{{Short description|Philosophical traditions of Hinduism and the Vedas}}
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{{EngvarB|date=March 2015}} 
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2021}}
{{Hindu philosophy}}
{{Philosophy sidebar|expanded=Traditions}}
'''Hindu philosophy''' or '''Vedic philosophy''' is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first [[Hinduism|Hindu religious traditions]] during the [[Iron Age in India|iron]] and [[Classical India|classical ages]] of India. In [[Indian philosophy]], of which Hindu philosophy is a prominent subset, the word used for philosophy is '''''[[Darshana]]''''' ([[Sanskrit]]: दर्शन, [[International Alphabet of Sanskrit Transliteration|IAST]]: ''darśana''; meaning: "viewpoint or perspective"), from the Sanskrit root 'दृश' ({{Lang|sa-latn|drish}}) meaning 'to see, to experience'.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Philosophy/What-does-DARSHANA-mean-1.aspx |title=Meaning of word Darshana |access-date=19 March 2020 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919154926/https://esamskriti.com/e/Spirituality/Philosophy/What-does-DARSHANA-mean-1.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref>

The schools of thought or ''Darshanas'' within Hindu philosophy largely equate to the six orthodox schools: the ''[[Āstika and nāstika|āstika]]'' (Sanskrit: आस्तिक) schools, defined by their acceptance of the [[Vedas]], the oldest collection of [[Sanskrit literature|Sanskrit texts]], as an authoritative source of knowledge.<ref name="KK26" />{{refn|group=note|M Chadha (2015), in The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion, states that Vedas were knowledge source but interpreted differently by different schools of Hindu philosophy: "The sacred texts of the Hindus, the Vedas, are variously interpreted by the six traditional Hindu philosophical schools. Even within a single school, philosophers disagree on the import of Vedic statements. (...) Hindu intellectual traditions must be understood as standing for the collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection. There is no single, comprehensive philosophical doctrine shared by all intellectual traditions in [[Hinduism]] that distinguishes their view from other Indian religions such as [[Buddhism]] or [[Jainism]] on issues of epistemology, metaphysics, logic, ethics or cosmology. The Vedas are regarded as Apauruseya, but, by the same token, they are not the Word of God either.<ref>M Chadha (2015), The Routledge Handbook of Contemporary Philosophy of Religion (Editor: Graham Oppy), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1844658312}}, pages 127–128</ref>}}{{refn|group=note|Elisa Freschi (2012): The Vedas are not [[Deontological ethics|deontic]] authorities in absolute sense and may be disobeyed, but are recognized as an [[epistemology|epistemic]] authority by an orthodox school of Hindu philosophy;<ref>Elisa Freschi (2012), Duty, Language and Exegesis in Prabhakara Mimamsa, BRILL, {{ISBN|978-9004222601}}, page 62</ref> (Note: This differentiation between epistemic and deontic authority is true for all Indian religions)}} Of these six, [[Samkhya]] (सांख्य) is the earliest school of [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]]; [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] (योग) combines the [[metaphysics]] of Samkhya with meditation and breath techniques; [[Nyaya]] (न्याय) is a school of logic emphasising [[Direct and indirect realism|direct realism]]; [[Vaisheshika]] (वैषेशिक) is an offshoot of Nyaya concerned with [[atomism]] and [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]]; [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]] (मीमांसा) is a school justifying ritual, faith, and religious obligations; and [[Vedanta]] (वेदान्त) contains various traditions that mostly embrace [[nondualism]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Grayling|first=A. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bDJwDwAAQBAJ|title=The History of Philosophy|date=2019-06-20|publisher=Penguin UK|isbn=978-0-241-98086-6|page=521-9|language=en}}</ref>{{Sfn|Nicholson|2013|pp=2-5}}<ref name=klaussaiva>Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-0889201583}}, pages 124–134, 164–173, 242–265</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=132–136, 162–169, 231–232}}<ref>Teun Goudriaan and Sanjukta Gupta (1981), Hindu Tantric and Śākta Literature, A History of Indian Literature, Volume 2, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, {{ISBN|978-3447020916}}, pages 7–14</ref>

The Indian philosophical landscape during the ancient and medieval periods also produced philosophical systems that share many concepts with the āstika traditions, yet at the same time reject or oppose several central Vedic concepts, such as [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Ātman]], or interpret them in their own way.<ref>Analayo (2004), ''Satipaṭṭhāna: The Direct Path to Realization'', {{ISBN|978-1899579549}}, pp. 207-208</ref> These have been called ''{{Lang|sa-latn|nāstika}}'' (heterodox or non-orthodox) philosophies,{{Sfn|Nicholson|2013|pp=2-5}}<ref name="KK26" /> and they include: [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Charvaka]], [[Ājīvika|Ajivika]], and others.<ref name=bilimoriaastika>P Bilimoria (2000), Indian Philosophy (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1135703226}}, page 88</ref> These nāstika schools of thought are thus regarded as Indian but almost never as Hindu. Western scholars have debated the relationship and differences within ''āstika'' philosophies and with the ''nāstika'' philosophies, starting with the writings of [[Indology|Indologists]] and [[Orientalism|Orientalists]] of the 18th and 19th centuries, based on limited availability of Indian literature and medieval [[Doxography|doxographies]].{{Sfn|Nicholson|2013|pp=2-5}} The various sibling traditions included in Indian philosophies are diverse and are united by: shared history and concepts, textual resources, [[Ontology|ontological]] and [[Soteriology|soteriological]] focus, and cosmology.<ref name=frazierintrop2>{{cite book|last1=Frazier|first1=Jessica|title=The Continuum companion to Hindu studies | date=2011|publisher=Continuum|location=London|isbn=978-0-8264-9966-0|pages=1–15}}</ref><ref>Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, {{ISBN|978-0813540689}}, pages 101-119</ref> Some ambiguity arises from the word [[Hindus|''Hindu'']] being an [[Endonym and exonym|exonym]] historically used as a geographical and cultural identifier for people living in the [[Indian subcontinent]], sometimes regardless of their beliefs.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Pennington|first=Brian K.|title=Was Hinduism Invented?: Britons, Indians, and the Colonial Construction of Religion|year=2005|isbn=978-0-19-803729-3|location=Oxford university press|pages=111–118}}</ref><ref>R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design. Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164–165, '''Quote''': "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..."</ref><ref name="KN Tiwari 1998 page 67">KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 67; '''Quote''': "Of the three heterodox systems, the remaining one, the Cārvāka system, is a Hindu system.";</ref><ref>V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the Samkhya, there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x}}<br />Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, {{ISBN|978-1591022992}}, page 84;<br />For a general discussion of Cārvāka and other atheistic traditions within Hindu philosophy, see Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199644650}}, pages 367–378</ref>

Hindu philosophy also includes several sub-schools of theistic philosophies that integrate ideas from two or more of the six orthodox philosophies. Examples of such schools include: [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pāśupata Śaiva]], [[Shaiva Siddhanta|Śaiva siddhānta]], [[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijña]], [[Raseśvara]] and [[Vaishnavism|Vaiṣṇava]].<ref name=klaussaiva/>{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=132–136, 162–169, 231–232}} Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions,<ref name="Klaus K. Klostermaier 1984 pages 219-223">Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-0889201583}}, pages 219–223</ref> which are nevertheless found in the [[Puranas]] and the [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Āgamas]].<ref>Klaus K. Klostermaier (1984), Mythologies and Philosophies of Salvation in the Theistic Traditions of India, Wilfrid Laurier University Press, {{ISBN|978-0889201583}}, pages 28–35</ref><ref>Jayandra Soni (1990), Philosophical Anthropology in Śaiva Siddhānta, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120806320}}, pages vii–xii</ref><ref>Hilko Schomerus and Humphrey Palme (2000), Śaiva Siddhānta: An Indian School of Mystical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120815698}}, pages 13–19</ref> Each school of Hindu philosophy has extensive [[Epistemology|epistemological]] literature called ''[[Pramana]]'',{{sfn|Potter|1991|p=172}}{{sfn|Guttorm Fløistad|1993|p=137-154}} as well as theories on [[metaphysics]], [[axiology]], and other topics.<ref name=karlpotterov>Karl H. Potter (1961), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2050985 A Fresh Classification of India's Philosophical Systems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160414011144/http://www.jstor.org/stable/2050985 |date=14 April 2016 }}, The Journal of Asian Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pages 25–32</ref>

==Classifications==
{{further|Āstika and nāstika}}
In the [[history of India]], the six orthodox schools had emerged before the start of the [[Common Era]], and some schools emerged possibly even before the [[Buddha]].<ref>Students' Britannica India (2000), Volume 4, Encyclopædia Britannica, {{ISBN|978-0852297605}}, page 316</ref> Some scholars have questioned whether the orthodox and heterodox schools classification is sufficient or accurate, given the diversity and evolution of views within each major school of Indian philosophy, with some sub-schools combining heterodox and orthodox views.{{sfn|Potter|1991|p=98-102}}

Indian philosophy has been categorised into {{Lang|sa-latn|āstika}} and {{Lang|sa-latn|nāstika}} schools of thought, though this distinction was not clearly defined until the late medieval period.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=3, 167}} The orthodox schools of Indian philosophy have been called {{Lang|sa-latn|ṣaḍdarśana}} ('six systems'). This schema was created between the 12th and 16th centuries by [[Vedanta|Vedantins]].{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=2-3}} It was then adopted by the early Western [[indology|Indologists]], and pervades modern understandings of Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|pp=4-5}} Satoshi Ogura notes that scholars should keep in mind the tendency of classification of Indic knowledge in Persianate discourses and its legacies in modern writings in both India and the Western world.<ref>Satoshi Ogura (2024), The Ā’īn-i Akbarī and Western Indology: with Special Reference to the Category of the Six Systems of Philosophy, Journal of Asian and African Studies, Supplement, No. 3, 2024: https://tufs.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/2000328/files/jaas-supp003008.pdf</ref>

===Āstika===
There are six {{Lang|sa-latn|āstika}} (orthodox) schools of thought.{{refn|group=note|For an overview of the six orthodox schools, with detail on the grouping of schools, see: Radhakrishnan and Moore, "Contents", and pp. 453–487.}} Each is called a [[darśana]], and each darśana accepts the [[Vedas]] as authority. Each {{Lang|sa-latn|āstika darśana}} also accepts the premise that ''[[atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'' (eternal Self) exists.<ref name="KK26">[[Klaus Klostermaier]] (2007), Hinduism: A Beginner's Guide, {{ISBN|978-1851685387}}, Chapter 2, page 26</ref><ref>John Plott, James Dolin and Russell Hatton (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, pages 60–62</ref> The {{IAST|āstika}} schools of philosophy are:
# [[Samkhya]] – A strongly dualist theoretical exposition of [[Purusha|consciousness]] (''purusha'') and [[Prakṛti|matter]] (''prakriti'').  Agnostic with respect to God or the gods.<ref name=":1" />
# [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] – A monotheistic school which emerged from Samkhya and emphasises practical use of Samkhya theory: [[Dhyana in Hinduism|meditation]], [[Samadhi|contemplation]] and [[Kaivalya|liberation]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
# [[Nyaya]] or [[Indian logic|logic]] – The school of epistemology which explores [[pramana|sources of knowledge]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
# [[Vaisheshika]] – An [[empiricism|empiricist]] school of [[atomism]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}}
# [[Mīmāṃsā]] – An anti-ascetic and anti-mysticist school of [[orthopraxy]].{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} This tradition is also known as Pūrva-Mīmāṁsā because of its focus on the earlier (''pūrva'') [[Vedas|Vedic texts]] dealing with ritual actions, and similarly also known as Karma-Mīmāṁsā due to its focus on ritual action (''[[karma]]'').<ref name="olilpm" />
# [[Vedanta]] – They focus on the last segment of knowledge in the Vedas, or {{Lang|sa-latn|jñānakāṇḍa}} ('section of knowledge'). Vedanta is also referred to as ''Uttara-Mimamsa''. Vedānta came to be the dominant current of [[Hinduism]] in the post-medieval period.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023}} This school considers the [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]], and the [[Bhagavad Gita|Bhagvad Gita]] as authoritative texts.<ref name=":0" />

===Nāstika===
{{see also|Buddhist philosophy|Jain philosophy}}
Schools that do not accept the authority of the Vedas are nāstika philosophies, of which four {{IAST|nāstika}} (heterodox) schools are prominent:<ref name=bilimoriaastika/>
# [[Charvaka]], a materialism school that accepted the existence of free will.<ref name=bhattacarv/><ref name=bronkhorst/>
# [[Ājīvika]], a materialism school that denied the existence of free will.<ref>James Lochtefeld, "Ajivika", The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, Rosen Publishing. {{ISBN|978-0823931798}}, page 22</ref><ref>AL Basham (2009), History and Doctrines of the Ajivikas – a Vanished Indian Religion, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812048}}, Chapter 1</ref>
# [[Buddhism]], a philosophy that denies existence of [[ātman (Buddhism)|ātman]] (Self)<ref>Steven Collins (1994), Religion and Practical Reason (Editors: Frank Reynolds, David Tracy), State Univ of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791422175}}, page 64; '''Quote:''' "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence.";<br />John C. Plott et al. (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Axial Age, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120801585}}, page 63, '''Quote:''' "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism"<br />KN Jayatilleke (2010), Early Buddhist Theory of Knowledge, {{ISBN|978-8120806191}}, pages 246–249, from note 385 onwards;<br />Katie Javanaud (2013), [https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana Is The Buddhist 'No-Self' Doctrine Compatible With Pursuing Nirvana?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913132314/https://philosophynow.org/issues/97/Is_The_Buddhist_No-Self_Doctrine_Compatible_With_Pursuing_Nirvana |date=13 September 2017 }}, Philosophy Now (2013, Subscription Required);</ref> and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of [[Gautama Buddha]].
# [[Jainism]], a philosophy that accepts the existence of the ātman (Self), and is based on the teachings and enlightenment of twenty-four teachers known as [[tirthankara]]s, with [[Rishabha]] as the first and [[Mahavira]] as the twenty-fourth.<ref>Paul Dundas (2002), The Jains, 2nd Edition, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415266055}}, pages 1–19, 40–44</ref>

===Other schools===
Besides the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools, there have existed syncretic sub-schools that have combined ideas and introduced new ones of their own. The medieval scholar [[Madhvacharya|Madhavacharya]], identified by some as [[Vidyaranya]], in his book '[[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha]]', includes [[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha#Chapters|16 philosophical systems]] current as of 14th century. Along with some of the major orthodox and non-orthodox schools and sub-schools, it includes the following sub-schools:
* [[Pashupata Shaivism]], developed by Nakulisa{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=103-111}}
* [[Shaiva Siddhanta]], the theistic Sankhya school{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=112-127}}{{sfn|King|2007|p=45}}
* [[Pratyabhijna|Pratyabhijña]], the recognitive school of [[Kashmir Shaivism]], [[Trika]]{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=128-136}}<ref>Carl Olson, [https://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&dq=Pratyabhij%C3%B1a+%2B+trika&pg=PA237 The Many Colors of Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230513104424/https://books.google.com/books?id=RVWKClYq4TUC&dq=Pratyabhij%C3%B1a+%2B+trika&pg=PA237 |date=13 May 2023 }}, Rutgers University Press, 2007,  page 237</ref>
* [[Raseśvara]], a Shaiva school that advocated the use of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] to reach immortality{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=137-144}}
* The [[Pāṇini|Pāṇinīya]]{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=203-220}}

The above sub-schools introduced their own ideas while adopting concepts from orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy such as realism of the Nyāya, naturalism of Vaiśeṣika, monism and knowledge of Self (Atman) as essential to liberation of Advaita, self-discipline of Yoga, asceticism and elements of theistic ideas.<ref name="klaussaiva"/> Some sub-schools share Tantric ideas with those found in some Buddhist traditions.<ref name="Klaus K. Klostermaier 1984 pages 219-223"/>

==Characteristics==
<div style="overflow:auto">
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="font-size: 85%; text-align: center; width: auto;"
|-
! style="width:12em" | School
! [[Samkhya|Sankhya]]
! [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]]
! [[Nyāya]]
! [[Vaiśeṣika]]
! [[Mīmāṃsā]]
! [[Advaita Vedanta]]<ref name="Vedanta" group="N">Advaita, Vishishtadvaita and Dvaita have evolved from an older [[Vedanta]] school and all of them accept [[Upanishads]] and [[Brahma Sutras]] as standard texts.</ref>
! [[Vishistadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]]<ref name="Vedanta" group="N"/>
! [[Dvaita Vedanta]]<ref name="Vedanta" group="N"/>
![[Shuddhadvaita]]
! [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]]
! [[Akshar Purushottam Upasana|Akshar-Purushottam Darśana]]
! [[Pashupata Shaivism|Pashupata]]
! [[Shaiva Siddhanta]]
! [[Kashmir Shaivism]]
! [[Raseśvara]]
! [[Pāṇini]] [[Darśana]]
|-
! {{rh}} | Classification
| [[rationalism]],<ref name="Mikel Burley 2012 pages 43-46">[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, pages 43–46</ref><ref>Tom Flynn and Richard Dawkins (2007), The New Encyclopedia of Unbelief, Prometheus, {{ISBN|978-1591023913}}, pages 420–421</ref> [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] 
| [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]], [[spiritual practice]]
| [[Philosophical realism|realism]],<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-india/ Nyaya Realism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905091600/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/perception-india/ |date=5 September 2015 }}, in Perceptual Experience and Concepts in Classical Indian Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (2015)</ref> [[logic]], [[analytic philosophy]]
| [[naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]],<ref name="Dale Riepe 1996 pages 227-246">Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, {{ISBN|978-8120812932}}, pages 227–246</ref> [[atomism]]
| [[exegesis]], [[philology]], [[ritual]]ism
| [[non-dualism]], [[pantheism]]
| qualified [[non-dualism]], [[panentheism]]
| [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]], [[theology]]
|pure non-dualism
| simultaneous [[non-dualism]] and [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]]
| qualified [[non-dualism]], [[panentheism]]
| [[theism]], [[spiritual practice]]
| [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]]
| theistic [[non-dualism]], [[idealism]]
| [[alchemy]]
| [[linguistics]], [[philosophy of language]]
|-
! {{rh}} | Philosophers
| [[Kapila]], Iśvarakṛṣṇa, [[Vācaspati Miśra]], Guṇaratna, and [[Samkhya#Literature|more..]]
| [[Patañjali]], [[Yajnavalkya]], [[Vyasa]]<ref group="N">Vyasa wrote a commentary on the Yoga Sutras called Samkhyapravacanabhasya.(Radhankrishnan, Indian Philosophy, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd., 1971 edition, Volume II, p. 344.)</ref>
| [[Aksapada Gautama]], [[Vātsyāyana]], [[Udayana]], [[Jayanta Bhatta]] [[Nyaya#Literature|more..]]
| [[Kanada (philosopher)|Kanada]], Praśastapāda, Śridhara's Nyāyakandalī [[Vaiseshika#Literature of Vaisheshika|more..]]
| [[Jaimini]], [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa]], [[Prabhākara]] [[Mimamsa#Mimamsa texts|more..]]
| [[Gaudapada]], [[Adi Shankara]], [[Madhusudana Saraswati]], [[Vidyaranya]] [[List of teachers of Advaita Vedanta|more..]]
| [[Yamunacharya]], [[Ramanuja]] [[Vishishtadvaita#History|more..]]
| [[Madhvacharya]], [[Jayatirtha]], [[Vyasatirtha]], [[Raghavendra Swami]]
|[[Vallabha]]charya
| [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]], [[Six Goswamis of Vrindavana]], [[Visvanatha Chakravarti]], [[Krishnadasa Kaviraja]], [[Baladeva Vidyabhushana]], [[Rupa Goswami]], [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|more..]]
| [[Bhagwan Swaminarayan]], [[Shastriji Maharaj]], [[Bhadreshdas Swami]]
| Haradattacharya, [[Lakulish]]
| [[Tirumular]], [[Meikandadevar]], [[Appayya Dikshita]], Sadyojyoti, Aghorasiva
| [[Vasugupta]], [[Abhinavagupta]], Jayaratha
| Govinda Bhagavat, Sarvajña Rāmeśvara
| [[Pāṇini]], [[Bhartṛhari]], [[Kātyāyana]]
|-
! {{rh}} | Texts
| [[Samkhyapravachana Sutra]], [[Samkhyakarika]], Sāṁkhya tattvakaumudī [[Samkhya#Literature|more..]]
| [[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali|Yoga Sutras]], [[Yoga Yajnavalkya]], Samkhya pravacana bhasya
| [[Nyāya Sūtras]], Nyāya Bhāṣya, Nyāya Vārttika [[Nyaya#Literature|more..]]
| [[Vaiśeṣika Sūtra]], Padārtha dharma saṁgraha, Daśapadārtha śāstra [[Vaiseshika#Literature of Vaisheshika|more..]]
| [[Purva Mimamsa Sutras]], Mimamsasutra bhāshyam [[Mimamsa#Mimamsa texts|more..]]
| [[Brahma Sutras]], [[Prasthanatrayi]], [[Avadhuta Gita]], [[Ashtavakra Gita]], [[Vidyaranya#Pañcadaśī|Pañcadaśī]] [[Works of Adi Shankara|more..]]
| Siddhitrayam, [[Sri Bhasya]], [[Vedarthasamgraha|Vedartha Sangraha]]
| [[Anu Vyakhyana|AnuVyakhana]], Brahma Sutra Bahshya, [[Sarva-Darsana-Sangraha|Sarva Shāstrārtha Sangraha]], Tattva prakashika, Nyaya Sudha, Nyayamruta, Tarka Tandava, DwaitaDyumani
|[[Vallabha|Brahmasutra Anubhashya]], Tattvartha Dipa Nibandha, Subodhiniji, [[Shodash Granth|Shodasha Grantha]]
| [[Bhagavata Purana]], [[Bhagavad Gita]], [[Sat Sandarbhas]], [[Govinda Bhashya]], [[Chaitanya Charitamrita]],
| [[Bhadreshdas Swami#Swaminarayan Bhashyam|Swaminarayan Bhashyam]], [[Bhadreshdas Swami#Swaminarayan Siddhanta Sudha|Swaminarayan-Siddhanta-Sudha]]
| Gaṇakārikā, Pañchārtha bhāshyadipikā, Rāśikara bhāshya
| [[Āgama (Hinduism)|Sivagamas]], [[Tirumurai]]s, Meikanda Sastras
| [[Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta]], [[Tantraloka]]
| Rasārṇava, Rasahṛidaya, Raseśvara siddhānta
| [[Vākyapadīya]], [[Mahabhashya]], [[Vārttikakāra]]
|-
! {{rh}} | Concepts Originated
| [[Purusha]], [[Prakṛti]], [[Guṇa]], Satkāryavāda
| [[Yamas|Yama]], [[Niyama]], [[Asana]], [[Pranayama]], [[Pratyahara]], [[Dhāraṇā]], [[Dhyana in Hinduism|Dhyana]], [[Samadhi]]
| Pratyakṣa, [[Anumana|Anumāna]], Upamāna, Anyathakyati vada, Niḥśreyasa [[Nyaya#Epistemology|more..]]
| [[Padārtha]], [[Dravya]], Sāmānya, Viśeṣa, Samavāya, Paramāṇu
| [[Apauruṣeyā]]tva, Arthāpatti, Anuapalabdhi, Satahprāmāṇya vāda
| [[Jivanmukta]], [[Mahāvākyas]], [[Advaita Vedanta#Sādhana Chatuṣṭaya|Sādhana Chatuṣṭaya]], [[Advaita Vedanta#Three Orders of Reality (Ontologically)|three orders of reality]], [[Vivartavada]]
| Hita, [[Vishishtadvaita#Antarvyapi|Antarvyāpi]], [[Vishishtadvaita#Bahuvyapi|Bahuvyāpi]] [[Vishishtadvaita#Brahman|more..]]
| Prapacha, [[Mukti-yogyas]], [[Nitya-samsarins]], [[Tamo-yogyas]]
|[[Pushtimarg]], Brahmavada, Brahma Sambandha
| [[Sambandha]], [[Abhidheya]], [[Prayojana]] (Relationship, Process, Ultimate Goal)
| [[Akshar Purushottam Upasana]] 
| [[Pashupati]], [[Pashupata Shaivism#Overview|eight pentads]]
| Charya, Mantramārga, Rodha Śakti
| Citi, Mala, Upaya, [[Kashmir Shaivism#Anuttara, the Supreme|Anuttara]], [[Aham (Kashmir Shaivism)|Aham]], [[Svatantrya]]
| Pārada, three modes of [[Mercury (element)|mercury]]
| [[Sphoṭa]], [[Pāṇini#Ashtadhyayi|Ashtadhyayi]]
|}
</div>
{{reflist|group=N}}

==Overview==
===Epistemology===
{{main|Pramana}}

[[Epistemology]] is called [[pramana]].{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=520-521}} It has been a key, much debated field of study in Hinduism since ancient times. {{Lang|sa-latn|Pramāṇa}} is a Hindu theory of knowledge and discusses the valid means by which human beings can gain accurate knowledge.{{sfn|Lochtefeld|2002|p=520-521}} The focus of {{Lang|sa-latn|pramāṇa}} is how correct knowledge can be acquired, how one knows, how one does not, and to what extent knowledge pertinent about someone or something can be acquired.{{sfn|Potter|1991|p=172}}

Ancient and medieval Hindu texts identify six {{Lang|sa-latn|pramāṇas}} as correct means of accurate knowledge and truths: 
# {{Lang|sa-latn|Pratyakṣa}} – Direct perception 
# {{Lang|sa-latn|Anumāṇa}} – Inference or indirect perception
# {{Lang|sa-latn|Upamāṇa}} – Comparison and analogy 
# {{Lang|sa-latn|Arthāpatti}} – Postulation, derivation from circumstances 
# {{Lang|sa-latn|Anupalabdi}} – Non-perception, absence of proof 
# {{Lang|sa-latn|Shabda}} – Word, testimony of past or present reliable experts{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}}

Each of these are further categorised in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error, by the different schools. The schools vary on how many of these six are valid paths of knowledge.{{sfn|Guttorm Fløistad|1993|p=137-154}} For example, the [[Charvaka|Cārvāka]] nāstika philosophy holds that only one (perception) is an epistemically reliable means of knowledge,{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}} the [[Samkhya]] school holds that three are (perception, inference and testimony),{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}} while the Mīmāṃsā and Advaita schools hold that all six are epistemically useful and reliable means to knowledge.{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245–248}}

==Sāmkhya==
{{Main|Samkhya}}

[[Samkhya|Sāmkhya]] ([[Sanskrit]]: सांख्य) is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical systems in [[Hinduism]],{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=232}} with origins in the 1st millennium BCE.<ref name=":1">Sharma, C. (1997). ''A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy'', Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|81-208-0365-5}}, p.138-149</ref> It is a [[rationalism|rationalist]] school of [[Indian philosophy]],<ref name="Mikel Burley 2012 pages 43-46"/> and had a strong influence on other schools of Indian philosophies.<ref name=royper>Roy Perrett, Indian Ethics: Classical traditions and contemporary challenges, Volume 1 (Editor: P Bilimoria et al.), Ashgate, {{ISBN|978-0754633013}}, pages 149–158</ref> Sāmkhya is an enumerationist philosophy whose [[epistemology]] accepted three of six ''[[Pramana|pramāṇas]]'' as the only reliable means of gaining knowledge. These were {{Lang|sa-latn|pratyakṣa}} (perception), {{Lang|sa-latn|anumāṇa}} (inference) and {{Lang|sa-latn|sabda}} ({{Lang|sa-latn|Āptavacana}}, word/testimony of reliable sources).<ref>Eliott Deutsche (2000), in Philosophy of Religion : Indian Philosophy Vol 4 (Editor: Roy Perrett), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0815336112}}, pages 245–248</ref>{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}

Samkhya school espouses [[Dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualism]] between witness-consciousness and 'nature' (mind, perception, matter).<ref>{{citation |last = Michaels |first = Axel |title = Hinduism: Past and Present |year = 2004 |publisher = Princeton University Press |page=264 |isbn = 0-691-08953-1 }}</ref> It regards the universe as consisting of two realities: ''[[Purusha|Puruṣa]]'' (witness-consciousness) and ''[[prakriti]]'' ('nature'). ''[[Jiva]]'' (a living being) is that state in which {{Lang|sa-latn|puruṣa}} is bonded to {{Lang|sa-latn|prakriti}} in some form.<ref name=sambri/> This fusion, state the Samkhya scholars, led to the emergence of {{Lang|sa-latn|buddhi}} (awareness, intellect) and {{Lang|sa-latn|ahankara}} (individualised ego consciousness, "I-maker"). The universe is described by this school as one created by Purusa-Prakriti entities infused with various permutations and combinations of variously enumerated elements, senses, feelings, activity and mind.<ref name=sambri>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520526/Samkhya Samkhya – Hinduism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504150540/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/520526/Samkhya |date=4 May 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)</ref>

Samkhya philosophy includes a theory of [[Guṇa|''gunas'']] (qualities, innate tendencies, psyche).<ref>Gerald James Larson (2011), Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120805033}}, pages 154–206</ref> {{Lang|sa-latn|Guna}}, it states, are of three types: {{Lang|sa-latn|Sattva}} being good, compassionate, illuminating, positive, and constructive; {{Lang|sa-latn|Rajas guna}} is one of activity, chaotic, passion, impulsive, potentially good or bad; and {{Lang|sa-latn|Tamas}} being the quality of darkness, ignorance, destructive, lethargic, negative. Everything, all life forms and human beings, state Samkhya scholars, have these three {{Lang|sa-latn|gunas}}, but in different proportions.<ref>James G. Lochtefeld, Guna, in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: A-M, Vol. 1, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|9780823931798}}, page 265</ref> The interplay of these {{Lang|sa-latn|gunas}} defines the character of someone or something, of nature and determines the progress of life.<ref>T Bernard (1999), ''Hindu Philosophy'', Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-81-208-1373-1}}, pages 74–76</ref><ref name="Haney">Haney, William S., Culture and Consciousness: Literature Regained, Bucknell University Press (1 August 2002). P. 42. {{ISBN|1611481724}}.</ref> Samkhya theorises a pluralism of Selfs ({{Lang|sa-latn|Jeevatmas}}) who possess consciousness.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Dasgupta| first = Surendranath| title = A history of Indian philosophy, Volume 1| publisher = Motilal Banarsidass Publ.| year = 1992| page = 258| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=PoaMFmS1_lEC&pg=PA258| isbn = 978-81-208-0412-8}}</ref> Samkhya has historically been theistic or non-theistic, and there has been debate about its specific view on God.<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga - An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, page 39</ref><ref>Lloyd Pflueger (2008), Person Purity and Power in Yogasutra, in Theory and Practice of Yoga (Editor: Knut Jacobsen), Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, pages 38–39</ref><ref>John C. Plott et al. (1984), Global History of Philosophy: The period of scholasticism, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-0895816788}}, page 367</ref><ref>Andrew J. Nicholson (2013), [[Unifying Hinduism|Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History]], Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231149877}}, Chapter 4, pg. 77</ref>

The ''[[Samkhyakarika|Samkhya karika]]'', one of the key texts of this school of Hindu philosophy, opens by stating its goal to be "three<ref>''adhyatmika, adhibhautika and adhidaivika'' – that is, suffering caused internally by self, cause by other human beings, caused by acts of nature</ref> kinds of human suffering" and means to prevent them.<ref name=colebrookesktrans>[http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf Samkhya karika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304064715/http://www.kouroo.info/kouroo/transclusions/18/37/1837_SankhyaKarikaHTColebrook.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }} by Iswara Krishna, Henry Colebrooke (Translator), Oxford University Press</ref> The text then presents a distillation of its theories on epistemology, metaphysics, axiology and soteriology. For example, it states,

{{Blockquote|
<poem>
From the triad of suffering, arises this inquiry into the means of preventing it.<br />That is useless – if you say so, I say: No, because suffering is not absolute and final. – Verse 1<br />
The [[Guṇa]]s (qualities) respectively consist in pleasure, pain and dullness, are adapted to manifestation, activity and restraint; mutually domineer, rest on each other, produce each other, consort together, and are reciprocally present. – Verse 12
Goodness is considered to be alleviating and enlightening; foulness, urgent and persisting; darkness, heavy and enveloping. Like a lamp, they cooperate for a purpose by union of contraries. – Verse 13<br />
There is a general cause, which is diffuse. It operates by means of the three qualities, by mixture, by modification; for different objects are diversified by influence of the several qualities respectively. – Verse 16
Since the assemblage of perceivable objects is for use (by man); Since the converse of that which has the three qualities with other properties must exist (in man); Since there must be superintendence (within man); Since there must be some entity that enjoys (within man); Since there is a tendency to abstraction (in man), therefore soul is. – Verse 17
</poem>
|Samkhya karika|<ref name=colebrookesktrans/><ref>Original Sanskrit: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_z_misc_major_works/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf Samkhya karika] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120223144612/http://www.sanskritdocuments.org/all_pdf/IshvarakRiShNasAnkyakArikA.pdf |date=23 February 2012 }} Compiled and indexed by Ferenc Ruzsa (2015), Sanskrit Documents Archives;<br />Second Translation (Verse 1): Ferenc Ruzsa (1997), [The triple suffering – A note on the Samkhya karika, Xth World Sanskrit Conference: Bangalore, University of Hungary, Budapest;<br />Third Translation (all Verses): [https://archive.org/stream/hinduphilosophys00davi#page/12/mode/2up Samkhyakarika of Iswara Krishna] John Davis (Translator), Trubner, London, University of Toronto Archives</ref>}}

The soteriology in Samkhya aims at the realisation of Puruṣa as distinct from Prakriti; this knowledge of the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Self]] is held to end transmigration and lead to absolute freedom ([[kaivalya]]).<ref>Larson, Gerald James. Classical Sāṃkhya: An Interpretation of Its History and Meaning. Motilal Banarasidass, 1998. P. 13. {{ISBN|81-208-0503-8}}.</ref>

==Yōga==
{{main|Yoga (philosophy)}}

In [[Indian philosophy]], [[Yoga|Yōga]] ([[Sanskrit]]: योग) is, among other things, the name of one of the six {{Lang|sa-latn|āstika}} philosophical schools.<ref>For a brief overview of the Yoga school of philosophy see: {{harvnb|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=43}}.</ref>  The [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] philosophical system aligns closely with the [[dualism (Indian philosophy)|dualist]] premises of the [[Samkhya]] school.<ref name=edbryant>Edwin Bryant (2011, Rutgers University), [http://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ ''The Yoga Sutras of Patanjali''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518185305/https://www.iep.utm.edu/yoga/ |date=18 May 2019 }} IEP</ref>{{sfn|Chatterjee|Datta|1984|p=43}} The Yoga school accepts Samkhya psychology and metaphysics, but is considered theistic because it accepts the concept of personal god ([[Ishvara]], unlike Samkhya.{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|p=453}}<ref>Müller (1899), Chapter 7, "Yoga Philosophy", p. 104.</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Zimmer |first=Heinrich |author-link=Heinrich Zimmer |title=Philosophies of India |year=1951 |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=New York City |isbn=0-691-01758-1 }} Bollingen Series XXVI; Edited by [[Joseph Campbell]], page 280</ref> The [[epistemology]] of the Yoga school, like the Sāmkhya school, relies on three of six {{Lang|sa-latn|prāmaṇas}} as the means of gaining reliable knowledge:{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}} {{Lang|sa-latn|pratyakṣa}} (perception), {{Lang|sa-latn|anumāṇa}} (inference) and {{Lang|sa-latn|śabda}} ({{Lang|sa-latn|āptavacana}}, word/testimony of reliable sources).{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245–248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}

The universe is conceptualised as a duality in Yoga school: [[purusha|puruṣa]] (witness-consciousness) and [[prakṛti]] (mind, perception, matter); however, the Yoga school discusses this concept more generically as "seer, experiencer" and "seen, experienced" than the Samkhya school.<ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, pages x–xi, 101–107, 142 and Introduction chapter</ref>

A key text of the Yoga school is the ''[[Yoga Sutras of Patanjali]]''. [[Patanjali]] may have been, as [[Max Müller]] explains, "the author or representative of the Yoga-philosophy without being necessarily the author of the Sutras."{{Sfn|Müeller|1899|p=410}} Hindu philosophy recognises many types of Yoga, such as [[rāja yoga]], [[Jnana yoga|jñāna yoga]],<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra'' by Georg Feuerstein</ref> [[karma yoga]], [[bhakti yoga]], [[tantra]] yoga, [[mantra]] yoga, [[Kundalini yoga|laya yoga]], and [[hatha yoga]].<ref>''The Encyclopedia of Yoga and [[Tantra]]'', [[Georg Feuerstein]]</ref>

The Yoga school builds on the Samkhya school theory that [[jñāna]] (knowledge) is a sufficient means to moksha. It suggests that systematic techniques/practice (personal experimentation) combined with Samkhya's approach to knowledge is the path to moksha.<ref name=edbryant/> [[Northrop Frye]] describes Yoga as a form of 'experimental mysticism'.<ref>Northrop Frye (2006), Educated Imagination and Other Writings on Critical Theory, 1933–1962, University of Toronto Press, {{ISBN|978-0802092090}}, page 291</ref> Whilst the Yoga school has a 'sharp disagreement' with the Advaita school, Advaita philosophical praxis does advocate the use of yogic practices as indirectly valuable.<ref name="shphillips">{{cite book | first=Stephen H. | last=Phillips | title=Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "New Logic" | url=https://archive.org/details/classicalindianm00phil | url-access=registration | publisher=Open Court Publishing | year=1995 | pages=[https://archive.org/details/classicalindianm00phil/page/12 12–13]| isbn=9780812692983 }}</ref> Like Advaita Vedanta, the Yoga school of Hindu philosophy holds that liberation/freedom in this life is achievable, and that this occurs when an individual fully understands and realises the equivalence of Atman (Self) and Brahman.<ref>Mike McNamee and William J. Morgan (2015), Routledge Handbook of the Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415829809}}, pages 135–136, Quote: "As a dualistic philosophy largely congruent with Samkhya's metaphysics, Yoga seeks liberation through the realization that Atman equals Brahman; it involves a cosmogonic dualism: purusha an absolute consciousness, and prakriti original and primeval matter."</ref><ref>[[Mikel Burley]] (2012), Classical Samkhya and Yoga – An Indian Metaphysics of Experience, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415648875}}, pages 141–142</ref> The Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika schools accept the efficacy of yogic practices.<ref name="shphillips" />

==Vaiśeṣika==
{{main|Vaisheshika}}

The [[Vaisheshika|Vaiśeṣika]] ([[Sanskrit]]: वैशेसिक) philosophy is a [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalist]] school.<ref name="Dale Riepe 1996 pages 227-246"/> It is a form of [[atomism]] in natural philosophy.<ref name=":2" /> It postulates that all objects in the physical universe are reducible to {{Lang|sa-latn|paramāṇu}} ([[atom]]s), and that one's experiences are derived from the interplay of substance (a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements), quality, activity, commonness, particularity and inherence.<ref name=olilv/> Knowledge and liberation are achievable by complete understanding of the world of experience, according to Vaiśeṣika school.<ref name=olilv/> The Vaiśeṣika {{Lang|sa-latn|darśana}} is credited to [[Kanada (philosopher)|Kaṇāda Kaśyapa]] from the second half of the first millennium BCE.<ref name=olilv>Oliver Leaman, ''Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy.'' Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173629}}, 1999, page 269.</ref><ref name="Michael Brannigan 2009 page 7">Michael Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0739138465}}, page 7</ref> The foundational text, the ''[[Vaiśeṣika Sūtra]]'', opens as follows:

{{Blockquote|Dharma is that from which results the accomplishment of Exaltation and of the Supreme Good. The authoritativeness of the Veda arises from its being an exposition of ''dharma''. The Supreme Good results from knowledge, produced from a particular ''dharma'', of the essence of the Predicables, Substance, Attribute, Action, Genus, Species and Combination, by means of their resemblances and differences.
|Vaiśeṣika Sūtra 1.1.1–1.1.4|<ref name=johannesvs>Original Sanskrit and Translation: [https://archive.org/stream/thevaiasesikasut00kanauoft#page/4/mode/2up The Vaisheshika Sutra of Kanada with the Commentary of Sankara Misra] BD Basu (Translator), The Sacred Books of the Hindus, Volume 6, University of Toronto Archives; <br />For modern translations and a history of the Vaiśeṣika Sūtra in the 1st millennium BCE, see: Stephen H. Phillips (1998), Classical Indian Metaphysics, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814899}}, pages 38–54</ref>}}

The Vaiśeṣika school is related to the Nyāya school but features differences in its [[epistemology]], metaphysics and ontology.<ref>DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: [[Anthony J. Marsella]]), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, pages 172–175</ref> The epistemology of the Vaiśeṣika school, like [[Buddhism]], accepted only two means to knowledge as reliable – perception and inference.{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245–248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=225}} The Vaiśeṣika school and Buddhism both consider their respective scriptures as indisputable and valid means to knowledge, the difference being that the scriptures held to be a valid and reliable source by Vaiśeṣikas were the Vedas.{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245–248}}<ref name="bilimoriaved"/>

Vaiśeṣika metaphysical premises are founded on a form of atomism, that reality is composed of four substances (earth, water, air, and fire). Each of these four are of two types:<ref name=":2" /> atomic ({{Lang|sa-latn|paramāṇu}}) and composite. An atom is, according to Vaiśeṣika scholars, that which is indestructible ({{Lang|sa-latn|anitya}}), indivisible, and has a special kind of dimension, called "small" ({{Lang|sa-latn|aṇu}}). A composite, in this philosophy, is defined to be anything which is divisible into atoms. Whatever human beings perceive is composite, while atoms are invisible.<ref name=":2" /> The Vaiśeṣikas stated that size, form, truths and everything that human beings experience as a whole is a function of atoms, their number and their spatial arrangements, their ''[[guṇa]]'' (quality), ''karma'' (activity), {{Lang|sa-latn|sāmānya}} (commonness), {{Lang|sa-latn|viśeṣa}} (particularity) and {{Lang|sa-latn|amavāya}} (inherence, inseparable connectedness of everything).<ref name=olilv/><ref>M Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810860}}, pages 228–237</ref>

==Nyāya==
{{main|Nyaya}}

The [[Nyaya|Nyāya]] ([[Sanskrit]]: न्याय) school is a [[philosophical realism|realist]] āstika philosophy.<ref name=nyabri>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/423058/Nyaya Nyaya: Indian Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150510014205/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/423058/Nyaya |date=10 May 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=221–227}} The school's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were its systematic development of the theory of [[logic]], methodology, and its treatises on epistemology.<ref>B Gupta (2012), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge and Freedom, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415800037}}, pages 171–189</ref><ref>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought: Toward a Constructive Postmodern Ethics, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887061394}}, page 223</ref> The foundational text of the Nyāya school is the ''[[Nyāya Sūtras]]'' of the first millennium BCE. The text is credited to Aksapada Gautama and its composition is variously dated between the sixth and second centuries BCE.<ref>[[Bimal Krishna Matilal|B. K. Matilal]] "Perception. An Essay on Classical Indian Theories of Knowledge" (Oxford University Press, 1986), p. xiv.</ref><ref name="Michael Brannigan 2009 page 7"/>

Nyāya epistemology accepts four out of six {{Lang|sa-latn|prāmaṇas}} as reliable means of gaining knowledge – {{Lang|sa-latn|pratyakṣa}} (perception), {{Lang|sa-latn|anumāṇa}} (inference), {{Lang|sa-latn|upamāṇa}} (comparison and analogy) and {{Lang|sa-latn|śabda}} (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}<ref name=dpsb>DPS Bhawuk (2011), Spirituality and Indian Psychology (Editor: [[Anthony J. Marsella]]), Springer, {{ISBN|978-1-4419-8109-7}}, page 172</ref>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}}

In its [[metaphysics]], the Nyāya school is closer to the Vaiśeṣika school than the others.<ref name=nyabri/> It holds that human suffering results from mistakes/defects produced by activity under wrong knowledge (notions and ignorance).<ref>Vassilis Vitsaxis (2009), Thought and Faith, Somerset Hall Press, {{ISBN|978-1935244042}}, page 131</ref> Moksha (liberation), it states, is gained through right knowledge. This premise led Nyāya to concern itself with epistemology, that is, the reliable means to gain correct knowledge and to remove wrong notions. False knowledge is not merely ignorance to Naiyayikas; it includes delusion. Correct knowledge is discovering and overcoming one's delusions, and understanding the true nature of the soul, self and reality.<ref>BK Matilal (1997), Logic, Language and Reality: Indian Philosophy and Contemporary Issues, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120807174}}, pages 353–357</ref> The Nyāya Sūtras begin:
{{Blockquote|<poem>Perception, Inference, Comparison and Word – these are the means of right knowledge.
Perception is that knowledge which arises from the contact of a sense with its object and which is determinate, unnameable and non-erratic.
Inference is knowledge which is preceded by perception, and is of three kinds: a priori, a posteriori, and commonly seen.
Comparison is the knowledge of a thing through its similarity to another thing previously well known.
Word is the instructive assertion of a reliable person.
It [knowledge] is of two kinds: that which is seen, and that which is not seen.
Soul, body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, fault, transmigration, fruit, suffering and release – are the objects of right knowledge.
</poem>
|Nyāya Sūtras 1.1.3–1.1.9|<ref>Original Sanskrit and Translation: [https://archive.org/stream/NyayaSutra/nyaya_sutras_of_gautama#page/n25/mode/2up The Nyaya Sutras of Gotama] SC Vidyabhusana (Translator), The Bhuvaneswari Ashrama, University of Toronto Archives; A 1990 print is available from Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, {{ISBN|978-8120807488}} (Editor: N Sinha)</ref>}}The Nyāya school uses a three-fold procedure: enumeration, definition, and examination. This procedure of enumeration, definition, and examination is recurrent in [[Navya-Nyāya]] texts like The Manual of Reason ([[Tarka-Sangraha]]).<ref name=":2">{{Citation |last=Ganeri |first=Jonardon |title=Analytic Philosophy in Early Modern India |date=2023 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/win2023/entries/early-modern-india/ |access-date=2024-01-23 |edition=Winter 2023 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |editor2-last=Nodelman |editor2-first=Uri}}</ref>

==Mīmāṃsā==
{{main|Mīmāṃsā}}

The [[Mīmāṃsā]] ([[Sanskrit]]: मीमांसा) school emphasises religious [[hermeneutics]] and [[exegesis]].<ref name=olilm/><ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383181/Mimamsa Mimamsa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150517023639/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/383181/Mimamsa |date=17 May 2015 }} Encyclopædia Britannica (2014)</ref> It is a form of [[philosophical realism]].<ref>M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810860}}, page 323-325</ref> Key texts of the Mīmāṃsā school are the ''[[Purva Mimamsa Sutras]]'' of [[Jaimini]].<ref name=olilpm/><ref name=mhiri>M. Hiriyanna (1993), Outlines of Indian Philosophy, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120810860}}, page 298-335</ref> The classical Mīmāṃsā school is sometimes referred to as {{Lang|sa-latn|pūrvamīmāṃsā}} or {{Lang|sa-latn|Karmamīmāṃsā}} in reference to the first part of the Vedas.<ref name=olilpm>Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'' (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, 978-0415862530, page 443-445</ref>

The Mīmāṃsā school has several sub-schools defined by epistemology. The [[Prabhākara|Prābhākara]] subschool of Mīmāṃsā accepted five means to gaining knowledge as epistimetically reliable: {{Lang|sa-latn|pratyakṣa}} (perception), {{Lang|sa-latn|anumāṇa}} (inference), {{Lang|sa-latn|upamāṇa}} (comparison and analogy), {{Lang|sa-latn|arthāpatti}} (postulation, derivation from circumstances), and {{Lang|sa-latn|śabda}} (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).<ref name="dpsb"/>{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}} The [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa]] sub-school of Mīmāṃsā added a sixth way of knowing to its canon of reliable epistemology: {{Lang|sa-latn|anupalabdi}} (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof).{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}

The metaphysics of the Mīmāṃsā school consists of both [[atheism|atheistic]] and [[theism|theistic]] doctrines, and the school showed little interest in systematic examination of the existence of God. Rather, it held that the Self (Atma) is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active spiritual essence, then focussed on the epistemology and metaphysics of ''dharma''.<ref name=olilpm/><ref>{{cite book|last=Neville|first=Robert|title=Religious truth|year=2001|publisher=SUNY Press}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Worthington|first=Vivian|title=A history of yoga|year=1982|publisher=[[Routledge]]|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5aI9AAAAIAAJ|page=66|isbn=9780710092588}}</ref> To them, [[dharma]] meant rituals and duties, not [[deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (gods), because devas existed only in name.<ref name=olilpm/> The Mīmāṃsākas held that the [[Vedas]] are "eternal authorless infallible", that Vedic {{Lang|sa-latn|vidhi}} (injunctions) and [[mantra]]s in rituals are prescriptive {{Lang|sa-latn|karya}} (actions), and that the rituals are of primary importance and merit. They considered the [[Upanishads]] and other texts related to self-knowledge and spirituality to be of secondary importance, a philosophical view that the [[Vedanta]] school disagreed with.<ref name=olilm/><ref name=olilpm/>

Mīmāṃsā gave rise to the study of [[philology]] and the [[philosophy of language]].<ref>Peter M. Scharf, ''The Denotation of Generic Terms in Ancient Indian Philosophy'' (1996), Chapter 3</ref> While their deep analysis of language and [[linguistics]] influenced other schools,<ref>Annette Wilke and Oliver Moebus (2011), Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism, Walter de Gruyter GmbH (Berlin), {{ISBN|978-3110181593}}, pages 23–24, 551–663</ref> their views were not shared by others. Mīmāṃsākas considered the purpose and power of language was to clearly ''prescribe'' the proper, correct and right. In contrast, Vedantins extended the scope and value of language as a tool to also ''describe'', ''develop'' and ''derive''.<ref name=olilpm/> Mīmāṃsākas considered orderly, law-driven, procedural life as the central purpose and noblest necessity of [[dharma]] and society, and divine (theistic) sustenance means to that end. The Mimamsa school was influential and foundational to the Vedanta school, with the difference that Mīmāṃsā developed and emphasises {{Lang|sa-latn|karmakāṇḍa}} (the portion of the [[śruti]] which relates to ceremonial acts and sacrificial rites, the early parts of the Vedas), while the Vedanta school developed and emphasises {{Lang|sa-latn|jñānakāṇḍa}} (the portion of the Vedas that relates to knowledge of monism, the latter parts of the Vedas).<ref name=olilm>Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in ''Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy'', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415862530}}, page 503</ref>

==Vedānta==
{{main|Vedānta}}

The [[Vedanta|Vedānta]] ([[Sanskrit]]: वेदान्त) school built upon the teachings of the Upanishads and [[Brahma Sutras]] from the first millennium BCE<ref name="Michael Brannigan 2009 page 7"/><ref>Oliver Leaman (1999), Key Concepts in Eastern Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173636}}, page xiv</ref> and is the most developed<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vedanta {{!}} Religion and Philosophy {{!}} Research Starters {{!}} EBSCO Research |url=https://www.ebsco.com/ |access-date=2026-07-14 |website=EBSCO |language=en}}</ref> and best-known of the Hindu schools. The epistemology of the Vedantins included, depending on the sub-school, five or six methods as proper and reliable means of gaining any form of knowledge:<ref name=bilimoriaved>P Bilimoria (1993), Pramāṇa epistemology: Some recent developments, in Asian philosophy – Volume 7 (Editor: G Floistad), Springer, {{ISBN|978-94-010-5107-1}}, pages 137–154</ref> {{Lang|sa-latn|pratyakṣa}} (perception), {{Lang|sa-latn|anumāṇa}} (inference), {{Lang|sa-latn|upamāṇa}} (comparison and analogy), {{Lang|sa-latn|arthāpatti}} (postulation, derivation from circumstances), {{Lang|sa-latn|anupalabdi}} (non-perception, negative/cognitive proof) and {{Lang|sa-latn|śabda}} (word, testimony of past or present reliable experts).{{sfn|Perrett|2000|pp=245–248}}{{sfn|Grimes|1989|p=238}}{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=225}} All of these have been further categorised by each sub-school of Vedanta in terms of conditionality, completeness, confidence and possibility of error.<ref name=bilimoriaved/>

The emergence of the Vedanta school represented a period in which a more knowledge-centered understanding began to emerge, focusing on {{Lang|sa-latn|jnana}} (knowledge) driven aspects of the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]] and the Upanishads. These included metaphysical concepts such as ātman and [[Brahman]], and an emphasis on meditation, self-discipline, self-knowledge and abstract spirituality, rather than ritualism. The Upanishads were variously interpreted by ancient- and medieval-era Vedanta scholars. Consequently, the Vedanta separated into many sub-schools, ranging from theistic dualism to non-theistic monism, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-commentaries.<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga : 'Essays in Honour of Gerald James Larson, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120832329}}, page 77;<br />JN Mohanty (2001), Explorations in Philosophy, Vol 1 (Editor: Bina Gupta), Oxford University Press, page 107-108</ref><ref>Oliver Leaman (2000), Eastern Philosophy: Key Readings, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415173582}}, page 251;<br />R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-8180695957}}, pages 345–347</ref>

===Advaita===
{{main|Advaita Vedanta}}

''Advaita'' literally means "not two, sole, unity". It is a sub-school of Vedanta, and asserts spiritual and universal non-dualism.<ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ Advaita Vedanta] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626101653/http://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |date=26 June 2015 }} Sangeetha Menon (2012), IEP</ref><ref>{{Citation | last =Nakamura | first =Hajime | year =1990 | title =A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy. Part One | publisher =Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|pages=110–114}}</ref> Its metaphysics is a form of absolute [[monism]], that is all ultimate reality is interconnected oneness.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=239–244}}<ref>Eliot Deutsch, Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, pages 10–14</ref> This is the oldest and most widely acknowledged Vedantic school. The foundational texts of this school are the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the early [[Upanishads]] from the 1st millennium BCE.{{sfn|Flood|1996|pp=239–244}} Its first great consolidator was the 8th century scholar [[Adi Shankara]], who continued the line of thought of the Upanishadic teachers, and that of his teacher's teacher [[Gaudapada]]. He wrote extensive commentaries on the major Vedantic scriptures and is celebrated as one of the major Hindu philosophers from whose doctrines the main currents of modern Indian thought are derived.<ref>[https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/522509/Shankara Adi Shankara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501154230/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/522509/Shankara |date=1 May 2015 }}, Sengaku Mayeda, Encyclopædia Britannica (2013)</ref>

According to this school of Vedanta, all reality is Brahman, and there exists nothing whatsoever which is not ''Brahman''.<ref>Richard Brooks (1969), The Meaning of 'Real' in Advaita Vedānta, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 19, No. 4, pages 385–398</ref> Its metaphysics includes the concept of [[Maya (illusion)|māyā]] and ātman. {{Lang|sa-latn|Māyā}} connotes "that which exists, but is constantly changing and thus is spiritually unreal".<ref>AC Das (1952), Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics, Philosophy East and West, Vol. 2, No. 2, pages 144–154</ref> The empirical reality is considered as always changing and therefore "transitory, incomplete, misleading and not what it appears to be".<ref>H.M. Vroom (1996), No Other Gods, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0802840974}}, page 57</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger O'Flaherty (1986), Dreams, Illusion, and Other Realities, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226618555}}, page 119</ref><ref>Lynn Foulston and Stuart Abbott (2009), Hindu Goddesses: Beliefs and Practices, Sussex Academic Press, {{ISBN|978-1902210438}}, pages 14–16</ref> The concept of {{Lang|sa-latn|ātman}} is of one Atman, with the light of Atman reflected within each person as {{Lang|sa-latn|jivatman}}. Advaita Vedantins assert that ātman is same as Brahman, and this Brahman is reflected within each human being and all life, all living beings are spiritually interconnected, and there is oneness in all of existence.<ref>John Koller (2007), in Chad Meister and Paul Copan (Editors): The Routledge Companion to Philosophy of Religion, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-1-134-18001-1}}, pages 98–106</ref><ref name=sharmaadv/> They hold that dualities and misunderstanding of {{Lang|sa-latn|māyā}} as the spiritual reality that matters is caused by ignorance, and are the cause of sorrow, suffering. [[Jivanmukta|''Jīvanmukti'']] (liberation during life) can be achieved through Self-knowledge, the understanding that ātman within is same as {{Lang|sa-latn|ātman}} in another person and all of Brahman – the eternal, unchanging, entirety of cosmic principles and true reality.<ref>Michael Comans (1993), The question of the importance of Samadhi in modern and classical Advaita Vedanta, Philosophy East & West. Vol. 43, Issue 1, pages 19–38</ref><ref name=sharmaadv>Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19–40, 53–58, 79–86</ref>

Some believe that Shankara is a "closet Buddhist," suggesting as evidence his positions that selfhood is illusory and an experience of it disappears after one attains enlightenment. However, Shankara does believe that there is an enduring reality that is ultimately real. He specifically rejects Buddhist propositions in his commentary on Brahma Sutras 2.2.18, 2.2.19, 2.2.20, 2.2.25, among others.<ref name=":0" />{{Reference page|page=|pages=156-160}}

===Viśiṣṭādvaita===
{{Main|Vishishtadvaita}}

[[Ramanuja]] (c. 1037–1137) was the foremost proponent of the philosophy of Viśiṣṭādvaita or qualified non-dualism. Viśiṣṭādvaita advocated the concept of a Supreme Being with essential qualities or attributes. Viśiṣṭādvaitins argued against the Advaitin conception of Brahman as an impersonal empty oneness. They saw Brahman as an eternal oneness, but also as the source of all creation, which was omnipresent and actively involved in existence. To them the sense of subject-object perception was illusory and a sign of ignorance. However, the individual's sense of self was not a complete illusion since it was derived from the universal beingness that is Brahman.<ref>{{cite book|author=Christopher Etter|title=A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jW2pcWpXY8wC&pg=PA62|date=30 April 2006|publisher=iUniverse|isbn=978-0-595-39312-1|pages=62–63}}</ref> Ramanuja saw [[Vishnu]] as a personification of Brahman.

The Viśiṣṭādvaita sub-school also disagrees with the Advaita claim that misconception (''avidyā'') is indescribable as either real or unreal (''anirvacanīya''). It sees this as a contradiction, and argues that ''avidyā'' must either be non-different from Brahman or different from Brahman. If it is different from Brahman, the non-dualist position of Shankara is given up, but if it is non-different, it must exist ultimately as Brahman. Ramanuja claims that ''avidyā'' cannot be identical with Brahman because Brahman is pure knowledge, and ''avidyā'' is absence of knowledge.<ref name=":0" />{{Reference page|page=173}} Ramanuja also argues that the Advaita position cannot coherently maintain that Brahman is non-intentional consciousness (consciousness that does not have an object), because all cognitions are necessarily about something.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Bartley |first=C. J. |title=An introduction to Indian philosophy |date=2011 |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-1-84706-448-6 |location=London |pages=}}</ref>{{Reference page|pages=|page=174}}

===Dvaita===
[[Dvaita]] refers to a theistic sub-school in [[Vedanta]] tradition of Hindu philosophy.<ref name="Fowler2002p342"/><ref>[http://www.iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/ Hindu Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130414012247/http://www.iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/ |date=14 April 2013 }}, IEP, Quote: "Dvaita: Madhva is one of the principal theistic exponents of Vedānta. On his account, Brahman is a personal God, and specifically He is the Hindu deity Viṣṇu."</ref> Also called {{Lang|sa-latn|Tattvavāda}} and {{Lang|sa-latn|Bimbapratibimbavāda}}, the Dvaita sub-school was founded by the 13th-century scholar [[Madhvacharya]].<ref name="Fowler2002p342">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRlB4v85S1EC|year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-94-3|pages=340–344}}</ref> The Dvaita Vedanta school believes that [[God]] (Vishnu, [[Paramatman]]) and the individual Selfs (Atman) ([[jiva|jīvātman]]) exist as independent realities, and these are distinct.<ref name="Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002 238–243, 288–293, 340–343">{{cite book|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler|title=Perspectives of Reality: An Introduction to the Philosophy of Hinduism|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NRlB4v85S1EC|year=2002|publisher=Sussex Academic Press|isbn=978-1-898723-94-3|pages=238–243, 288–293, 340–343}}</ref><ref name=lochtefelddvaita>James Lochtefeld (2002), The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Volume 1 & 2, Rosen Publishing, {{ISBN|0-8239-2287-1}}, pages 12-13, 213-214, 758-759</ref>

Dvaita Vedanta is a dualistic interpretation of the [[Vedas]]; it espouses dualism by theorising the existence of two separate realities.<ref name="Fowler2002p342"/> The first and the only independent reality, states the Dvaita school, is that of [[Vishnu]] or Brahman.<ref name="Fowler2002p342"/> Vishnu is the [[Paramatman]], in a manner similar to monotheistic God in other major religions.<ref>Michael Myers (2000), Brahman: A Comparative Theology, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0700712571}}, pages 124–127</ref> The distinguishing factor of Dvaita philosophy, as opposed to monistic [[Advaita Vedanta]], is that God takes on a personal role and is seen as a real eternal entity that governs and controls the universe.<ref>Christopher Etter (2006), A Study of Qualitative Non-Pluralism, iUniverse, pp. 59–60, {{ISBN|0-595-39312-8}}.</ref> Like [[Vishishtadvaita]] Vedanta sub-school, Dvaita philosophy also embraced [[Vaishnavism]], with the metaphysical concept of Brahman in the Vedas identified with Vishnu and the one and only [[God|Supreme Being]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=Edwin |last= Bryant| title=Krishna : A Sourcebook (Chapter 15 by Deepak Sarma)| publisher= Oxford University Press| year= 2007| isbn= 978-0195148923| page=358}}</ref><ref name=stokeriep>{{cite web |title=Madhva (1238-1317) |first=Valerie |last=Stoker |publisher=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |year=2011 |access-date=29 February 2016 |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |archive-date=12 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161012131604/http://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |url-status=live }}</ref> However, unlike Vishishtadvaita which envisions ultimate qualified nondualism, the dualism of Dvaita was permanent.<ref name=lochtefelddvaita/><ref name="Jeaneane D. Fowler 2002 238–243, 288–293, 340–343"/> Dvaita sub-school disagrees with the Vishishtadvaita claim that Brahman is linked with the individual self and the world in the way that a soul is with its body. Madhvacharya argues that Brahman cannot be the material cause of the world.<ref name=":0" />{{Reference page|page=|pages=186-187}}

[[Moksha|Salvation]], in Dvaita, is achievable only through the grace of God Vishnu.<ref name="Fowler2002p342"/><ref>{{cite book|title = Philosophy of Śrī Madhvācārya|first = B. N. Krishnamurti| last = Sharma| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass (2014 Reprint) |isbn = 978-8120800687| year= 1962 | pages=417–424}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Sharma |first=Chandradhar |title=A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy|year= 1994|publisher= Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=81-208-0365-5 | page=373}}</ref>

===Dvaitādvaita (Bhedabheda)===
[[Svabhavika Bhedabheda|Dvaitādvaita]] was proposed by [[Nimbarkacharya]], a 7th-century Vaishnava philosopher from the Andhra region which was further propounded by his disciple [[Srinivasacharya]]. According to this philosophy there are three categories of existence: Brahman, Self, and matter. Self and matter are different from Brahman in that they have attributes and capacities different from Brahman. Brahman exists independently, while Self and matter are dependent. Thus Self and matter have an existence that is separate yet dependent. Further, Brahman is a controller, the Self is the enjoyer, and matter the thing enjoyed. Also, the highest object of worship is [[Krishna]] and his consort [[Radha]], attended by thousands of ''[[gopi]]s''; of the [[Vrindavan]]; and devotion consists in self-surrender.

===Śuddhādvaita===
[[Shuddhadvaita|Śuddhādvaita]] is the "purely non-dual" philosophy propounded by [[Vallabha Acharya]] (1479–1531). The founding philosopher was also the guru of the Vallabhā [[sampradaya|sampradāya]] ("tradition of Vallabh") or [[Pushtimarg|''Puṣṭimārga'']], a Vaishnava tradition focused on the worship of Krishna. [[Vallabhacharya]] enunciates that Brahman has created the world without connection with any external agency such as Māyā (which itself is His power) and manifests Himself through the world.<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is why [[Shuddhadvaita]] is known as "Unmodified transformation" or "Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda". Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual Selfs and the world. The Jagat or Maya is not false or illusionary, the physical material world is. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a "part" (but devoid of bliss) like sparks and fire.<ref>“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref> This sub-school thus denies the Advaita conception of Maya because the world is considered to be real insofar as it is non-different from Brahman, who is believed to be Krishna.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Śuddhādvaita |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100540781;jsessionid=8520DC3E7A2471604C1E7E23D563055A |access-date=2023-06-02 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en |archive-date=2 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602205157/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100540781;jsessionid=8520DC3E7A2471604C1E7E23D563055A |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Acintya Bheda Abheda===
{{Main|Achintya Bheda Abheda}}

[[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534), stated that the Self or energy of God is both distinct and non-distinct from God, whom he identified as Krishna, [[Govinda]], and that this, although unthinkable, may be experienced through a process of loving devotion (''[[bhakti]]''). He followed the Dvaita concept of Madhvacharya.<ref>[http://www.krishna.com/printarticles/Lord_Chaitanya.html Lord Chaitanya] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020607045307/http://www.krishna.com/printarticles/Lord_Chaitanya.html |date=7 June 2002 }} (krishna.com) "This is called acintya-bheda-abheda-tattva, inconceivable, simultaneous oneness and difference."</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Who Is Lord Chaitanya? {{!}} Krishna.com|url=http://www.krishna.com/who-lord-chaitanya|access-date=7 April 2021|website=www.krishna.com|archive-date=7 June 2002|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020607045307/http://www.krishna.com/printarticles/Lord_Chaitanya.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Who is Lord Chaitanya? {{!}} Krishna.com|url=http://www.krishna.com/who-lord-chaitanya-0|access-date=7 April 2021|website=www.krishna.com|archive-date=13 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413200726/http://www.krishna.com/who-lord-chaitanya-0|url-status=live}}</ref> In accordance with the Vishnu Purana, this sub-school ascribes six virtues to God (Bhagavan): power (''aishvarya''), potency (''virya''), fame (''yasha''), prosperity (''shri''), knowledge (''jnana''), and renunciation (''vairagya''). The potency of Bhagavan, which is transcendental, is not conceivable to humans and its relationship to Bhagwan is characterised as one in which there is "inconceivable difference in non-difference" (''acintya-bhedabheda''). This potency has divisions that are described within Jiva Gosvami's ''Bhagavat Sandarbha'', which comments on the internal potency, and ''Paramatma Sandarbha'', which elaborates the marginal and external potencies of Bhagavan. Maya, which is central to ''advaita'', is the external potency of Bhagavan, which is controlled by ''Paramatma'', an expansion of Bhagavan. And, Brahman is included within Bhagavan, who is the object of meditation and realisation for bhakti-yogis.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Dasa |first=Satyanarayana |title=Krishna: a sourcebook |date=2007 |publisher=Oxford university press |isbn=978-0-19-514891-6 |editor-last=Bryant |editor-first=Edwin |location=Oxford |pages=378 |chapter=The Six Sandarbhas of Jiva Gosvami}}</ref>

=== Akshar-Purushottam Darshan ===
{{Main|Akshar-Purushottam Darshan}}

==Cārvāka==
{{main|Charvaka}}

The [[Charvaka|Cārvāka]] ([[Sanskrit]]: चार्वाक) school is one of the [[Āstika and nāstika|nāstika]] or "heterodox" philosophies.<ref>R Thomas (2014), Hindu Perspectives on Evolution: Darwin, Dharma, and Design, Sociology of Religion, Vol. 75, No. 1, pages 164–165, '''Quote''': "some of the ancient Hindu traditions like Carvaka have a rich tradition of materialism, in general, other schools..."</ref><ref name="KN Tiwari 1998 page 67"/><ref>Jessica Frazier (2014), Hinduism in The Oxford Handbook of Atheism (Editors: Stephen Bullivant, Michael Ruse), Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0199644650}}, pages 367–378;<br />Bill Cooke (2005), Dictionary of Atheism, Skepticism, and Humanism, {{ISBN|978-1591022992}}, page 84</ref> It rejects supernaturalism, emphasises [[materialism]] and [[philosophical skepticism]], holding empiricism, perception and conditional inference as the proper source of knowledge.<ref>KN Tiwari (1998), Classical Indian Ethical Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120816077}}, page 67;<br />Roy W Perrett (1984), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398916 The problem of induction in Indian philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201214053530/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1398916 |date=14 December 2020 }}, Philosophy East and West, 34(2): 161–174</ref><ref name=vvraman>V.V. Raman (2012), Hinduism and Science: Some Reflections, Zygon – Journal of Religion and Science, 47(3): 549–574, Quote (page 557): "Aside from nontheistic schools like the [[Samkhya]], there have also been explicitly atheistic schools in the Hindu tradition. One virulently anti-supernatural system is/was the so-called Carvaka school.", {{doi|10.1111/j.1467-9744.2012.01274.x}}</ref> Cārvāka is an [[atheism|atheistic]] school of thought.{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|pp=227-249}} It holds that there is neither afterlife nor rebirth, all existence is mere combination of atoms and substances, feelings and mind are an epiphenomenon, and free will exists.<ref name=bhattacarv>R Bhattacharya (2011), Studies on the Carvaka/Lokayata, Anthem, {{ISBN|978-0857284334}}, pages 53, 94, 141–142</ref><ref name=bronkhorst>[[Johannes Bronkhorst]] (2012), Free will and Indian philosophy, Antiqvorvm Philosophia: An International Journal, Roma Italy, Volume 6, pages 19–30</ref>

Bṛhaspati is sometimes referred to as the founder of Cārvāka (also called Lokayata) philosophy. Much of the primary literature of Cārvāka, the [[Barhaspatya sutras]] (ca. 600 BCE), however, are missing or lost.{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|pp=227-249}}<ref>Ramkrishna Bhattacharya (2013), The base text and its commentaries: Problem of representing and understanding the Carvaka / Lokayata, Argument: Biannual Philosophical Journal, Issue 1, Volume 3, pages 133–150</ref> Its theories and development has been compiled from historic secondary literature such as those found in the [[shastra]]s, [[sutra]]s and the [[Indian epic poetry]] as well as from the texts of [[Buddhism]] and from [[Jain literature]].{{Sfn|Radhakrishnan|Moore|1957|pp=227-249}}<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Bhattacharya|first1=Ramakrishna|title=Cārvāka Fragments: A New Collection|journal=Journal of Indian Philosophy|date=2002 |volume=30| issue = 6 |pages=597–640|doi=10.1023/A:1023569009490|s2cid=169948463}}</ref><ref>Dale Riepe (1996), Naturalistic Tradition in Indian Thought, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120812932}}, pages 53–58</ref> The {{Lang|sa-latn|Tattvôpaplava-siṁha}} by the skeptic philosopher [[Jayarāśi Bhaṭṭa]] has been considered by many scholars to be an unorthodox Cārvāka text.<ref>{{Citation|last=Balcerowicz|first=Piotr|title=Jayarāśi|date=2016|url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/jayaraasi/|encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy|editor-last=Zalta|editor-first=Edward N.|edition=Spring 2016|publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University|access-date=8 July 2020|archive-date=8 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708083208/https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2016/entries/jayaraasi/|url-status=live}}</ref>

One of the widely studied principles of Cārvāka philosophy was its rejection of [[inference]] as a means to establish valid, universal knowledge, and [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] truths.{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=5-7}} In other words, the Cārvāka epistemology states that whenever one infers a truth from a set of observations or truths, one must acknowledge doubt; inferred knowledge is conditional.<ref>MM Kamal (1998), The Epistemology of the Carvaka Philosophy, Journal of Indian and Buddhist Studies, 46(2): 13–16</ref>

==Shaivism==
{{main|Shaivism}}

Early history of Shaivism is difficult to determine.<ref>{{Citation |last = Tattwananda |first = Swami |year = 1984 |title = Vaisnava Sects, Saiva Sects, Mother Worship |place = Calcutta |publisher = Firma KLM Private Ltd. |edition = First Revised |page=45 }}.</ref> However, the [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad|''{{IAST|Śvetāśvatara}} Upanishad'']] (400 – 200 BCE){{sfn|Flood|1996|p=86}} is considered to be the earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of Shaivism.<ref>{{Citation |last = Chakravarti |first = Mahadev |year = 1994 |title = The Concept of Rudra-Śiva Through The Ages |place = Delhi |publisher = Motilal Banarsidass |edition = Second Revised |page=9 |isbn = 81-208-0053-2 }}.</ref> Shaivism is represented by various philosophical schools, including non-dualist ({{Lang|sa-latn|abheda}}), dualist ({{Lang|sa-latn|bheda}}), and non-dualist-with-dualist (''{{IAST|bhedābheda}}'') perspectives. [[Vidyaranya]] in his works mentions three major schools of Shaiva thought: [[Pashupata Shaivism]], [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] and Pratyabhijña ([[Kashmir Shaivism]]).{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|p=xii}}

===Pāśupata Shaivism===
Pāśupata Shaivism ({{Lang|sa-latn|Pāśupata}}, 'of Paśupati') is the oldest of the major Shaiva schools.{{Sfn|Flood|2003|p=206}} The philosophy of Pashupata sect was systematised by ''[[Lakulish]]'' in the 2nd century CE. ''Paśu'' in [[Pashupati|Paśupati]] refers to the effect (or created world), the word designates that which is dependent on something ulterior. Whereas, Pati means the cause (or {{Lang|la|principium}}), the word designates the Lord, who is the cause of the universe, the {{Lang|sa-latn|pati}}, or the ruler.{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|pp=104-105}} Pashupatas disapproved of Vaishnava theology, known for its doctrine servitude of Selfs to the Supreme Being, on the grounds that dependence upon anything could not be the means of cessation of pain and other desired ends. They recognised that those depending upon another and longing for independence will not be emancipated because they still depend upon something other than themselves. According to Pāśupatas, Self possesses the attributes of the Supreme Deity when it becomes liberated from the 'germ of every pain'.{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|p=103}}

Pāśupatas divided the created world into the insentient and the sentient. The insentient was the unconscious and thus dependent on the sentient or conscious. The insentient was further divided into effects and causes. The effects were of ten kinds, the earth, [[Classical element|four elements]] and their qualities, colour etc. The causes were of thirteen kinds, the five organs of cognition, the five organs of action, the three internal organs, intellect, the ego principle and the cognising principle. These insentient causes were held responsible for the illusive identification of Self with non-Self. Salvation in Pāśupata involved the union of the Self with God through the intellect.{{Sfn|Madhavacharya|1882|p=107}}

===Shaiva Siddhanta===
Considered normative [[Tantra|Tantric]] Shaivism, Shaiva Siddhanta<ref>Xavier Irudayaraj, "Saiva Siddanta", in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.10 ff.</ref><ref>Xavier Irudayaraj, "Self Understanding of Saiva Siddanta Scriptures" in the St. Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India, Ed. George Menachery, Vol.III, 2010, pp.14 ff.</ref> provides the normative rites, cosmology and theological categories of Tantric Shaivism.{{sfn|Flood|2005|p=120}} Being a dualistic philosophy, the goal of Shaiva Siddhanta is to become an ontologically distinct Shiva (through Shiva's grace).{{sfn|Flood|2005|p=122}} This tradition later merged with the Tamil Saiva movement and expression of concepts of Shaiva Siddhanta can be seen in the bhakti poetry of the [[Nayanars]].{{sfn|Flood|1996|p=168}}

===Kashmir Shaivism===
Kashmir Shaivism arose during the eighth<ref>Kashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, By Lakshman Jee</ref> or ninth century CE{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=4}} in [[Kashmir]] and made significant strides, both philosophical and theological, until the end of the twelfth century CE.<ref>The Trika Śaivism of Kashmir, Moti Lal Pandit, pp. 1</ref> It is categorised by various scholars as [[monistic]]<ref>Kashmir Shaivism: The Secret Supreme, Swami Lakshman Jee, pp. 103</ref> [[idealism]] ([[absolute idealism]], theistic monism, realistic idealism,{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=51}} transcendental physicalism or concrete monism{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=51}}). It is a school of [[Śaivism]] consisting of [[Trika]] and its philosophical articulation Pratyabhijña.{{sfn|Flood|2005|pp=56–68}}

Even though, both Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are non-dual philosophies which give primacy to Universal Consciousness ({{Lang|sa-latn|Chit}} or ''Brahman''),<ref>Singh, Jaideva. Pratyãbhijñahṛdayam. Moltilal Banarsidass, 2008. PP. 24–26.</ref> in Kashmir Shavisim, as opposed to Advaita, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness.{{Sfn|Dyczkowski|1987|p=44}} This implies that from the point of view of Kashmir Shavisim, the phenomenal world ({{Lang|sa-latn|Śakti}}) is real, and it exists and has its being in Consciousness ({{Lang|sa-latn|Chit}}).<ref>Ksemaraja, trans. by Jaidev Singh, Spanda Karikas: The Divine Creative Pulsation, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, p.119</ref> However, Advaita holds that Brahman is the reality (pure consciousness) and it is inactive ({{Lang|sa-latn|niṣkriya}}) and the phenomenal world is an appearance ({{Lang|sa-latn|māyā}}).<ref>Shankarananda, (Swami). Consciousness is Everything, The Yoga of Kashmir Shaivism. PP. 56–59</ref> The objective of human life, according to Kashmir Shaivism, is to merge in Shiva or Universal Consciousness, or to realise one's already existing identity with Shiva, by means of wisdom, yoga and grace.<ref>Mishra, K.  Kashmir Saivism, The Central Philosophy of Tantrism. PP. 330–334.</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Hinduism|Philosophy}}
{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Āstika and nāstika]]
* [[Pramana]]
* [[Vedas]]
* [[Buddhism and Hinduism]]
* [[Indian philosophy]]
* [[Buddhist philosophy]]
* [[Hindu idealism]]
* [[Hindu denominations]]
* [[Metaphilosophy]]
* [[Dharma]]
* [[Āśrama (stage)|Asrama]]
* [[Origin of language]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chatterjee |first1=Satischandra |last2=Datta |first2=Dhirendramohan |title=An Introduction to Indian Philosophy |year=1984 |publisher=University of Calcutta |location=Calcutta |edition=Eighth Reprint }}
* {{cite book |last=Dyczkowski |first=Mark S. G. |title=The Doctrine of Vibration: An Analysis of the Doctrines and Practices of Kashmir Shaivism |year=1987 |publisher=State University of New York Press |location=Albany, New York |isbn=0-88706-432-9 }}
* {{cite book |author=Guttorm Fløistad|title=Philosophie asiatique/Asian philosophy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W6zzqirWM3kC |date=28 February 1993 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-0-7923-1762-3}}
* {{cite book |last=Flood|first=Gavin|author-link=Gavin Flood|title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration |year=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Flood |editor-first=Gavin |title=The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism |year=2003 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd |location=Malden, MA |isbn=1-4051-3251-5 }}
* {{cite book |last=Flood |first=Gavin |title=The Tantric Body: The Secret Tradition of Hindu Religion |year=2005 |publisher=I. B. Tauris  |isbn= 1845110110 }}
* {{cite book |last=Grimes|first=John A.|title=A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Vfi0n8k1G7oC|year=1989|publisher=SUNY Press |isbn=978-0-7914-0100-2}}
* {{Citation | last =King | first =Richard | year =2007 | title =Indian Philosophy. An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Thought | publisher =Georgetown University Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Lochtefeld|first=James G.|title=The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism: N-Z|url=https://archive.org/details/illustratedencyc0000loch|url-access=registration|year=2002|publisher=The Rosen Publishing Group |isbn=978-0-8239-3180-4}}
* {{cite book |author=Madhavacharya |translator=E.B. Cowell and A.E. Gough |year=1882 |title=The Sarva-Darśana-Saṃgraha or Review of the Different Systems of Hindu Philosophy |series=Trübner's Oriental Series |place=London |publisher=Trübner & Co. |url=https://archive.org/stream/Sarva-Darsana-Samgraha.by.Madhavacharya-Vidyaranya.tr.by.E.B.Cowell}}
* {{cite book |last=Müeller |first=Max | author-link= Max Müller |year= 1899 |title=Six Systems of Indian Philosophy; Samkhya and Yoga, Naya and Vaiseshika|url=https://archive.org/details/sixsystemsofindi00mulliala|publisher=Susil Gupta (India) Ltd.|location=Calcutta |isbn=0-7661-4296-5}} Reprint edition; Originally published under the title of ''The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy''.
* {{Citation | last =Nicholson | first =Andrew J. | year =2010 | title =Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History | publisher =Columbia University Press}}
* {{Cite book |last=Nicholson |first=Andrew J. |title=Unifying Hinduism: Philosophy and Identity in Indian Intellectual History |year=2013 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-14987-7 |language=en}}
* {{cite book |last=Perrett|first=Roy W.|title=Philosophy of Religion|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DaoXMSGLOVMC|year=2000|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-8153-3611-2}}
* {{cite book |last=Potter|first=Karl H.|title=Presuppositions of India's Philosophies|url=https://archive.org/details/presuppositionso0000pott|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/presuppositionso0000pott/page/98 98]|year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-0779-2}}
* {{cite book |last1=Radhakrishnan |first1=S. |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |last2=Moore |first2=CA |title=A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy |year=1957 |publisher=Princeton |isbn=0-691-01958-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinindi00radh }}
{{refend}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |surname=Dasgupta |given=Surendranath |year=1922–1955 <!--|authorlink=Surendranath Dasgupta--> |title=A History of Indian Philosophy |volume=1–5 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |place=London |url=https://www.indianculture.gov.in/reports-proceedings/history-indian-philosophy-vol-i}} [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.96713 Vol. 1] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57593 Vol. 2] | [https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57392 Vol. 3] | [https://archive.org/details/dli.ernet.231099 Vol. 4] | [https://archive.org/details/AHistoryOfIndianPhilosophyVol5/page/n1/mode/2up Vol. 5.]
* {{cite encyclopedia |editor-surname=Potter |editor-given=Karl H. |editor-link=Karl Harrington Potter |title=Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophers |place=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1970–2019 |volume=1–25- |postscript=.&nbsp;Ongoing [[monographic series]] project. |url=http://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201160007/https://faculty.washington.edu/kpotter/xencyclo.html |archive-date=2022-02-01 |url-status=dead}}
* {{cite book |year=1923–1927 |surname=Radhakrishnan |given=Sarvepalli |author-link=Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan |title=Indian Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |volume=2-volume Set |url=https://archive.org/details/Sarvepalli.Radhakrishnan.Indian.Philosophy.Volume.1-2}}
* Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli;  and Moore, Charles A. ''A Source Book in Indian Philosophy''.  Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. {{ISBN|0-691-01958-4}}.
* Rambachan, Anantanand. "The Advaita Worldview: God, World and Humanity." 2006.
* Zilberman, David B., ''The Birth of Meaning in Hindu Thought''.  D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland, 1988.  {{ISBN|90-277-2497-0}}.  Chapter 1.  "Hindu Systems of Thought as Epistemic Disciplines".

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