation with various materials and ingredients in China during the middle period led to the discovery of many ointments, creams, and other mixtures with practical uses. In a 9th-century Arab work ''Kitāb al-Khawāss al Kabīr'', there are numerous products listed that were native to China, including waterproof and dust-repelling cream or varnish for clothes and weapons, a [[Lacquerware|Chinese lacquer]], varnish, or cream that protected leather items, a completely fire-proof cement for glass and porcelain, recipes for [[Indian ink|Chinese and Indian ink]], a waterproof cream for the silk garments of underwater divers, and a cream specifically used for polishing mirrors.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 4, Spagyrical Discovery and Invention: Apparatus, Theories and Gifts'' (Taipei: Caves Books Ltd., 1986), pp. 452.</ref>

===Gunpowder warfare===
The significant change that distinguished [[Medieval warfare]] to [[early Modern warfare]] was the use of [[gunpowder]] weaponry in battle. [[:Image:FireLanceAndGrenade10thCenturyDunhuang.jpg|A 10th-century silken banner]] from [[Dunhuang]] portrays the first artistic depiction of a [[fire lance]], a prototype of the gun.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 220–262.</ref> The ''[[Wujing Zongyao]]'' military manuscript of 1044 listed the first known written formulas for gunpowder, meant for light-weight bombs lobbed from catapults or thrown down from defenders behind city walls.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 70–73 & 117–124.</ref> By the 13th century, the iron-cased bomb shell, [[hand cannon]], [[land mine]], and [[rocket]] were developed.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 173–174, 192, 290, & 477.</ref><ref>Alfred W. Crosby, ''Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002, {{ISBN|0-521-79158-8}}), pp. 100–103.</ref> As evidenced by the ''[[Huolongjing]]'' of [[Jiao Yu]] and [[Liu Bowen]], by the 14th century the Chinese had developed the heavy [[cannon]], hollow and gunpowder-packed [[round shot|exploding cannonballs]], the [[multistage rocket|two-stage rocket]] with a [[booster rocket]], the [[naval mine]] and [[wheellock]] mechanism to ignite trains of fuses.<ref>Joseph Needham, ''Science and Civilization in China: Volume 5, Chemistry and Chemical Technology, Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic'' (Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd., 1986), pp. 203–205, 264, 508.</ref><ref>John Norris, ''Early Gunpowder Artillery: 1300–1600'' (Marlborough: The Crowood Press, Ltd., 2003), pp. 11.</ref>

== Jesuit activity in China ==
[[File:Jesuites en chine.jpg|thumb|[[Jesuit]]s in China]]

The [[Jesuit China missions]] of the 16th and 17th centuries introduced Western science and astronomy, then undergoing its own revolution, to China. One modern historian writes that in late Ming courts, the Jesuits were "regarded as impressive especially for their knowledge of astronomy, calendar-making, mathematics, hydraulics, and geography."<ref>Patricia Buckley Ebrey, p. 212.</ref> The [[Society of Jesus]] introduced, according to [[Thomas Woods]], "a substantial body of scientific knowledge and a vast array of mental tools for understanding the physical universe, including the Euclidean geometry that made planetary motion comprehensible."<ref name="Thomas Woods 2005"/> Another expert quoted by Woods said the scientific revolution brought by the Jesuits coincided with a time when science was at a very low level in China:
{{blockquote|[The Jesuits] made efforts to translate western mathematical and astronomical works into Chinese and aroused the interest of Chinese scholars in these sciences. They made very extensive astronomical observation and carried out the first modern cartographic work in China. They also learned to appreciate the scientific achievements of this ancient culture and made them known in Europe. Through their correspondence European scientists first learned about the Chinese science and culture.|<ref name="Udias" />}} Johann Adam Schall published Yuan Jing Shuo, Explanation of the Telescope, in 1626, in Latin and Chinese. Schall's book referred to the telescopic observations of Galileo.<ref>link.springer.com/article/10.107/s 00016-020-00254-0</ref><ref>wdl.org/en/item/11434/</ref>

Conversely, the Jesuits were very active in transmitting Chinese knowledge to Europe. [[Confucius]]'s works were translated into European languages through the agency of Jesuit scholars stationed in China. [[Matteo Ricci]] started to report on the thoughts of Confucius, and Father Prospero Intorcetta published the life and works of Confucius into [[Latin]] in 1687.<ref>"Windows into China", John Parker, p. 25.</ref> It is thought that such works had considerable importance on European thinkers of the period, particularly among the [[Deists]] and other philosophical groups of the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] who were interested by the integration of the system of morality of Confucius into [[Christianity]].<ref>"Windows into China", John Parker, p. 25, {{ISBN|0-89073-050-4}}</ref><ref>"The Eastern origins of Western civilization", John Hobson, p. 194-195, {{ISBN|0-521-54724-5}}</ref>

The followers of the French [[physiocrat]] [[François Quesnay]] habitually referred to him as "the Confucius of Europe", and he personally identified himself with the Chinese sage.<ref>Rothbard, p 366</ref> The doctrine and even the name of "[[Laissez-faire]]" may have been inspired by the Chinese concept of [[Wu wei]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHNPDF/WorkingPaper12CG.pdf|title=Department of Economic History|first=London School of Economics and Political|last=Science|website=lse.ac.uk}}</ref><ref>"The Eastern Origins of Western Civilization", John M. Hobson, p. 196</ref> However, the economic insights of ancient Chinese political thought had otherwise little impact outside China in later centuries.<ref>Rothbard, p 23</ref> [[Goethe]], was known as "the Confucius of [[Weimar]]".<ref>{{cite journal| year = 1993| title = Confucius (K'ung Tzu) | journal = Prospects: The Quarterly Review of Comparative Education| volume = XXIII | issue = 1/2 | pages = 211–19 | url = http://www.ibe.unesco.org/publications/ThinkersPdf/confucie.PDF| doi=10.1007/bf02195036| last1 = Huanyin | first1 = Yang | s2cid = 147505060 }}</ref>

== Scientific and technological stagnation ==
{{further|Great Divergence}}

One question that has been the subject of debate among historians has been why China did not develop a [[Scientific Revolution]] and why Chinese technology fell behind that of Europe. Many hypotheses have been proposed ranging from the cultural to the political and economic. [[John K. Fairbank]], for example, argued that the Chinese political system was hostile to scientific progress. As for Needham, he wrote that cultural factors prevented traditional Chinese achievements from developing into what could be called "science." It was the religious and philosophical framework of the Chinese intellectuals which made them unable to believe in the ideas of laws of nature:
{{blockquote
 | It was not that there was no order in nature for the Chinese, but rather that it was not an order ordained by a rational personal being, and hence there was no conviction that rational personal beings would be able to spell out in their lesser earthly languages the divine code of laws which he had decreed aforetime. The [[Taoists]], indeed, would have scorned such an idea as being too naïve for the subtlety and complexity of the universe as they intuited it.
 |<ref>{{harvnb|Needham|Wang|1954}}, p. 581.</ref>
}}

Another prominent historian of science, [[Nathan Sivin]], has argued that China did indeed experience a Scientific Revolution in the 17th century; however, it must be understood in the context of its time and culture, rather than through a [[Western culture|Western lens]] as an analog of Europe's revolution.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Sivin |first=Nathan |date=March 1985 |title=Why the scientific revolution did not take place in China — or did it? |journal=The Environmentalist |language=en |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=39–50 |doi=10.1007/BF02239866 |bibcode=1985ThEnv...5...39S |issn=0251-1088}}</ref>

There are also questions about the philosophy behind traditional Chinese medicine, which, derived partly from Taoist philosophy, reflects the classical Chinese belief that individual human experiences express causative principles effective in the environment at all scales. Because its theory predates use of the [[scientific method]], it has received various criticisms based on scientific thinking. Philosopher [[Robert Todd Carroll]], a member of [[The Skeptics Society]], deemed acupuncture a [[pseudoscience]] because it "confuse(s) metaphysical claims with empirical claims".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://skepdic.com/pseudosc.html|title=pseudoscience - The Skeptic's Dictionary - Skepdic.com|website=skepdic.com}}</ref>

In his 1997 book ''[[Guns, Germs, and Steel]]'', [[Jared Diamond]] postulates that the lack of geographic barriers within much of China{{mdash}}essentially a wide plain with two large navigable rivers and a relatively smooth coastline{{mdash}}led to a single government without competition.  At the whim of a ruler who disliked new inventions, technology could be stifled for half a century or more.  In contrast, Europe's barriers of the Pyrenees, the Alps, and the various defensible peninsulas (Denmark, Scandinavia, Italy, Greece, etc.) and islands (Britain, Ireland, Sicily, etc.) led to smaller countries in constant competition with each other.  If a ruler chose to ignore a scientific advancement (especially a military or economic one), his more-advanced neighbors would soon usurp his throne. This explanation, however, ignores the fact that [[Warring States period|China had been]] [[Six Dynasties|politically fragmented]] [[Southern Song#Southern Song, 1127–1279|in the past]], and was thus not inherently disposed to political unification.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blaut |first=James M. |date=1999-07-01 |title=Environmentalism and Eurocentrism |journal=[[Geographical Review]] |language=en |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=391–408 |doi=10.1111/j.1931-0846.1999.tb00225.x |bibcode=1999GeoRv..89..391B |issn=0016-7428}}</ref>

[[Justin Yifu Lin]] argued for the role of the [[Imperial examination|imperial examination system]] in removing the incentives for Chinese intellectuals to learn mathematics or to conduct experimentation.<ref name="Lin2011">{{Cite book |last=Lin|first=Justin Yifu|author-link=Justin Yifu Lin|title=Demystifying the Chinese Economy|date=27 October 2011|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-19180-7|edition=1|doi=10.1017/cbo9781139026666}}</ref> [[Yasheng Huang]] argued that the imperial examination system monopolized the most capable intellectuals in service of the state, sustained the propagation of Confucianism, and preempted the emergence of ideas that could challenge it.<ref name=":022">{{Cite book |last=Huang|first=Yasheng|author-link=Yasheng Huang|title=The Rise and Fall of the EAST: How Exams, Autocracy, Stability, and Technology Brought China Success, and Why They Might Lead to Its Decline|date=29 August 2023|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-27491-2|doi=10.2307/jj.5666732|jstor=jj.5666732}}</ref>

== Qing era China ==
After China's defeat in the [[Second Opium War]] (1856-1860), the [[Self-Strengthening Movement|self-strengthening movement]] developed.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=35}} The movement established arsenals, shipyards, and other facilities in China, and these places became places where China was exposed to foreign scientific knowledge and foreign engineering.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=35}} The self-strengthening movement also contributed to the creation of state-supported enterprises to develop new economic sectors.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=36}} The movement's view of science and technology was expressed through the slogan, "Chinese studies as fundamental, Western learning as useful."<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=35}}

An increasing number of reformers in the last two decades of the nineteenth century called for China to adopt Western technologies and to develop [[Coal in China|coal]] mines, railways, and telegraph.<ref name=":12">{{Cite book |last=Wu|first=Albert|title=Uncanny Beliefs: Superstition in Modern Chinese History|date=2026|publisher=[[Harvard University Asia Center]]|isbn=978-0-674-30340-9|editor-last=Baum|editor-first=Emily|series=Harvard Contemporary China series|location=Cambridge (Massachusetts) London|chapter="Superstitious Beyond All Expression": Superstition, China, and the Age of Empire, 1860-1900|editor-last2=Wu|editor-first2=Albert}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=64}}

Japan's defeat of China in the [[First Sino-Japanese War]] led to a widespread perception in China that Japan had surpassed it in science and technology.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=36}}

== The Republic of China (1912–1949) ==
The [[Republic of China (1912–1949)]] saw the introduction in earnest of modern science to China. Large numbers of Chinese students studied abroad in Japan and in Europe and the US. Many returned to help teach and to found numerous schools and universities. Among them were numerous outstanding figures, including [[Cai Yuanpei]], [[Hu Shih]], [[Weng Wenhao]], [[Ding Wenjiang]], [[Fu Ssu-nien]], and many others. As a result, there was a tremendous growth of modern science in China. As the Communist Party took over China's mainland in 1949, some of these Chinese scientists and institutions moved to Taiwan. The central science academy, [[Academia Sinica]], also moved there.{{cn|date=September 2026}}

Participants in the [[May Fourth Movement]] of 1919 advocated that science (nicknamed, "Mr. Science"), along with Democracy ("Mr. Democracy") could save China.<ref name=":152">{{Cite book |last=Zhong |first=Yang |url=https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/vx021h696 |title=China as Number One? The Emerging Values of a Rising Power |date=2024 |publisher=[[University of Michigan Press]] |isbn=978-0-472-07635-2 |editor-last=Zhong |editor-first=Yang |series=China Understandings Today series |location=Ann Arbor, Michigan |chapter=Attitudes Toward Religion, Science, and Technology in China |format=EPUB |editor-last2=Inglehart |editor-first2=Ronald }}</ref>{{Rp|page=356}} Belief in the idea of "saving China through science" (''kexue jiuguo'') increased during the ROC period.<ref name=":152" />{{Rp|page=356}}

[[1st National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party|Founded]] in 1921, the [[Chinese Communist Party]] (CCP) reflected the May Fourth Movement's high regard for science, as many of its early leaders (including [[Chen Duxiu]], its first general secretary) had been active in the movement.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=37}} In the [[Yan'an Soviet|Yan'an]] era, it further embraced science as part of its drive for self-sufficiency and local industrialization to overcome economic blockade from the Nationalists.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=38}} In 1939, the [[CCP Central Committee]] established a scientific research institute in Yan'an, which became the Yan'an Academy of Natural Sciences in 1940.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=38}} In 1940, the Natural Science Research Society was founded in Yan'an; CCP leadership emphasized its importance, stating that "economic work and technical work are an indispensable part of revolutionary work."<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=39}}

== People's Republic of China ==
{{main|History of science and technology in the People's Republic of China}}

{{see also|Science and technology in the People's Republic of China}}

After the [[Proclamation of the People's Republic of China|establishment]] of the People's Republic in 1949, China reorganized its science establishment along [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] lines. The Soviet approach to science and technology was highly centralized, with the [[Academy of Sciences of the Soviet Union|Academy of Sciences if the Soviet Union]] and several industrial [[Ministries of the Soviet Union|ministries]], and emphasized [[applied science]] (which could be more readily applied to economic production) more than [[Basic research|basic science]].<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=40}}

China began a formal computing development program in 1956 when it launched the Twelve-Year Science Plan and formed the Beijing Institute of Computing Technology under the [[Chinese Academy of Sciences]] (CAS).<ref name=":Mullaney2">{{Cite book |last=Mullaney |first=Thomas S. |title=The Chinese Computer: a Global History of the Information Age |date=2024 |publisher=[[The MIT Press]] |isbn=978-0-262-04751-7 |location=Cambridge, MA}}</ref>{{Rp|page=100}} In 1958, China completed its first [[vacuum-tube computer]].<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|page=100}} Over the next several years, Chinese researchers expanded on these efforts with extrapolation from Soviet models.<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|pages=100–101}}

Following the [[Sino-Soviet split]], China continued to develop domestic computing and electronic institutions, including the Beijing Institute of Electronics in 1963.<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|page=101}}

Beginning in 1964, the PRC through the [[Third Front (China)|Third Front]] construction built an industrial base in its hinterlands for [[strategic depth]] in the event of war with the Soviet Union or the United States.<ref name=":03">{{Cite book |last=Meyskens |first=Covell F. |url= |title=Mao's Third Front: The Militarization of Cold War China |date=2020 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-108-78478-8 |location=Cambridge, United Kingdom |doi=10.1017/9781108784788 |oclc=1145096137 |s2cid=218936313}}</ref>{{Rp|page=1}} The Third Front construction was primarily carried out in secret, with the location for Third Front projects following the principle of "close to the mountains, dispersed, and hidden".<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last1=Marquis |first1=Christopher |url= |title=Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise |last2=Qiao |first2=Kunyuan |date=2022 |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |isbn=978-0-300-26883-6 |location=New Haven |doi=10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k |jstor=j.ctv3006z6k |oclc=1348572572 |s2cid=253067190}}</ref>{{Rp|page=179}} From 1964 to 1974, China invested more than 40% of its industrial capacity in Third Front regions.<ref name=":6223">{{Cite book |last=Lan |first=Xiaohuan |title=How China Works: An Introduction to China's State-led Economic Development |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-981-97-0079-0 |translator-last=Topp |translator-first=Gary |doi=10.1007/978-981-97-0080-6}}</ref>{{Rp|pages=297–298}} After [[1972 visit by Richard Nixon to China|Nixon's China trip]] in 1972, investment to the Third Front region gradually declined.<ref name=":03" />{{Rp|pages=225–229}} Rapprochement between the United States and China decreased the fear of invasion which motivated the Third Front construction.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=180}} Through its distribution of infrastructure, industry, and human capital around the country, the Third Front created favorable conditions for subsequent market development and private enterprise.<ref name=":9" />{{Rp|page=177}}

In 1964, CAS debuted China's first self-developed large [[Computer|digital computer]], the 119.<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|page=101}} The 119 was a core technology in facilitating China's first successful nuclear weapon test ([[Project 596]]), also in 1964.<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|page=101}}

In 1966, China transitioned from vacuum-tube computers to fully [[Transistor computer|transistorized computers]].<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|page=101}} In the mid-1960s through the late 1960s, China began a [[Semiconductor industry in China|semiconductor]] program and was producing [[Third generation computer|third-generation computers]] by 1972.<ref name=":Mullaney2" />{{Rp|page=101}}

From 1975, science and technology was one of the [[Four Modernizations]], and its high-speed development was declared essential to all national economic development by [[Deng Xiaoping]].  Other civilian technologies such as superconductivity and high-yield hybrid rice led to new developments due to the application of science to industry and foreign [[technology transfer]].{{cn|date=September 2026}}

[[Hua Guofeng]] sought to invigorate China's science and technology institutions, which the Cultural Revolution had disrupted.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=71}} In March 1978, he convened a national science conference.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=71}} Hua told the conference attendees that the most powerful base for modernizing science and technology in China was "the masses of the people in their hundreds of millions"; simultaneously, "we must also make vigorous efforts to expand our ranks of professional scientists and technicians ... it is necessary to raise the level of the professionals and train large numbers of scientists and technicians who are top notch by world standards."<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=71}}In Deng's speech to speech to the National Science Conference in March 1978, he stated:

: "The key to the [[Four Modernizations]] is the modernization of science and technology. Without modern science and technology, it is impossible to build modern agriculture, modern industry, or modern national defense."<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=71}}

Deng Xiaoping also stated that science was a [[Productive forces|productive force]] and that scientists were workers.<ref name=":Minami" />{{Rp|page=83}} In stated in his speech at the conference that "Mental workers who serve socialism are part of the working people."<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=71}} "A correct understanding of these two facts is essential to the rapid development of our scientific enterprises."<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=71}} These statements had a significant impact in lifting the [[Social structure of China|class]] stigma associated with intellectuals since 1949.<ref name=":Minami" />{{Rp|page=83}} The idea that scientists should be [[Both red and expert|both "red and expert"]] fell out of favor.<ref name=":Minami" />{{Rp|page=83}}

China began to develop its national laboratories in 1983, with the first being the National Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory at China University of Science and Technology in Hefei.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|pages=81-82}} National laboratories were intended to be flagship facilities with the newest technology.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=82}}

In 1984, China began its state key laboratory program.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=82}} These laboratories were an instrument for focusing investment and raising the level of basic research in China at a time when resources were limited and distributed unevenly across the country.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=82}}

In March 1986, China launched a large-scale technology development plan, the [[863 Program|863 Project]].<ref name=":Minami">{{Cite book |last=Minami |first=Kazushi |title=People's Diplomacy: How Americans and Chinese Transformed US-China Relations during the Cold War |date=2024 |publisher=[[Cornell University Press]] |isbn=978-1-5017-7415-7 |location=Ithaca, NY}}</ref>{{Rp|page=88}}

In 1986, the [[National Natural Science Foundation of China|National Natural Sciences Foundation of China]] was established.<ref name=":63" />{{Reference page|page=96}}

In 2006, China established the Medium to Long-Term Plan for the Development of Science and Technology.<ref name=":04">{{Cite book |last=Borst |first=Nicholas |title=The Bird and the Cage: China's Economic Contradictions |date=2025 |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |isbn=978-981-96-3996-0 |location=Singapore}}</ref>{{Reference page|page=51}} Prior national science and technology plans like the 863 Program and the 973 Project had promoted [[Basic research|basic scientific research]] whereas the Medium to Long-Term Plan focused on promoting seven industries deemed strategically significant.<ref name=":04" />{{Reference page|page=51}}

In 2014, the [[China Integrated Circuit Industry Investment Fund]] was established in an effort to reduce dependence on foreign [[semiconductor]] companies.<ref name=":Zhang">{{Cite book |last=Zhang |first=Angela Huyue |title=High Wire: How China Regulates Big Tech and Governs Its Economy |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |year=2024 |isbn=978-0-19-768225-8 |doi=10.1093/oso/9780197682258.001.0001}}</ref>{{Rp|page=274}}

In 2016, China became the country with the highest science output, as measured in publications. While the US had been the biggest producer of scientific studies until then, China published 426,000 studies in 2016 while the US published 409,000.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles|last=Tollefson|first=Jeff|journal=Nature |date=2018-01-18|volume=553 |issue=7689 |page=390 |language=EN|doi=10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4|bibcode=2018Natur.553..390T|doi-access=free}}</ref> However, the numbers are somewhat relative, as it also depends how authorship on international collaborations is counted (e.g. if one paper is counted per person or whether authorship is split among authors).<ref name=":0" /> In 2022, China passed both the US and the European Union in the number of high-impact papers published.<ref name=":02">{{Cite news |title=China has become a scientific superpower |url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2024/06/12/china-has-become-a-scientific-superpower |access-date=2024-09-26 |newspaper=The Economist |issn=0013-0613}}</ref> As of 2024, the [[Nature Index]] ranks seven Chinese universities or institutions in the global top ten for volume of research output.<ref name=":02" /> The [[CWTS Leiden Ranking|Leiden Ranking]] rates six in the global top ten.<ref name=":02" />

== See also ==
{{Portal|China|History|Science|Technology}}
* [[Chinese astronomy]]
* [[Chinese mathematics]]
* [[History of Chinese archaeology]]
* [[List of Chinese discoveries]]
* [[List of Chinese inventions]]
* [[List of inventions and discoveries of Neolithic China]]
* [[Military history of China]]
* [[History of canals in China]]
* [[History of the Chinese space program]]
* ''[[Science and Civilization in China]]''
* [[Traditional Chinese medicine]]
* [[Two Bombs, One Satellite]]
* ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]''
* ''[[Chinese Annals of History of Science and Technology]]''

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist|2}}

=== Sources ===
* Patricia Buckley Ebrey, ''The Cambridge Illustrated History of China''. Cambridge, New York and Melbourne: Cambridge University Press, 1996. {{ISBN|0-521-43519-6}}.
* {{cite|first=Benjamin A. |last=Elman|author-link=Benjamin A. Elman|title= On Their Own Terms: Science in China, 1550-1900 |place=Cambridge, MA|publisher= Harvard University Press|year=2005}}

* {{cite|first=Benjamin A. |last= Elman |author-mask=4|title= A Cultural History of Modern Science in China |place= Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |series=New Histories of Science, Technology, and Medicine |year= 2006 |isbn=9780674023062}}
* {{cite|first=Mark |last=Elvin |author-link=Mark Elvin|article=The high-level equilibrium trap: the causes of the decline of invention in the traditional Chinese textile industries|editor=W. E. Willmott |title= Economic Organization in Chinese Society |place=Stanford, CA |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1972 |article-url= http://www-personal.umd.umich.edu/~delittle/elvin.pdf }}pp.&nbsp;137–172.
* {{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Jack |title=Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, & Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World |publisher=Basic Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-465-03718-6 |url=https://archive.org/details/gunpowderalchemy00jack }}
* Li Shu-hua, "Origine de la Boussole 11. Aimant et Boussole," (Origin of the compass and magnnet) ''Isis'', Vol. 45, No. 2. (Jul., 1954)

* {{cite book |last = Liang |first = Jieming |title=Chinese Siege Warfare: Mechanical Artillery & Siege Weapons of Antiquity |publisher= Leong Kit Meng |year=2006 |isbn = 978-981-05-5380-7 |location= Singapore, Republic of Singapore}}
* {{Cite book |year=1954 |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph| last2=Wang |first2=Ling (王玲)|author1-link=Joseph Needham |author2-link=Wang Ling (historian) |title=Science and Civilisation in China |publisher=Cambridge University Press|volume=1 ''Introductory Orientations''|title-link=Science and Civilisation in China }}
* {{Cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |author-link=Joseph Needham |orig-date=1956 |date=1996 |title=Science and Civilisation in China |volume=2: History of Scientific Thought |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn = 978-0-521-05800-1 |page=697 |title-link=Science and Civilisation in China }}
* [[Joseph Needham]] (1986). ''[[Science and Civilization in China]]'', Volume '''4, Part 2''': ''Mechanical Engineering''. Taipei: Caves Books Pty. Ltd.
* {{Cite book |year=2004 |last1=Needham |first1=Joseph |last2=Robinson |first2=Kenneth G.| last3=Huang |first3=Jen-Yü |author1-link=Joseph Needham |title=Science and Civilisation in China |publisher=Cambridge University Press |volume=7, part II: General Conclusions and Reflections |title-link=Science and Civilisation in China }}
* {{Cite book | first=Murray N. | last=Rothbard |author-link=Murray Rothbard |title=Economic thought before Adam Smith: An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought |publisher=Edward Elgar |location=Cheltnam, UK |year = 2006 |isbn = 978-0-945466-48-2 | title-link=An Austrian Perspective on the History of Economic Thought }}
* Robert K. G. Temple, Introduction by Joseph Needham, ''The Genius of China: 3,000 Years of Science, Discovery, and Invention'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986; Rochster, Vt., Inner Traditions, 2007; slightly revised. Taken from Needham's ''Science and Civilisation'', but does not update or correct material that can now be more than fifty years old.
* Stephen Turnbull, ''The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324–1453'', [[Osprey Publishing]], {{ISBN|1-84176-759-X}}
* Agustín Udías, ''Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories'' (Dordrecht, The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003)
* Shelagh Vainker in Anne Farrer (ed), "Caves of the Thousand Buddhas", 1990, British Museum publications, {{ISBN|0-7141-1447-2}}
* Sivin, Nathan. "Science and Medicine in Imperial China--the state of the field." ''Journal of Asian Studies'' (1988): 41–90. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2056359 online]
* Sivin, Nathan. 2005. "A Multi-dimensional Approach to Research on Ancient Science". East Asian Science, Technology, and Medicine, no. 23. Temporary Publisher: 10–25. {{JSTOR|43150669}}.
* [[Thomas Woods]], ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'', (Washington, DC: Regenery, 2005), {{ISBN|0-89526-038-7}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|History of technology in China}}
*[http://www.ihns.ac.cn/ Institute for the History of Natural Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090912192814/http://www.cshst.org.cn/ Chinese Society for the History of Science and Technology]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20120504201846/http://www.uisp.org.cn/ Popular Science Alliance Network, Internet Society of China]
*[http://www.cast.org.cn/ China Association for Science and Technology]
*[http://www.ciapst.org/ China International Association for Promotion of Science and Technology (CIAPST)]
*[http://www.kepu.gov.cn/ China Popular Science Network]
*[http://www.crsp.org.cn/ China Research Institute for Science Popularization]
*[http://www.cacsi.org.cn/ China Association of Children's Science Instructors]
*[https://www.chinayearbooks.com/china-statistical-yearbook-on-science-and-technology.html China Statistical Yearbook on Science and Technology 1991–2015]

{{S&T in China}}
{{History of science}}
{{History of technology}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:History Of Science And Technology In China}}
[[Category:History of science and technology in China| ]]
[[Category:Chinese inventions|*]]