{{Short description|De facto region in Syria (2012–2026)}}
{{Confused|Syrian Kurdistan|Syrian Democratic Forces}}
{{Pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2026}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria
| iso3166code = omit
| native_name = {{Collapsible list|framestyle=border:none; padding:0|liststyle=text-align:center;|titlestyle=text-align:center; item_style=font-size:85%;
|title = {{resize|Native names}}
|{{native name|ar|الإدارة الذاتية الديمقراطية لإقليم شمال وشرق سوريا}}
|{{native name|ku-Latn|Rêveberiya Xweseriya Demokratîk a Herêma Bakur û Rojhilatê Sûriyê}}
|{{native name|syc|ܡܕܒܪܢܘܬ݂ܳܐ ܝܬ݂ܝܬܳܐ ܕܝܡܩܪܐܛܝܬܳܐ ܠܩܠܝܡܳܐ ܕܓܪܒܝܳܐ ܘ ܡܕܢܚܳܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܰܐ}}
|{{native name|tr|Kuzey ve Doğu Suriye Demokratik Özerk Yönetimi Bölgesi}}
}}
| image_flag = Flag of the Democratic Administration of North and East Syria.svg
| common_name = North and East Syria
| flag_type = [[Symbols of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Flag]]{{efn|The DAANES recognized and flew the [[Flag of Syria|revolution flag]] ({{Flagicon|Syria}}) from 12 December 2024 until 20 August 2026.[{{Cite tweet |user=aanes__official |number=1867171125207126304 |title=On the occasion of the victory of the will of the Syrians and the overthrow of the oppressive regime, the Democratic Peoples' Council decided to raise the flag of independence on... }}][{{Cite web |url=https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=942054901359302&set=a.447290527502411 |title=Syrian flag |publisher=Facebook |access-date=19 August 2025 |archive-date=5 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260105114122/https://www.facebook.com/photo/?fbid=942054901359302&set=a.447290527502411 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |title=AANES adopts flag of Syrian revolution |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/12/aanes-adopts-flag-of-syrian-revolution/ |website=Enab Baladi |date=12 December 2024 |access-date=13 December 2024 |language=en-US |archive-date=28 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260128222543/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2024/12/aanes-adopts-flag-of-syrian-revolution/ |url-status=live }}]}}
(2018–2026)
| image_map = {{Switcher|[[File:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (orthographic projection, 2019-2024).svg|frameless]]|Areas under DAANES control 2019–2024|[[File:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (orthographic projection) before the Northeastern Syria offensive (2012–2026).svg|frameless]]|Areas under DAANES control 2024–2026|[[File:Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (orthographic projection).svg|frameless]]|Areas under partial DAANES control after the [[2026 northeastern Syria offensive|2026 offensive]]|default=1}}
| map_width = 250px
| image_coat = Emblem of the Democratic Administration of North and East Syria.svg
| symbol_type = [[Symbols of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Emblem]]{{efn|A variety of symbols and flags are used. See [[Symbols of North and East Syria]].}}
(2018–2026)
| national_anthem =
| largest_city = capital
| official_languages = {{hlist|[[Arabic language|Arabic]]|[[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]] ([[Kurmanji]])|[[Syriac language|Syriac]][{{cite Q|Q135457503 }}]}}
| capital = [[Al-Hasakah]]{{efn|[[Ayn Issa]] (2012–2026)
'''''De facto'':'''
[[Qamishli]] (2015–2019)[{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html/ |title=A Dream of Secular Utopia in ISIS' Backyard |work=The New York Times |date=29 November 2015 |access-date=10 May 2016 |archive-date=8 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260208090004/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |last=Radpey |first=Loqman |date=September 2016 |title=Kurdish Regional Self-rule Administration in Syria: A new Model of Statehood and its Status in International Law Compared to the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Iraq |journal=Japanese Journal of Political Science |language=en |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=468–488 |doi=10.1017/S1468109916000190 |issn=1468-1099 |doi-access=free }}][{{Cite web |date=5 December 2019 |title=Ain Issa: from an obscure town to SDF headquarters |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/12/ain-issa-from-an-obscure-town-to-sdf-headquarters/ |access-date=18 December 2020 |website=Enab Baladi |language=en-US |archive-date=9 October 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251009141510/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2019/12/ain-issa-from-an-obscure-town-to-sdf-headquarters/ |url-status=live }}]}}
| coordinates = {{Coord|36|29|55|N|40|44|45|E|type:city}}
| government_type = [[Regional autonomy|Autonomous]] diarchic [[Presidential system|presidential government]]
| title_leader = [[Executive Council (Rojava)|Co-Presidents]]
| leader1 = [[Hediya Yousef]] and [[Mansur Selum]]
| year_leader1 = 2016–2018 (first)
| leader2 = [[Îlham Ehmed]] and Mansur Selum
| title_representative = [[Syrian Democratic Council|Co-Chairs]]
| year_representative1 = 2015–2016 (first)
| representative1 = [[Haytham Manna]] and Amina Omar
| year_representative2 = 2016–2026 (last)
| representative2 = [[Riad Darar]] and Amina Omar
| year_leader2 = 2018–2026 (last)
| legislature = [[Syrian Democratic Council|People's Democratic Council]]
(2015–2026)
| area_magnitude =
| area_km2 =
| area_sq_mi = 3800
| area_footnote = (2019)[{{cite web |title=War Statistics / Syrian War Statistics – Syrian Civil War Map |url=https://syriancivilwarmap.com/war-statistics/ |website=Syrian Civil War Map – Live Middle East Map/ Map of the Syrian Civil War |access-date=24 September 2018 |archive-date=4 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190404195153/https://syriancivilwarmap.com/war-statistics/ |url-status=dead }}]
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate = 4,600,000[{{Cite web |last=Salih |first=Mohammed A. |date=31 January 2024 |title=Syria's Kurdish Northeast Ratifies a New Constitution |url=https://newlinesmag.com/argument/syrias-kurdish-northeast-ratifies-a-new-constitution/ |access-date=24 November 2024 |website=New Lines Magazine |language=en |archive-date=7 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241207084650/https://newlinesmag.com/argument/syrias-kurdish-northeast-ratifies-a-new-constitution/ |url-status=live }}]
| life_span = 2012–2026
| year_start = 2012
| status = [[Quasi-state]][{{Cite book|last=Williams|first=Brian Glyn|title=Counter Jihad: America's Military Experience in Afghanistan, Iraq, and Syria|date=20 October 2016|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|isbn=9780812248678|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_x82DQAAQBAJ|page=300|language=en}}][{{Cite web|last=Strachota|first=Krzysztof|title=The dismantling of the Kurdish quasi-state: a new stage in Syria's post-war transformation|url=https://www.osw.waw.pl/en/publikacje/osw-commentary/2026-03-09/dismantling-kurdish-quasi-state-a-new-stage-syrias-post-war|website=OSW Centre for Eastern Studies|date=9 March 2026}}]
| year_end = 2026
| event_start = Established as the [[Kurdish Supreme Committee]]
| date_start = 12 July
| event1 = Transitional administration declared
| date_event1 = 2013
| event2 = Cantons declare autonomy
| date_event2 = January 2014
| event3 = Cantons declare federation
| date_event3 = 17 March 2016
| event4 = New administration declared
| date_event4 = 6 September 2018
| event5 = [[2026 northeastern Syria offensive|North-Eastern Syria offensive]]
| date_event5 = 13–30 January 2026
| event_end = Integration into the Syrian state
| date_end = 20 August
| currency = [[Syrian pound]]
| currency_code = SYP
| time_zone = [[Arabia Standard Time]]
| utc_offset = +3
| drives_on = right
| p1 = Ba'athist Syria
| flag_p1 = Flag of the United Arab Republic (1958–1971), Flag of Syria (1980–2024).svg
| s1 = Syrian Arab Republic
| flag_s1 = Flag of Syria (2025-).svg
| era = {{hlist|[[Rojava Revolution|Rojava conflict]]|[[Syrian civil war]]|[[Aftermath of the Syrian civil war]]}}
| official_website = {{URL|https://daanes.org/en/homepage/}}
}}
The '''Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria''' ('''DAANES'''), also known as '''Rojava''',{{efn|The name "Rojava" ("[[Western Kurdistan]]") was initially used by the region's [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|PYD]]-led government, before its usage was officially dropped in 2016.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=154}}{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}}[{{Cite web |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-Rojava--no-longer-exists---Northern-Syria--adopted-instead- |title='Rojava' no longer exists, 'Northern Syria' adopted instead |website=Kurdistan24 |access-date=11 December 2019 |archive-date=14 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191114141412/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-rojava--no-longer-exists---northern-syria--adopted-instead- |url-status=live }}] Locals and international observers continued to use the term Rojava.[{{cite web |date=1 December 2017 |title=Electoral Commission publish video of elections 2nd stage |url=https://en.hawarnews.com/electoral-commission-publish-video-of-elections-2nd-stage/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032359/https://en.hawarnews.com/electoral-commission-publish-video-of-elections-2nd-stage/ |archive-date=1 December 2017 |website=Hawar News }}][{{cite web |url=http://cantonafrin.com/en/news/view/1658.a-delegation-from-the-democratic-administration-of-self-participate-in-the-second-conference-of-the-el--shahba-region.html |title=Delegation from the Democratic administration of Self-participate of self-participate in the first and second conference of the Shaba region |date=4 February 2016 |publisher=Cantonafrin.com |access-date=12 June 2016 |archive-date=9 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160809175326/http://cantonafrin.com/en/news/view/1658.a-delegation-from-the-democratic-administration-of-self-participate-in-the-second-conference-of-the-el--shahba-region.html |url-status=dead }}]{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=11, 95}}{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|pp=219, 228}} The region conducted [[Foreign relations of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|some foreign relations]], but was not officially recognized as autonomous by the Syrian government or any other state, although the [[Parliament of Catalonia]] recognized it.[{{Cite web |date=26 October 2021 |title=Umar: Catalonian recognition of AANES is the beginning |url=http://www.hawarnews.com/en/haber/umar-catalonian-recognition-of-aanes-is-the-beginning-h27342.html |url-status=live |access-date=27 October 2021 |website=[[Hawar News Agency]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211026094527/https://hawarnews.com/en/haber/umar-catalonian-recognition-of-aanes-is-the-beginning-h27342.html |archive-date=26 October 2021 }}][{{Cite web |last=van Wilgenburg |first=Wladimir |author-link=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |date=21 October 2021 |title=Catalan parliament recognizes administration in northeast Syria |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/25991-Catalan-parliament-recognizes-administration-in-northeast-Syria |url-status=live |access-date=27 October 2021 |website=[[Kurdistan24]] |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021074228/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/story/25991-Catalan-parliament-recognizes-administration-in-northeast-Syria |archive-date=21 October 2021 }}]
The region gained its ''de facto'' autonomy in 2012 amid the [[Rojava Revolution|Rojava conflict]] and the wider [[Syrian civil war]], with its official military force, the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] (SDF), participating in the conflict.[{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49973218 |title=Turkey's Syria offensive explained in four maps |date=14 October 2019 |publisher=BBC News |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013121623/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49973218 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=Syria Kurds adopt constitution for autonomous federal region |url=https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/12/30/syria-kurds-adopt-constitution-for-autonomous-federal-region |access-date=5 October 2018 |publisher=TheNewArab |date=31 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181005194832/https://www.alaraby.co.uk/english/news/2016/12/30/syria-kurds-adopt-constitution-for-autonomous-federal-region |archive-date=5 October 2018 |url-status=live }}] Northeastern Syria was [[Polyethnicity|polyethnic]] and was home to sizeable ethnic [[Arab]], [[Kurds|Kurdish]], and [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] populations, with smaller communities of ethnic [[Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen]], [[Armenians in Syria|Armenians]], [[Circassians]], and [[Yazidis]].{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=xviii, 112}}{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|pp=219, 228–229}}[{{Cite book |last=Schmidinger |first=Thomas |title=The Battle for the Mountain of the Kurds |url=https://theanarchistlibrary.org/mirror/t/ts/thomas-schmidinger-the-battle-for-the-mountain-of-the-kurds.pdf |publisher=PM Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-62963-651-1 |pages=12 |translator-last=Schiffmann |translator-first=Thomas |quote=Afrin was the home to the largest Ezidi minority in Syria. |archive-date=3 December 2024 |access-date=30 November 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241203063412/https://theanarchistlibrary.org/mirror/t/ts/thomas-schmidinger-the-battle-for-the-mountain-of-the-kurds.pdf |url-status=live }}] Independent organizations that provided healthcare in the region included the [[Kurdish Red Crescent]],[{{Cite web |date=22 June 2017 |title=The medical care situation in Rojava |url=https://www.cadus.org/en/article/the-medical-care-situation-in-rojava |access-date=28 June 2021 |website=Cadus |language=en |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094759/https://www.cadus.org/en/article/the-medical-care-situation-in-rojava |url-status=live }}] the [[Syrian American Medical Society]],[{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=Noah |date=27 October 2019 |title=In Northern Syria, Destruction and Displacement Confront Health Workers |url=https://www.directrelief.org/2019/10/in-northern-syria-destruction-and-displacement-confront-health-workers/ |access-date=28 June 2021 |website=Direct Relief |language=en-US |archive-date=26 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220626192426/https://www.directrelief.org/2019/10/in-northern-syria-destruction-and-displacement-confront-health-workers/ |url-status=live }}] the [[Free Burma Rangers]],[{{Cite web |last=Bachelard |first=Michael |date=4 November 2019 |title=Free Burma Rangers activist and medic killed by Turkish drone strike in Syria |url=https://www.smh.com.au/world/middle-east/free-burma-rangers-activist-and-medic-killed-by-turkish-drone-strike-in-syria-20191104-p5377q.html |access-date=28 June 2021 |website=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]] |language=en |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094729/https://www.smh.com.au/world/middle-east/free-burma-rangers-activist-and-medic-killed-by-turkish-drone-strike-in-syria-20191104-p5377q.html |url-status=live }}] and [[Médecins Sans Frontières|Doctors Without Borders]].[{{Cite web |title=Syria Crisis: MSF provides healthcare to Syrians crossing into Iraqi Kurdistan |url=https://www.msf-me.org/article/syria-crisis-msf-provides-healthcare-syrians-crossing-iraqi-kurdistan |access-date=28 June 2021 |website=[[Doctors Without Borders]] |date=23 August 2013 |archive-date=22 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022232817/https://www.msf-me.org/article/syria-crisis-msf-provides-healthcare-syrians-crossing-iraqi-kurdistan |url-status=live }}]
From 2016 until 2026, Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebel forces [[Turkish occupation of northern Syria|occupied parts of northern Syria]] through a series of military operations against the SDF.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-turkey-sdf-statement-idUSKBN1WR0FM |title=Kurdish-led SDF says Turkish invasion has revived IS, urges no-fly zone |date=12 October 2019 |publisher=Reuters |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094728/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-turkey-sdf-statement-idUSKBN1WR0FM |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=https://ahvalnews.com/sdf-turkey |title=SDF-Turkey |website=Ahval |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=5 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210905020637/https://ahvalnews.com/sdf-turkey |url-status=dead }}] In January 2026, the [[Syrian transitional government]] took full control of the territory previously controlled by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebel forces.[{{Cite web |last1=Cafarella |first1=Jennifer |title=Iran Update, January 21, 2026 |url=https://understandingwar.org/research/middle-east/iran-update-january-21-2026/ |access-date=22 January 2026 |website=Institute for the Study of War |date=22 January 2026 |language=en |archive-date=22 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260122043550/https://understandingwar.org/research/middle-east/iran-update-january-21-2026/ |url-status=live }}]
Following the January [[2026 northeastern Syria offensive]] by government forces, up to 80% of the DAANES's territory was captured and subsequently ceded to the Syrian government as part of an integration agreement, culminating in the DAANES's full integration into the Syrian state on 20 August 2026.[{{cite web |last1=Hasano |first1=Mahmoud |last2=Taha |first2=Jaidaa |name-list-style=and |date=19 January 2026 |title=Syria government, Kurdish forces agree sweeping integration to end clashes |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/syrian-forces-advance-deeper-into-usbacked-kurdishcontrolled-northeast-2026-01-18/ |access-date=19 January 2026 |website=Reuters }}][{{cite news |date=20 August 2026 |title=Syrian Kurdish leader says integration with Damascus complete |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2026/08/20/syrian-kurdish-leader-says-integration-with-damascus-complete |access-date=20 August 2026 |publisher=Al Arabiya |archive-date=21 August 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260821093632/https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2026/08/20/syrian-kurdish-leader-says-integration-with-damascus-complete |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |last=Lister |first=Tim |date=18 January 2026 |title=Syria's military has seized swathes of Kurdish-held territory. Here's what we know |url=https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/18/middleeast/syria-military-takeover-kurdish-sdf-explainer-intl |access-date=19 January 2026 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=28 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260128191845/https://www.cnn.com/2026/01/18/middleeast/syria-military-takeover-kurdish-sdf-explainer-intl |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |date=23 January 2026 |title=22/01 Emergency Update |url=https://rojavainformationcenter.org/2026/01/emergency-update-22-01-2026/ |access-date=26 January 2026 |website=[[Rojava Information Center]] |language=en-GB |archive-date=31 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260131170935/https://rojavainformationcenter.org/2026/01/emergency-update-22-01-2026/ |url-status=live }}]
==Names==
Parts of northern Syria are known as '''Western Kurdistan''',{{Efn|{{langx|ku|Rojavayê Kurdistanê}}}} or simply Rojava{{Efn|{{IPAc-en|ˌ|r|oʊ|ʒ|ə|ˈ|v|ɑː}} {{respell|ROH|zhə|VAH|'}}; {{IPA|ku|roʒɑˈvɑ|lang}} "the West"}} among Kurds,[{{harvnb|Lister|2015|p=154}}: "On 19 July the PYD formally announced that it had written a constitution for an autonomous Syrian Kurdish region to be known as West Kurdistan."]{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}}[{{cite web |url=http://ku.hawarnews.com/yekineya-anti-teror-a-rojavaye-kurdistane-hate-avakirin/ |title=Yekîneya Antî Teror a Rojavayê Kurdistanê hate avakirin |language=ku |date=7 April 2015 |website=Ajansa Nûçeyan a Hawar |access-date=13 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512023530/http://ku.hawarnews.com/yekineya-anti-teror-a-rojavaye-kurdistane-hate-avakirin/ |archive-date=12 May 2015 |url-status=dead |trans-title=Anti-Terror Unit of West Kurdistan formed }}] one of the four parts of [[Greater Kurdistan]].[''Kurdish Awakening: Nation Building in a Fragmented Homeland'', (2014), by Ofra Bengio, University of Texas Press, p. 2] The name "Rojava" was thus associated with a Kurdish identity of the administration. As the region expanded and increasingly included areas dominated by non-Kurdish groups, mostly Arabs, "Rojava" was used less and less by the administration in hopes of deethnicising its appearance and making it more acceptable to other ethnicities.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=89, 151–152}} Regardless, the polity continued to be called "Rojava" by locals and international observers,[{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/turkey-military-operation-syria-latest-updates-191013083950643.html |title=Turkey's military operation in Syria: All the latest updates |work=al Jazeera |date=14 October 2019 |access-date=29 October 2019 |archive-date=16 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200916172212/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/turkey-military-operation-syria-latest-updates-191013083950643.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/11/turkey-syria-pkk-worried-by-growing-popularity-of-ypg-kurds.html |title=Is the PKK worried by the YPG's growing popularity? |author=Metin Gurcan |work=[[al-Monitor]] |date=7 November 2019 |access-date=7 November 2019 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108183057/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/11/turkey-syria-pkk-worried-by-growing-popularity-of-ypg-kurds.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=https://www.ardmediathek.de/ard/player/Y3JpZDovL25kci5kZS81YmI0NzU0OC0zNGI3LTRlMTYtYWI2MC03YWM3ZDA5YmRhNDQ/ |title=Nordsyrien: Warum ein Deutscher sein Leben für die Kurden riskiert |trans-title=Northern Syria: Why a German risks his life for the Kurds |language=de |date=31 October 2019 |work=ARD |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=1 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191101164522/https://www.ardmediathek.de/ard/player/Y3JpZDovL25kci5kZS81YmI0NzU0OC0zNGI3LTRlMTYtYWI2MC03YWM3ZDA5YmRhNDQ/ |url-status=dead }}] with journalist Metin Gurcan noting that "the concept of Rojava [had become] a brand gaining global recognition" by 2019.[{{Cite book |title=Aramaic (Assyrian/Syriac) Dictionary & Phrasebook: Swadaya-English, Turoyo-English, English-Swadaya-Turoyo |last1=Awde |first1=Nicholas |last2=Lamassu |first2=Nineb |last3=Al-Jeloo |first3=Nicholas |date=2007 |publisher=Hippocrene Books |isbn=9780781810876 |page=300 }}] The first name of the local government for the Kurdish-dominated areas in [[Afrin District]], [[Ayn al-Arab District]] (Kobanî), and northern [[al-Hasakah Governorate]] was "Interim Transitional Administration", adopted in 2013.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}} After the three autonomous cantons were proclaimed in 2014 together with a written [[Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Social Contract]],[{{cite Q|Q135455332 }}]{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=93–94}} territories governed by the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]] (PYD) were also nicknamed "the Autonomous Regions"{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}} or "Democratic Autonomous Administration".[{{cite web |url=http://omranstudies.org/publications/papers/the-autonomous-administration-in-northern-syria-questions-of-legitimacy-and-identity.html |title=The Autonomous Administration in Northern Syria: Questions of Legitimacy and Identity |publisher=Omran Center for Strategic Studies |date=26 July 2018 |access-date=14 February 2019 |archive-date=1 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401130230/http://omranstudies.org/publications/papers/the-autonomous-administration-in-northern-syria-questions-of-legitimacy-and-identity.html |url-status=live }}] On 17 March 2016, the establishment of a [[federal system]] of government known as the '''Democratic Federation of Rojava – Northern Syria''';{{Efn|{{langx|ku|Federaliya Demokratîk a Rojava – Bakurê Sûriyê}}
{{langx|ar|الفدرالية الديمقراطية لروج آفا – شمال سوريا|translit=al-Fidirāliyya al-Dīmuqrāṭiyya li-Rūj ʾĀvā – Šamāl Suriyā}}
{{langx|syc|ܦܕܪܐܠܝܘܬ݂ܐ ܕܝܡܩܪܐܛܝܬܐ ܠܓܙܪܬܐ ܒܓܪܒܝܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܐ|translit=Federaloyotho Demoqraṭoyto l'Gozarto b'Garbyo d'Suriya}}}} sometimes abbreviated as NSR, was declared.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}}[{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/03/syria-civil-war-kurds-declare-federal-system-north-160317111902534.html |title=Syria civil war: Kurds declare federal region in north |date=17 March 2016 |website=Aljazeera |access-date=18 March 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190927162505/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2016/03/syria-civil-war-kurds-declare-federal-system-north-160317111902534.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/kurds-declare-federal-region-in-syria-says-official-1458216404 |title=Kurds Declare 'Federal Region' in Syria, Says Official |last1=Bradley |first1=Matt |last2=Albayrak |first2=Ayla |newspaper=The Wall Street Journal |issn=0099-9660 |last3=Ballout |first3=Dana |access-date=18 March 2016 |archive-date=17 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317204725/https://www.wsj.com/articles/kurds-declare-federal-region-in-syria-says-official-1458216404 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://ku.hawarnews.com/resnivisa-hevpeymana-civaki-ya-federaliya-demokratik-a-bakure-suriyeye/ |title=Reşnivîsa Hevpeymana Civakî ya Federaliya Demokratîk a Bakurê Sûriyeyê – ANHA |website=ku.hawarnews.com |language=ku |trans-title=Draft of the Social Coalition of the Democratic Federation of Northern Syria |access-date=14 May 2017 |archive-date=14 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180314065652/http://ku.hawarnews.com/resnivisa-hevpeymana-civaki-ya-federaliya-demokratik-a-bakure-suriyeye/ |url-status=dead }}][{{Cite web |url=http://fdr-bs.com/kur/archives/305 |title=Hevpeymana Civakî ya Federaliya Demokratîk ji bo Bakurê Sûriyê |language=ku |trans-title=Social Democratic Alliance for Northern Syria |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=29 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529173852/http://fdr-bs.com/kur/archives/305 |url-status=live }}]
The updated December 2016 constitution of the polity[{{cite Q|Q135457489 }}] used the name '''Democratic Federation of Northern Syria''' ('''DFNS''').{{Efn|{{langx|ku|Federaliya Demokratîk a Bakûrê Sûriyê}}
{{langx|ar|الفدرالية الديمقراطية لشمال سوريا|translit=al-Fidirāliyya al-Dīmuqrāṭiyya li-Šamāl Suriyā}}
{{langx|syc|ܦܕܪܐܠܝܘܬ݂ܐ ܕܝܡܩܪܐܛܝܬܐ ܕܓܪܒܝ ܣܘܪܝܐ|translit=Federaloyotho Demoqraṭoyto d'Garbay Suriya}}}}[{{cite news |url=http://en.hawarnews.com/second-day-of-northern-syria-constituent-assembly-conference-takes-place/ |title=Second day of Northern Syria Constituent Assembly conference takes place |date=28 December 2016 |publisher=[[Hawar News Agency]] |access-date=28 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170611083336/http://en.hawarnews.com/second-day-of-northern-syria-constituent-assembly-conference-takes-place/ |archive-date=11 June 2017 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite news |title=Syrian Kurdish groups, allies say approve blueprint for federal system |url=http://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUKKBN14I1BG |access-date=1 January 2017 |publisher=Reuters |date=29 December 2016 |archive-date=12 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163409/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUKKBN14I1BG |url-status=dead }}][{{cite news |title='Rojava' no longer exists, 'Northern Syria' adopted instead |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-Rojava--no-longer-exists---Northern-Syria--adopted-instead- |access-date=1 January 2017 |publisher=Kurdistan24 |date=31 December 2016 |archive-date=25 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180625115433/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/51940fb9-3aff-4e51-bcf8-b1629af00299/-rojava--no-longer-exists---northern-syria--adopted-instead- |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=http://fdr-bs.com/sur/2017/02/03/%DC%A9%DC%9D%DC%A1%DC%90-%DC%9F%DC%A2%DC%98%DC%AB%DC%9D%DC%9D%DC%90-%DC%95%DC%A6%DC%95%DC%AA%DC%90%DC%A0%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%AC%DD%82%DC%90-%DC%95%DC%9D%DC%A1%DC%A9%DC%AA%DC%9B%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002150844/https://fdr-bs.com/sur/2017/02/03/%DC%A9%DC%9D%DC%A1%DC%90-%DC%9F%DC%A2%DC%98%DC%AB%DC%9D%DC%9D%DC%90-%DC%95%DC%A6%DC%95%DC%AA%DC%90%DC%A0%DC%9D%DC%98%DC%AC%DD%82%DC%90-%DC%95%DC%A1%DC%A9%DC%AA%DC%9B%DC%9D%DC%AC%DC%90/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=2 October 2022 |title=ܩܝܡܐ ܟܢܘܫܝܝܐ ܕܦܕܪܐܠܝܘܬ݂ܐ ܕܝܡܩܪܐܛܝܬܐ ܕܓܪܒܝ ܣܘܪܝܐ |website=Fdr-bs.com |access-date=4 December 2021 }}] On 6 September 2018, the [[Syrian Democratic Council]] adopted a new name for the region, naming it the '''Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria''' (NES or AANES){{Efn|{{langx|ku|Rêveberiya Xweser a Bakur û Rojhilatê Sûriyeyê}}
{{langx|ar|الإدارة الذاتية لشمال وشرق سوريا}}
{{langx|syc|ܡܕܰܒܪܳܢܘܬ݂ܳܐ ܝܳܬ݂ܰܝܬܳܐ ܠܓܰܪܒܝܳܐ ܘܡܰܕܢܚܳܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܰܐ|translit=Mdabronuṯo Yoṯayto l-Garbyo w-Madnḥyo d-Suriya}}
{{langx|tr|Kuzey ve Doğu Suriye Özerk Yönetimi}}}} also sometimes translated into English as the '''Self-Administration of North and East Syria''' (SANES), encompassing the Euphrates and Jazira regions as well as the local civil councils in the regions of Raqqa, Tabqa, and Deir ez-Zor.
{{langx|ar|الإدارة الذاتية الديمقراطية لإقليم شمال وشرق سوريا}}
{{langx|syc|ܡܕܒܪܢܘܬ݂ܳܐ ܝܬ݂ܝܬܳܐ ܕܝܡܩܪܐܛܝܬܳܐ ܠܩܠܝܡܳܐ ܕܓܪܒܝܳܐ ܘ ܡܕܢܚܳܐ ܕܣܘܪܝܰܐ|translit=Mdabronuṯo Yoṯayto Demoqraṭoyto l-Qlimo d-Garbyo w-Madnḥyo d-Suriya}}
{{langx|tr|Kuzey ve Doğu Suriye Demokratik Özerk Yönetimi Bölgesi}}}}[{{cite web |last1=Netjes |first1=Rena |last2=van Veen |first2=Erwin |title=Henchman, Rebel, Democrat, Terrorist |url=https://www.clingendael.org/pub/2021/the-ypgpyd-during-the-syrian-conflict/2-strategies-of-dominance-and-governance/ |website=Clingdael Conflict Research Unit |access-date=30 June 2025 |date=April 2021 |archive-date=30 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250630095700/https://www.clingendael.org/pub/2021/the-ypgpyd-during-the-syrian-conflict/2-strategies-of-dominance-and-governance/ |url-status=live }}]
==History==
{{See also|History of Syria|Ottoman Syria|Modern history of Syria|Kurds in Syria|Assyrians in Syria}}
=== Background ===
[[File:TellHalaf,NE-palace1.jpg|thumb|Having been part of the [[Fertile Crescent]], Northern Syria has several Neolithic sites such as [[Tell Halaf]].]]
[[File:SchechHamad,RedHouse2.jpg|thumb|Ruins of the "Red House" of the Assyrian site [[Dur-Katlimmu]] exposed by excavations (6th century AD)]]
Northern Syria is part of the [[Fertile Crescent]], and includes archaeological sites dating to the Neolithic, such as [[Tell Halaf]]. In antiquity, the area was part of the [[Mitanni]] kingdom, its centre being the Khabur river valley in modern-day Jazira Region. It was then part of [[Assyria]], with the last surviving Assyrian imperial records, from between 604 BC and 599 BC, being found in and around the Assyrian city of [[Dūr-Katlimmu]].[Assyria 1995: Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary Symposium of the Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project / Helsinki, 7–11 September 1995.] Later, it was ruled by different dynasties and empires – the [[Achaemenid Empire|Achaemenids]] of [[Iran]], the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic empires]] that succeeded [[Alexander the Great]], the [[Artaxiad dynasty|Artaxiads]] of [[Armenia]],[{{cite book |last1=Crook |first1=JA |display-authors=etal |title=The Cambridge Ancient History Volume 9: The Last Age of the Roman Republic, 146–43 BC |date=1985 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-1139054379 |page=603 }}] [[Roman Empire|Rome]], the Iranian [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] and[{{cite book |last1=Andrea |first1=Alfred J. |author-link1=Alfred J. Andrea |last2=Overfield |first2=James H. |title=The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume I: To 1500 |date=2015 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-1305537460 |page=133 |edition=8 }}] [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanians]],[{{cite book |last1=Daryaee |first1=Touraj |author-link1=Touraj Daryaee |title=Sasanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire |date=2014 |publisher=I.B.Tauris |isbn=978-0857716668 |page=33 }}] then by the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] and successive Arab Islamic caliphates. In the course of these regimes, different groups settled in northern Syria, often contributing to population shifts. Arab tribes have been present in the area for millennia.{{sfnp|Meri|2006|p=59}} Under the Hellenistic [[Seleucid Empire]] (312–63 BC), different tribal groups and mercenaries were settled in northern Syria as military colonists; these included Arabs{{sfnp|Retso|2003|pp=315–317}} and possibly Kurds.{{sfnp|Vanly|1992|pp=116–117}}{{efn|It was difficult to properly define early Kurds, as "Kurdish" was often used as a catch-all word for nomadic tribal groups west of Iran during antiquity and medieval times.{{sfnp|Meri|2006|p=445}} }} Jan Retso argued that Abai, an Arab settlement where the Seleucid king [[Antiochus VI Dionysus]] was raised, was located in northern Syria.{{sfnp|Retso|2003|pp=315–317}} By the 3rd century, the Arab tribe of the Fahmids lived in northern Syria.{{sfnp|Retso|2003|p=480}}
By the 9th century, northern Syria was inhabited by a mixed population of Arabs, Assyrians, Kurds, [[Turkic peoples|Turkic groups]], and others. Kurdish tribes in the area often operated as soldiers for hire,{{sfnp|Meri|2006|p=445}} and were still placed in specific military settlements in the northern Syrian mountains.{{sfnp|Vanly|1992|p=114}} There existed a Kurdish elite of which [[Saladin]],[{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Ross |title=Aleppo, A History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9780415737210 |pages=142–144 }}] the founder of the [[Ayyubid dynasty]] and the Emir of [[Masyaf]] in the 12th century were part of.[{{Cite book |last=Burns |first=Ross |title=Aleppo, A History |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9780415737210 |page=129 }}] Under Saladin's rule, northern Syria experienced a mass immigration of Turkic groups who came into conflict with Kurdish tribes, resulting in clashes that wiped out several Kurdish communities.{{sfnp|Morton|2020|p=167}}
During the [[Ottoman Empire]] (1516–1922), large [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish-speaking]] tribal groups both settled in and were deported to areas of northern Syria from [[Anatolia]].[Travis, Hannibal. ''Genocide in the Middle East: The Ottoman Empire, Iraq, and Sudan''. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press, 2010, 2007, pp. 237–77, 293–294.][Hovannisian, Richard G., 2007. [https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063459/https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC |date=15 May 2024 }}. Accessed on 11 November 2014.][{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LSzuzsRh37gC&pg=PA25 |title=The Tragedy of the Assyrians |author=R. S. Stafford |pages=24–25 |year=2006 |publisher=Gorgias Press, LLC |isbn=9781593334130 |archive-date=9 April 2015 |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150409045327/http://books.google.com/books?id=LSzuzsRh37gC&pg=PA25 |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |first=Jordi |last=Tejel |year=2008 |title=Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society |pages=25–29 |url=http://www.kurdipedia.org/files/books/2012/74488.PDF |access-date=7 August 2017 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305064928/https://www.kurdipedia.org/files/books/2012/74488.PDF |url-status=live }}] Many Assyrians fled to Syria during the genocide and settled mainly in the Jazira area.[{{cite journal |url=http://www.meforum.org/17/syria-and-iraq-repression |title=Ray J. Mouawad, Syria and Iraq – Repression Disappearing Christians of the Middle East |journal=Middle East Quarterly |publisher=Middle East Forum |date=2001 |access-date=20 March 2015 |last1=Mouawad |first1=Ray J. |archive-date=9 September 2012 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120909072835/http://www.meforum.org/17/syria-and-iraq-repression |url-status=live }}] Starting in 1926, the region saw another immigration of Kurds following the failure of the [[Sheikh Said rebellion]] against the [[Turkey|Turkish authorities]].[Abu Fakhr, Saqr, 2013. [[As-Safir]] daily Newspaper, Beirut. [http://assafir.com/Article/331189#.UrbZIuK_guh in Arabic] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141113055038/http://assafir.com/Article/331189#.UrbZIuK_guh |date=13 November 2014 }} [http://araborthodoxy.blogspot.ca/2013/12/as-safir-on-history-of-persecution-of.html Christian Decline in the Middle East: A Historical View] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019085049/http://araborthodoxy.blogspot.ca/2013/12/as-safir-on-history-of-persecution-of.html |date=19 October 2017 }}] While many of the Kurds in Syria have been there for centuries,[{{Cite web |title=Abandoned by America: How the Kurds have once again been 'stabbed in the back' |url=https://www.thenational.scot/news/17965657.kurds-stabbed-back/ |website=The National |date=13 October 2019 |access-date=3 May 2020 |archive-date=3 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230603042358/https://www.thenational.scot/news/17965657.kurds-stabbed-back/ |url-status=live }}][Ross Burns (2013), p.138] waves of Kurds fled their homes in Turkey and settled in Syrian [[Al-Jazira Province]], where they were granted citizenship by the [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate authorities]].[{{cite book |author=[[Dawn Chatty]] |title=Displacement and Dispossession in the Modern Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8OsgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA230 |year=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-48693-4 |pages=230–232 |access-date=16 October 2016 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063518/https://books.google.com/books?id=8OsgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA230#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}] The number of Turkish Kurds settled in al-Jazira province during the 1920s was estimated at 20,000 people, out of 100,000 inhabitants, with the remainder of the population being Christians (Syriac, Armenian, Assyrian) and Arabs.[{{cite book |last=Simpson |first=John Hope |title=The Refugee Problem: Report of a Survey |year=1939 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=London |asin=B0006AOLOA |edition=First |url-access=registration |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SxR8uwEACAAJ |access-date=22 September 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063519/https://books.google.com/books?id=SxR8uwEACAAJ |url-status=live }}]{{rp|458}}
=== Syria's independence and rule of the Ba'ath Party ===
{{See also|Modern history of Syria|Ba'athist Syria}}
[[File:Hafez al-Assad official portrait.jpg|thumb|180px|right|The [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist government of Syria]] under [[Hafez al-Assad]] (pictured {{circa}} 1987) implemented [[Arabization]] policies in northern Syria.]]
Following [[First Syrian Republic|Syria's independence]], policies of [[Arab nationalism]] and attempts at forced [[Arabization]] became widespread in the country's north, to a large part directed against the Kurdish population.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=27}}[{{cite journal |title=The Silenced Kurds |journal=Human Rights Watch |date=October 1996 |volume=8 |issue=4 |url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=12 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170312084700/https://www.hrw.org/reports/1996/Syria.htm |url-status=live }}] The region received little investment or development from the central government, and laws discriminated against Kurds owning property, driving cars, working in certain professions, and forming political parties.[{{cite book |last1=Marcus |first1=Aliza |title=Blood and belief: the PKK and the Kurdish fight for independence |date=2009 |publisher=New York University Press |location=New York |isbn=978-0814795873 |page=61 |edition=1. publ. in paperback. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6rcUCgAAQBAJ |access-date=4 March 2017 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063500/https://books.google.com/books?id=6rcUCgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}] Property was routinely confiscated by government loansharks. After the [[Ba'ath Party]] seized power in the [[1963 Syrian coup d'état]], non-Arab languages were forbidden in Syrian public schools. This compromised the education of students belonging to minorities such as Kurds, Turkmen, and Assyrians.[{{cite news |title=After 52-year ban, Syrian Kurds now taught Kurdish in schools |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/11/syria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html |agency=Al-Monitor |date=6 November 2015 |access-date=19 May 2016 |archive-date=11 November 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20161111055911/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/11/syria-kurdistan-self-governance-teach-kurdish-language.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=Abboud |first1=Samer N. |title=Syria |date=2015 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0745698014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BPbrCgAAQBAJ }}] Some groups such as Armenians, Circassians, and Assyrians were able to compensate by establishing private schools, but Kurdish private schools were also banned.[{{cite journal |title=A murder stirs Kurds in Syria |url=https://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0616/p01s03-wome.html |journal=The Christian Science Monitor |date=16 June 2005 |access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-date=4 September 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20150904192036/http://www.csmonitor.com/2005/0616/p01s03-wome.html |url-status=live }}] Northern Syrian hospitals lacked equipment for advanced treatment, and patients instead had to be transferred outside the region. Numerous place names were Arabized in the 1960s and 1970s.[{{cite web |title=Persecution and Discrimination against Kurdish Citizens in Syria, Report for the 12th session of the UN Human Rights Council |url=http://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/SY/KIS-KurdsinSyria-eng.pdf |website=Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights |date=2009 |access-date=25 June 2015 |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025095237/http://lib.ohchr.org/HRBodies/UPR/Documents/session12/SY/KIS-KurdsinSyria-eng.pdf |url-status=dead }}] Kurdish cultural festivals such as [[Newroz as celebrated by Kurds|Newroz]] were effectively banned.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=13}}
[[File:Newroz Girê Tertebê 1997.jpg|thumb|Kurds celebrating [[Newroz]] in Girê Tertebê, near Qamishli, in 1997]]
In many instances, the Syrian government arbitrarily deprived ethnic Kurdish citizens of their citizenship. The largest such instance was a consequence of a census in 1962, which was conducted for exactly this purpose. 120,000 ethnic Kurdish citizens saw their citizenship arbitrarily taken away and became [[Statelessness|stateless]].[{{cite book |first=Jordi |last=Tejel |url=http://www.kurdipedia.org/books/74488.pdf |title=Syria's kurds history, politics and society |year=2009 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0-203-89211-4 |pages=X-X |edition=1. publ. |author2=Welle, Jane |access-date=7 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001038/http://www.kurdipedia.org/books/74488.pdf |archive-date=4 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}] This status was passed to the children of a "stateless" Kurdish father.[{{cite web |title=HRW World Report 2010 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 |website=Human Rights Watch |date=2010 |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=22 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122204734/https://www.hrw.org/world-report-2010 |url-status=live }}]{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=14}} In 1973, the Syrian authorities confiscated {{convert|750|km2|abbr=off}} of fertile agricultural land in [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]], which was owned and cultivated by tens of thousands of Kurdish citizens, and gave it to Arab families brought in from other provinces.[{{cite web |url=http://www.joshualandis.com/blog/the-assyrians-of-syria-history-and-prospets-by-mardean-isaac/ |title=The Assyrians of Syria: History and Prospects |author=Mardean Isaac |work=Syria Comment |date=20 December 2015 |access-date=1 April 2017 |archive-date=17 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617144704/https://www.joshualandis.com/blog/the-assyrians-of-syria-history-and-prospets-by-mardean-isaac/ |url-status=dead }}] attempted to work within the system, hoping to bring about changes through soft pressure.{{sfnp|Sinclair|Kajjo|2013|p=180}} In general, parties that openly represented certain ethnic and religious minorities were not allowed to participate in elections, but their politicians were occasionally allowed to run as Independents.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=28}} Some Kurdish politicians won seats during the [[1990 Syrian parliamentary election|Syrian elections in 1990]].{{sfnp|Tejel|2009|p=67}} The government also recruited Kurdish officials, in particular as mayors, to ease ethnic relations. Regardless, northern Syrian ethnic groups remained deliberately underrepresented in the bureaucracy, and many Kurdish-majority areas were run by Arab officials from other parts of the country.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=28}} Security and intelligence agencies worked hard to suppress dissidents, and most Kurdish parties remained underground movements. The government monitored, though generally allowed, this "sub-state activity" because the northern minorities, including the Kurds, rarely caused unrest, with the exception of the [[2004 Qamishli massacre]].{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=28}} The situation improved after the death of Hafez al-Assad and the election of his son, [[Bashar al-Assad]], under whom the number of Kurdish officials grew.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=30}}
Despite the [[Ba'athist]] internal policies that officially suppressed a Kurdish identity, the Syrian government allowed the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) to set up training camps from 1980. The PKK was a militant Kurdish group led by [[Abdullah Öcalan]] that was [[Kurdistan Workers' Party insurgency|waging an insurgency against Turkey]]. Syria and Turkey were hostile toward each other at the time, resulting in the use of the PKK as a proxy group.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=28}}[{{cite news |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/meet-the-ypg/ |title=Meet the YPG, the Kurdish militia that doesn't want help from anyone |last=Gold |first=Danny |date=31 October 2012 |quote=A member of YPG's central command ... said that the YPG formed in 2004 shortly after the Qamishlo riots, when a number of Kurdish youth realized that they needed to be able to defend themselves more efficiently. They did not officially declare themselves until the revolution started in 2011. |magazine=[[Vice (magazine)|VICE]] |access-date=9 October 2014 |archive-date=13 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160413210952/http://www.vice.com/read/meet-the-ypg |url-status=live }}]
=== Establishment of de facto autonomy and war against ISIL ===
{{Main|Rojava conflict|DAANES–Syria relations|Rojava–Islamist conflict}}
{{See also|Jazira Region|Euphrates Region|Human rights in the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Federalization of Syria}}
[[File:Despite Political Divides, Syria's Kurds Want Autonomy.webm|thumb|2012 [[VOA]] report about Kurdish aspirations for autonomy in Syria]]
In 2011, a [[Syrian revolution#Civil uprising (March–July 2011)|civil uprising]] erupted in Syria, prompting hasty government reforms. One of the issues addressed during this time was the status of Syria's stateless Kurds, as President Bashar al-Assad granted about 220,000 Kurds citizenship.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=30}} In the course of the next few months, the crisis in Syria [[Early insurgency phase of the Syrian civil war|escalated into a civil war]]. The armed [[Syrian opposition (2011–2024)|Syrian opposition]] seized control of several regions, while security forces were overstretched. In mid-2012, the government responded to this development by withdrawing its military from three mainly Kurdish areas[{{cite news |title=Armed Kurds Surround Syrian Security Forces in Qamishli |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4984.html |access-date=27 July 2012 |newspaper=Rudaw |date=22 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724224808/http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4984.html |archive-date=24 July 2012 }}][{{cite news |title=Girke Lege Becomes Sixth Kurdish City Liberated in Syria |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4992.html |access-date=27 July 2012 |newspaper=Rudaw |date=24 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129100410/http://www.rudaw.net/english/news/syria/4992.html |archive-date=29 November 2012 }}]{{sfnp|Lister|2015|pp=95–96}} Doing so, the YPG and its female wing, the [[Women's Protection Units]] (YPJ), mostly battled factions of the [[Free Syrian Army]], and Islamist militias like the [[al-Nusra Front]] and [[Jabhat Ghuraba al-Sham]]. They also eclipsed rival Kurdish militias,{{sfnp|Lister|2015|pp=95–96, 153–154, 175}}[{{cite news |url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2019/10/15/koerden-zijn-al-vele-malen-verraden-a3976826#/handelsblad/2019/10/16/ |trans-title=Kurds stuck in a scrape from all sides |title=Koerden zitten van alle kanten klem |language=nl |first=Carolien |last=Roelants |work=[[NRC Handelsblad]] |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=19 October 2019 |archive-date=19 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200719162629/https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2019/10/15/koerden-zijn-al-vele-malen-verraden-a3976826#/handelsblad/2019/10/16/ |url-status=live }}] and absorbed some government loyalist groups.[{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/02/pyd-kurds-syria-regime-assad-autonomy.html |title=Syrian Kurds recruit regime loyalists to fight jihadists |first=Andrea |last=Glioti |work=[[al-Monitor]] |date=13 February 2014 |access-date=6 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170803143723/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2014/02/pyd-kurds-syria-regime-assad-autonomy.html |archive-date=3 August 2017 |url-status=dead }}] According to researcher Charles R. Lister, the government's withdrawal and concurrent rise of the PYD "raised many eyebrows", as the relationship between the two entities was "highly contentious" at the time. The PYD was known to oppose certain government policies, but had also strongly criticised the Syrian opposition.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|pp=95–96}}
[[File:Syrian civil war 01 12 2015.png|thumb|230px|Military situation in December 2015, the SDF was successful in pushing ISIL out of northern Syria]]
Following a deadly PYD repression of opposition demonstrations in Amuda, the Kurdish National Council withdrew from the Kurdish Supreme Committee. Unopposed, the PYD's political coalition, [[Movement for a Democratic Society]] (TEV-DEM), controlled the Kurdish Supreme Committee until the latter was dissolved due to disputes between the two factions.[{{cite book |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/publications/research/2016-12-08-governing-rojava-khalaf.pdf |chapter=PYD Pragmatism and the Emergence of 'Rojava' |page=9 |title=Governing Rojava: Layers of Legitimacy in Syria |last=Khalaf |first=Rana |year=2016 |publisher=Chatham House |access-date=22 May 2024 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009203952/https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/publications/research/2016-12-08-governing-rojava-khalaf.pdf |url-status=live }}] On 19 July 2013, the PYD announced that it had written a constitution for an "autonomous Syrian Kurdish region", and planned to hold a referendum to approve the constitution in October 2013. Qamishli served as the first ''de facto'' capital of the PYD-led governing body,{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=154}} which was officially called the "Interim Transitional Administration".{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=89}} The announcement was widely denounced by both moderate and Islamist factions of the Syrian opposition.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=154}} In January 2014, three areas declared their autonomy as cantons (later [[Afrin Region]], [[Jazira Region]] and [[Euphrates Region]]) and an interim [[Constitution of North and East Syria|constitution]] (also known as ''social contract'') was approved.[{{Cite journal |last=Duman |first=Yasin |date=2017 |title=Peacebuilding in a conflict setting: Peace and reconciliation committees in de facto Rojava Autonomy in Syria |journal=Journal of Peacebuilding & Development |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=85–90 |doi=10.1080/15423166.2017.1285245 |issn=1542-3166 |jstor=48602938 |s2cid=157404198 }}] The Syrian opposition and the Kurdish parties belonging to the KNC condemned this move, regarding the canton system as illegal, authoritarian, and supportive of the Syrian government.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=93–94}} The PYD countered that the constitution was open to review and amendment, and that the KNC had been consulted on its drafting beforehand.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=94}} From September 2014 to spring 2015, the YPG forces in Kobanî Canton, supported by some Free Syrian Army militias and leftist international and [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) volunteers, fought and finally repelled an assault by the [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL) during the [[Siege of Kobanî]],{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=319}} and in the YPG's [[Tell Abyad offensive]] of summer 2015, the regions of Jazira and Kobanî were connected.{{sfnp|Lister|2015|pp=357–358}}
[[File:YPJ - Rojava.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A [[Women's Protection Units|YPJ]] fighter, November 2014]]
After the YPG victory over ISIL in Kobanî in March 2015, an alliance between the YPG and the United States was formed, which greatly worried Turkey, because Turkey stated that the YPG was a clone of the PKK, which Turkey (and the U.S. and the E.U.) designated as [[Terrorism|terrorists]].[ In December 2015, the [[Syrian Democratic Council]] was created. On 17 March 2016, at a TEV-DEM-organized conference in [[Rmelan]], the establishment of the ''Democratic Federation of Rojava – Northern Syria'' was declared in the areas they controlled in Northern Syria.][{{cite news |title=Syria's Kurds declare de-facto federal region in north |url=https://apnews.com/882b101de1024e63bd9525bb32c708e3 |access-date=17 January 2017 |work=Associated Press News |date=17 March 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922063713/https://apnews.com/882b101de1024e63bd9525bb32c708e3 |url-status=live }}] The declaration was quickly denounced by both the Syrian government and the [[National Coalition of Syrian Revolutionary and Opposition Forces]].[
In March 2016, [[Hediya Yousef]] and [[Mansur Selum]] were elected co-chairpersons for the executive committee to organise a constitution for the region, to replace the 2014 constitution.][{{cite web |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/kurdish-pyd-declares-federalism-northern-syria-1311505605 |title=Syrian Kurds declare new federation in bid for recognition |work=Middle East Eye |date=17 March 2016 |access-date=25 April 2016 |archive-date=16 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180816230615/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/kurdish-pyd-declares-federalism-northern-syria-1311505605 |url-status=live }}] Yousef said the decision to set up a federal government was in large part driven by the expansion of territories captured from Islamic State: "Now, after the liberation of many areas, it requires us to go to a wider and more comprehensive system that can embrace all the developments in the area, that will also give rights to all the groups to represent themselves and to form their own administrations".[{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-federalism-idUSKCN0X90M9 |title=Syrian Kurds in six-month countdown to federalism |newspaper=Reuters |date=12 April 2016 |access-date=19 June 2016 |last1=Perry |first1=Tom |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308193107/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-federalism-idUSKCN0X90M9 |url-status=live }}] In July 2016, a draft for the new constitution was presented, based on the principles of the 2014 constitution, mentioning all ethnic groups living in Northern Syria and addressing their cultural, political and linguistic rights.[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/07/syrian-kurds-declare-qamishli-capital-new-federal-system/ |title=Syrian Kurds declare Qamishli as capital for the new federal system |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=5 July 2016 |access-date=5 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160708143406/http://aranews.net/2016/07/syrian-kurds-declare-qamishli-capital-new-federal-system/ |archive-date=8 July 2016 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/07/north-syria-rojava-kurdish-federation-constitution.html |title=After approving constitution, what's next for Syria's Kurds? |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=22 July 2016 |access-date=22 July 2016 |archive-date=4 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230604075340/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/07/north-syria-rojava-kurdish-federation-constitution.html |url-status=live }}] The main political opposition to the constitution were [[Kurdish nationalism|Kurdish nationalists]], in particular the KNC, who had different ideological aspirations from the TEV-DEM coalition.[{{cite web |url=http://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2016/07/kurds-arabs-assyrians-talk-enab-baladi-federal-constitution-syria/ |title=Kurds, Arabs and Assyrians talk to Enab Baladi about the 'Federal Constitution' in Syria |date=26 July 2016 |access-date=26 July 2016 |archive-date=5 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205124829/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2016/07/kurds-arabs-assyrians-talk-enab-baladi-federal-constitution-syria/ |url-status=live }}] On 28 December 2016, after a meeting of the 151-member Syrian Democratic Council in [[Rmelan]], a new constitution was resolved; despite objections by 12 Kurdish parties, the region was renamed the "Democratic Federation of Northern Syria", removing the name "Rojava".[{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-constitution-idUSKBN14H0X3?il=0 |title=Syrian Kurds, allies set to approve new government blueprint |work=Reuters |date=28 December 2016 |access-date=1 July 2017 |archive-date=5 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805015106/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-constitution-idUSKBN14H0X3?il=0 |url-status=live }}]
===Turkish military operations and occupation===
{{See also|Operation Olive Branch|Turkish occupation of northern Syria|2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria}}
[[File:YPG sniper (Afrin February 2018).jpg|thumb|A [[People's Defense Units|YPG]] sniper in defense of Northern Syria from Turkey, [[Afrin District|Afrin]]]]
Since 2012, when the first YPG pockets appeared, Turkey had been alarmed by the presence of PKK-related forces at its southern border and had grown concerned when the YPG entered into an alliance with the US to oppose ISIS forces in the region.[{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/16/world/europe/Turkey-Kurds-Erdogan.html |title=The World Condemns Erdogan's War on Kurds. But Turkey Applauds. |first=Patrick |last=Kingsley |date=16 October 2019 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=30 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221130095924/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/16/world/europe/Turkey-Kurds-Erdogan.html |url-status=live }}] The Turkish government had refused to allow aid to be sent to the YPG during the Siege of Kobanî. This had led to the [[2014 Kurdish riots in Turkey|Kurdish riots]], the breakdown of the [[Kurdish–Turkish peace process|2013–2015 peace process]] in July 2015, and the renewal of [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict (2015–present)|armed conflict]] between the PKK and Turkish forces. According to the Turkish pro-government newspaper ''Daily Sabah,'' the YPG's parent organisation, the PYD, had provided the PKK with militants, explosives, arms and ammunition.[{{cite news |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/war-on-terror/2019/07/24/interpol-removes-top-pkk-affiliated-figure-from-its-red-notice-list |title=Interpol removes top PKK-affiliated figure from its red notice list |date=24 July 2019 |newspaper=Daily Sabah |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103210917/https://www.dailysabah.com/war-on-terror/2019/07/24/interpol-removes-top-pkk-affiliated-figure-from-its-red-notice-list |url-status=live }}]
In August 2016, Turkey launched [[Operation Euphrates Shield]] to prevent the YPG-led [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] (SDF) from linking Afrin Canton (now Afrin Region) with the rest of Rojava and to capture [[Manbij]] from the SDF. Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebel forces prevented the linking of Rojava's cantons and captured all settlements in [[Jarabulus]] previously under SDF control.[{{cite web |url=http://www.yeniasir.com.tr/gundem/2016/08/31/tsk-32-koy-terorist-unsurlardan-temizlendi |title=TSK: 32 Köy Terörist Unsurlardan Temizlendi |work=Yeni Asır |date=31 August 2016 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=28 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190328043026/https://www.yeniasir.com.tr/gundem/2016/08/31/tsk-32-koy-terorist-unsurlardan-temizlendi |url-status=live }}] The SDF handed over part of the region to the Syrian government to act as a buffer zone against Turkey.[{{cite news |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking-kurdish-led-sdf-handover-huge-section-territory-saa/ |title=BREAKING: Kurdish-led SDF to handover huge section of territory to SAA |first=Andrew |last=Illingworth |date=2 March 2017 |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=3 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190203004230/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/breaking-kurdish-led-sdf-handover-huge-section-territory-saa/ |url-status=dead }}]{{better source needed|reason=this article describes the future handover|date=August 2026}} Manbij remained under SDF control.
In early 2018, Turkey launched [[Operation Olive Branch]] alongside the Turkish-backed [[Syrian National Army]] to capture the Kurdish-majority [[Afrin, Syria|Afrin]] and oust the YPG/SDF from the region.[{{cite news |date=20 January 2018 |title=Terrified children, empty streets in Syria's Afrin as Turkey attacks |url=https://www.france24.com/en/20180120-terrified-children-empty-streets-syrias-afrin-turkey-attacks |work=France24 |access-date=25 October 2019 |archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103210918/https://www.france24.com/en/20180120-terrified-children-empty-streets-syrias-afrin-turkey-attacks |url-status=live }}] [[Afrin Canton]], a subdivision of the region, was occupied and over 100,000 civilians were displaced and relocated to Afrin Region's [[Shahba Canton]], which remained under SDF, then joint SDF-[[Syrian Arab Army]] (SAA) control. The remaining SDF forces later launched an [[SDF insurgency in Northern Aleppo|ongoing insurgency]] against the Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebel forces.[{{cite web |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/analysis/19022019 |title=The significance of the Shahba Canton for the YPG |first=Paul |last=Iddon |publisher=[[Rudaw Media Network]] |date=19 February 2019 |access-date=24 October 2019 |archive-date=24 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324070801/http://www.rudaw.net/english/analysis/19022019 |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Barış Pınarı Hârekatı sonrası Resulayn (Serêkanî) bombalanıyor.jpg|thumb|[[Ras al-Ayn]] shelling during the [[2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria]]]]
In 2019, Turkey launched [[2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria|Operation Peace Spring]] against the SDF. On 9 October, the [[Turkish Air Force]] launched airstrikes on border towns.[{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/09/turkey-launches-military-operation-in-northern-syria-erdogan |title=Turkey launches military operation in northern Syria |work=The Guardian |first=Bethan |last=McKernan |date=9 October 2019 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=15 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015081703/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/oct/09/turkey-launches-military-operation-in-northern-syria-erdogan |url-status=live }}] On 6 October, [[President of the United States]] [[Donald Trump]] had ordered United States troops to withdraw from northeastern Syria, where they had been [[US intervention in the Syrian civil war|providing support]] to the SDF.[{{cite news |title=Trump makes way for Turkey operation against Kurds in Syria |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49956698?intlink_from_url=https://www.bbc.com/news/topics/cp7r8vgl2y7t/kurds&link_location=live-reporting-story |access-date=10 October 2019 |work=[[BBC News]] |date=7 October 2019 |archive-date=20 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220053236/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-49956698?intlink_from_url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Ftopics%2Fcp7r8vgl2y7t%2Fkurds&link_location=live-reporting-story |url-status=live }}] Journalists called the withdrawal "a serious betrayal to the Kurds" and "a catastrophic blow to US credibility as an ally and Washington's standing on the world stage"; one journalist stated that "this was one of the worst US foreign policy disasters since the [[Iraq War]]".[{{cite news |url=https://news.sky.com/story/us-betrayal-of-kurds-destroys-the-wests-credibility-for-years-to-come-11835611 |title=US betrayal of Kurds destroys the West's credibility for years to come |website=Sky News |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022080228/https://news.sky.com/story/us-betrayal-of-kurds-destroys-the-wests-credibility-for-years-to-come-11835611 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/trump-syria-move-delivers-blow-credibility-worldwide-191008232132422.html |title=Trump's Syria move 'delivers a blow to US credibility worldwide' |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804150305/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/trump-syria-move-delivers-blow-credibility-worldwide-191008232132422.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/18/opinion/trump-kurds-syria.html |title=Trump's Gut, and the Gutting of American Credibility |website=The New York Times |date=19 October 2019 |last1=Cohen |first1=Roger |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026002131/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/10/18/opinion/trump-kurds-syria.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/meet-the-press/trump-s-decision-syria-has-already-turned-foreign-policy-disaster-n1065691 |title=Trump's decision on Syria has already turned into a foreign policy disaster |website=NBC News |date=14 October 2019 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=23 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221123025310/https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/meet-the-press/trump-s-decision-syria-has-already-turned-foreign-policy-disaster-n1065691 |url-status=live }}] Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebel forces captured 68 settlements, including [[Ras al-Ayn]], [[Tell Abyad]], [[Suluk, Syria|Suluk]], [[Mabrouka]] and [[Al-Manajir|Manajir]] during the 9-day operation before a 120-hour ceasefire was announced.[{{cite web |url=http://www.syriahr.com/?p=342267 |title=قوات النظام تبدأ دخول مدينة منبج شمال شرق حلب بالتزامن مع استمرار انسحاب قوات التحالف من المدينة • المرصد السوري لحقوق الإنسان |date=15 October 2019 |language=ar |trans-title=Regime forces begin entering the city of Manbij, northeast of Aleppo, in conjunction with the continued withdrawal of the coalition forces from the city |publisher=The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=20 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220053243/http://www.syriahr.com/?p=342267 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-enters-strategic-city-in-al-raqqa-with-heavy-equipment-video/ |title=Syrian Army enters strategic city in Al-Raqqa with heavy equipment: video |date=15 October 2019 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=16 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191016112552/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-enters-strategic-city-in-al-raqqa-with-heavy-equipment-video/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-10/14/c_138471125.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014120837/http://www.xinhuanet.com/english/2019-10/14/c_138471125.htm |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 October 2019 |title=Syrian army enters Kurdish-held city, air base to help counter Turkish assault |website=xinhuanet.com }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/ |title=Syrian army moves to confront Turkish forces as US withdraws |website=Times of Israel |date=14 October 2019 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=14 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191014110752/https://www.timesofisrael.com/syrian-army-moves-to-confront-turkish-forces-as-us-withdraws/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=https://time.com/5703009/syrian-forces-border-town-turkish-plans/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191017083113/https://time.com/5703009/syrian-forces-border-town-turkish-plans/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 October 2019 |title=Syrian forces enter key border town |date=16 October 2019 |agency=Times }}] The operation was condemned by the international community,[{{cite news |title=India slams Turkey for its 'unilateral military offensive' in northeast Syria |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-slams-turkey-for-its-unilateral-military-offensive-in-northeast-syria/articleshow/71520852.cms |access-date=10 October 2019 |work=The Times of India |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013011531/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/india-slams-turkey-for-its-unilateral-military-offensive-in-northeast-syria/articleshow/71520852.cms |url-status=live }}] and human rights violations by Turkish forces were reported.[{{cite web |title=Damning evidence of war crimes by Turkish forces and allies in Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/10/syria-damning-evidence-of-war-crimes-and-other-violations-by-turkish-forces-and-their-allies/ |website=Amnesty International |date=18 October 2019 |access-date=26 October 2019 |archive-date=2 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191202081923/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2019/10/syria-damning-evidence-of-war-crimes-and-other-violations-by-turkish-forces-and-their-allies/ |url-status=live }}] Media outlets labelled the attack "no surprise" because Turkish president [[Recep Tayyip Erdoğan]] had for months warned that the presence of the YPG on the Turkish-Syrian border despite the [[Northern Syria Buffer Zone]] was unacceptable.[ An unintended consequence of the attack was that it raised the worldwide popularity and legitimacy of the northeastern Syrian administration, and several PYD and YPG representatives became internationally known to an unprecedented degree. However, these events caused tensions within the KCK, as differences emerged between the PKK and PYD leadership. The PYD was determined to maintain the regional autonomy and hoped for a continued alliance with the United States. In contrast, the PKK central command was now willing to restart negotiations with Turkey, distrusted the United States, and emphasized the international success of its leftist ideology over the survival of Rojava as administrative entity.][{{Cite web |last=Zaman |first=Amberin |author-link=Amberin Zaman |date=19 January 2026 |title=Trump demands end to clashes with Kurds in call with Syria's Sharaa |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2026/01/trump-demands-end-clashes-kurds-call-syrias-sharaa |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20260119233043/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2026/01/trump-demands-end-clashes-kurds-call-syrias-sharaa |archive-date=19 January 2026 |access-date=20 January 2026 |website=[[Al-Monitor]] |language=en }}]}}]]
During the November [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives]], which [[Fall of the Assad regime|toppled the Assad regime]],[{{cite web |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-bashar-assad-war-1468a97ff95bb782f5933856d99c9a8d |title=The fall of Bashar Assad after 13 years of war in Syria brings to an end a decades-long dynasty |website=[[Associated Press News]] |date=8 December 2024 |access-date=10 December 2024 |archive-date=12 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241212031737/https://apnews.com/article/syria-bashar-assad-war-1468a97ff95bb782f5933856d99c9a8d |url-status=live }}] the SDF [[Deir ez-Zor offensive (2024)|captured]] the southeastern city of [[Deir ez-Zor]].[{{cite web |last1=Qereman |first1=Orhan |title=US-backed Syrian Kurds seize eastern city of Deir el-Zor, sources say |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/us-backed-syrian-kurds-seize-eastern-city-deir-el-zor-sources-say-2024-12-06/ |website=[[Reuters]] |access-date=10 December 2024 |location=[[Al-Hasakah|Hasakeh]], [[Syria]] |date=6 December 2024 }}] SDF forces subsequently withdrew from Deir ez-Zor following protests by the local population, and the city was swiftly occupied by [[Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham|Tahrir al-Sham]].[{{Cite web |title=Rebellen erobern Deir ez-Zor +++ Regierungschef an Flüchtlinge: "Kommen Sie zurück!" |url=https://www.watson.ch/international/liveticker/989697765-alle-news-zu-syrien-ausgangssperre-in-damaskus-aufgehoben |access-date=13 December 2024 |website=[[Watson (newspaper)|Watson]] |language=de |archive-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213160357/https://www.watson.ch/international/liveticker/989697765-alle-news-zu-syrien-ausgangssperre-in-damaskus-aufgehoben |url-status=live }}] On 12 December, DAANES announced that it had adopted the [[Flag of Syria#Syrian revolution|flag of the Syrian revolution]] as the official flag of Syria.[{{Cite web |date=12 December 2024 |title=Kurdish Administration Says Adopts Syria's Independence Flag |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/kurdish-administration-says-adopts-syria-s-independence-flag-371f475e |access-date= |website=[[Barron's]] |language=en-US |archive-date=19 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241219014312/https://www.barrons.com/news/kurdish-administration-says-adopts-syria-s-independence-flag-371f475e |url-status=live }}]
Despite the collapse of the Assad regime, Turkey and Turkish-backed [[Syrian National Army|SNA]] fighters in northern Syria launched an [[Manbij offensive (2024)|offensive]] against SDF forces.[{{cite news |title=As Assad falls, fighting intensifying over northern Syria town |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/as-assad-falls-fighting-intensifying-over-northern-syria-town-/7891689.html |work=VOA News |date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=9 December 2024 |access-date=10 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241209011534/https://www.voanews.com/a/as-assad-falls-fighting-intensifying-over-northern-syria-town-/7891689.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=War Monitor Says Turkish Drone Strike Kills 11 Civilians In North Syria |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/war-monitor-says-turkish-drone-strike-kills-11-civilians-in-north-syria-391e4506 |work=Barron's |agency=Agence France Presse |date=9 December 2024 |archive-date=13 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213152523/https://www.barrons.com/news/war-monitor-says-turkish-drone-strike-kills-11-civilians-in-north-syria-391e4506 |url-status=live }}] On 9 December, SNA fighters captured the city of [[Manbij]].[{{cite web |last1=Toksabay |first1=Ece |last2=Spicer |first2=Jonathan |title=Rebels take Syrian city from U.S.-backed group after U.S.-Turkey deal, source says |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/rebels-take-north-syria-town-us-backed-group-turkish-source-says-2024-12-09/ |website=[[Reuters]] |access-date=10 December 2024 |location=[[Ankara]] |date=9 December 2024 |archive-date=17 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217114330/https://www.reuters.com/world/middle-east/rebels-take-north-syria-town-us-backed-group-turkish-source-says-2024-12-09/ |url-status=live }}] The Turkish/SNA offensive continued with the [[2024 Kobani clashes]],[{{cite news |title=Turkish invasion into Syria 'could be imminent,' US officials fear – report |url=https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-833777 |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=17 December 2024 |archive-date=18 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241218174022/https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/article-833777 |url-status=live }}] which ended in a victory for the SDF. This followed a US-mediated truce[{{Cite web |title=Truce Extended At Syria Flashpoint Between Kurds, Pro-Turkish Fighters: US |url=https://www.barrons.com/news/us-says-truce-extended-at-syria-flashpoint-between-kurds-pro-turkish-fighters-875d4ccf |date=17 December 2024 |access-date=18 December 2024 |website=[[Barron's]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]] |language=en |archive-date=15 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260115005541/https://www.barrons.com/news/us-says-truce-extended-at-syria-flashpoint-between-kurds-pro-turkish-fighters-875d4ccf |url-status=live }}] and an SNA failure to capture Tishrin Dam and Qara-Qowzak Bridge.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/352066/ |title=After taking control of three villages SDF and military formations take control of surroundings of Tishrin Dam and launch combing operation – The Syrian Observatory For Human Rights |date=23 December 2024 |access-date=3 January 2025 |archive-date=15 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250715204839/https://www.syriahr.com/en/352066/ |url-status=live }}] This was followed by a counter-offensive in the [[East Aleppo offensive (2024–2025)]]. The [[Syrian peace process#10 March agreement|10 March agreement]] ceasefire was brokered by the [[Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve|International Coalition]], keeping the disputed dams under SDF control until the agreement expired on 1 January 2026.[{{Cite web |last=Mohammed |first=Daban |date=29 April 2025 |title=A Source Tells Channel8: SDF and Turkish Army in Talks for Ceasefire Under Global Coalition Supervision |url=https://channel8.com/english/35044 |access-date=1 April 2025 |website=Channel 8 |language=en-US }}]
During the [[Aleppo clashes (2025–2026)|Aleppo clashes]], the SDF and the Syrian Army clashed over the SDF and DAANES's control over the Kurdish-majority [[Sheikh Maqsood]] and [[Ashrafiyah, Aleppo|Ashrafiyah]] neighborhoods of Aleppo. The status quo was maintained following an initial ceasefire on 7 October 2025.[{{Cite web |date=7 October 2025 |title=SDF–government talks kick off in Damascus under US sponsorship |url=https://shafaq.com/en/Middle-East/SDF-government-talks-kick-off-in-Damascus-under-US-sponsorship |access-date=7 October 2025 |website=Shafaq News |language=en |archive-date=8 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251208191952/https://shafaq.com/en/Middle-East/SDF-government-talks-kick-off-in-Damascus-under-US-sponsorship |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |date=7 October 2025 |title=Meeting between DAA's delegation, transitional govt kicks off in Damascus |url=https://hawarnews.com/en/meeting-between-daas-delegation-transitional-govt-kicks-off-in-damascus |access-date=7 October 2025 |website=Hawar News |archive-date=26 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260226175315/https://hawarnews.com/en/meeting-between-daas-delegation-transitional-govt-kicks-off-in-damascus |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |title=7 أسئلة توضح ملابسات الاشتباكات بحلب بين القوات السورية وقسد |trans-title=7 Questions Clarifying the Circumstances of the Clashes in Aleppo Between Syrian Forces and the SDF |url=https://www.aljazeera.net/news/2025/12/23/6-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%AD-%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8 |website=[[Al Jazeera Arabic]] |lang=ar |date=23 December 2025 |access-date=23 December 2025 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20251223171702/https://www.aljazeera.net/amp/news/2025/12/23/6-%D8%A3%D8%B3%D8%A6%D9%84%D8%A9-%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B6%D8%AD-%D9%85%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D8%A8%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A8 |archive-date=23 December 2025 |url-status=live }}] Despite these clashes, on 18 December 2025, the [[United Nations]] issued a report that the SDF and DAANES should agree on a roadmap for integration into the new Syrian government.[{{cite web |title=UN urges SDF and Transitional Government to agree quickly |url=https://hawarnews.com/en/un-urges-sdf-and-transitional-government-to-agree-quickly |website=[[Hawar News Agency]] |date=18 December 2025 |access-date=19 January 2026 |archive-date=11 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260211221246/https://hawarnews.com/en/un-urges-sdf-and-transitional-government-to-agree-quickly |url-status=live }}] Talks were agreed to; however, negotiations with the new government quickly stalled due to DAANES criticism of the interim government's inclusivity.[{{cite web |title=Monthly Forecast |url=https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/2026_01_forecast.pdf |website=[[UN Security Council]] |access-date=19 January 2026 |archive-date=14 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260114044347/https://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/2026_01_forecast.pdf |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |title=Diverging statements from Damascus, SDF on implementing March 10 agreement |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2025/12/diverging-statements-from-damascus-sdf-on-implementing-march-10-agreement/ |website=[[Enab Baladi]] |date=26 December 2025 |access-date=19 January 2026 |archive-date=3 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260203154603/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2025/12/diverging-statements-from-damascus-sdf-on-implementing-march-10-agreement/ |url-status=live }}] By 25 December, the Syrian government had announced that it was suspending all communications with the SDF and DAANES.[{{cite web |last1=Yilmaz |first1=Betul |title=Syria denies media reports about reaching new agreement with SDF |url=https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-denies-media-reports-about-reaching-new-agreement-with-sdf/3781044 |website=[[Anadolu Agency]] |access-date=19 January 2026 |archive-date=27 December 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251227211555/https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/syria-denies-media-reports-about-reaching-new-agreement-with-sdf/3781044 |url-status=live }}]
On 3 January 2026, Maryam Ibrahim, a spokesman for the DAANES Negotiation Committee, stated that although relations remained "a bit weak", both sides were prioritizing military integration, and that there would be a finalized time frame for such integration "in the coming days."[{{cite web |last1=Shekaki |first1=Jwan |title=AANES official expects breakthrough on SDF integration talks in early 2026 |url=https://npasyria.com/en/134042/ |website=North Press Agency |date=3 January 2026 |access-date=19 January 2026 |archive-date=3 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260103093639/https://npasyria.com/en/134042/ |url-status=live }}] However, on 6 January, the Syrian government announced that SDF forces had opened fire on its troops in Aleppo, resulting in the death of one government soldier.[{{Cite web |date=6 January 2025 |title="الأسايش" ترد على القصف وتقتل عنصراً وتُصيب 4.. تواصل التصعيد على دير حافر وتل "سيرياتل |url=https://www.syriahr.com/%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%a3%d8%b3%d8%a7%d9%8a%d8%b4-%d8%aa%d8%b1%d8%af-%d8%b9%d9%84%d9%89-%d8%a7%d9%84%d9%82%d8%b5%d9%81-%d9%88%d8%aa%d9%80-%d9%80%d9%82%d9%80-%d9%80%d8%aa%d9%84-%d8%b9%d9%86%d8%b5%D8%b1/790369/ |access-date=6 January 2025 |website=The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights }}] On 7 January, there was a large-scale combined-arms assault against the enclave. On 8 January, there was an infiltration attempt. On 9 January, SDF forces in Sheikh Maqsood agreed to a government ceasefire, under which SDF fighters and civilians who wished to accompany them were bussed out of the enclave to the DAANES.[{{Cite web |date=7 January 2026 |title=Syria: The army began shelling the Kurdish districts of Aleppo |url=https://en.protothema.gr/ |access-date=9 January 2026 |website=ProtoThema English |language=en |archive-date=27 May 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260527201802/https://en.protothema.gr/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |date=8 January 2026 |title=Dramatic escalation three days on: Clashes and bombardment with heavy weapons across neighbourhoods in Aleppo city leave two civilians injured |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/376101/ |access-date=8 January 2026 |website=The Syrian Observatory for Human Rights }}][{{Cite news |last=Christou |first=William |date=9 January 2026 |title=Syria announces ceasefire in Aleppo after three days of clashes with Kurds |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2026/jan/09/syria-announces-ceasefire-aleppo-clashes-kurds |access-date=9 January 2026 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077 }}]{{failed verification|reason=The Guardian says "Kurdish groups rejected Damascus’s ceasefire terms"|date=August 2026}} A final government assault took place on 10 January, with five [[Asayish (Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria)|Asayish]] operatives performing a suicide bombing against advancing government forces. By the end of the day, the enclave was in government hands, with the remaining SDF forces surrendering.[{{Cite web |date=10 January 2026 |title="Fida'i" attacks and infiltration operations: Members of Asayish Forces and government forces killed and wounded in Sheikh Maqsoud |url=https://www.syriahr.com/en/376215/ |access-date=10 January 2026 |website=SOHR }}][{{Cite web |date=10 January 2026 |title=ISF members in Aleppo carry out self-sacrifice operations against Interim Govt.'s mercenaries |url=https://hawarnews.com/en/isf-members-in-aleppo-carry-out-suicide-operations-against-interim-govts-mercenaries |website=Hawar News Agency |archive-date=5 March 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260305080415/https://hawarnews.com/en/isf-members-in-aleppo-carry-out-suicide-operations-against-interim-govts-mercenaries |url-status=live }}]
The newly reorganized [[Syrian Army]] expanded its operation on 13 January, launching [[2026 northeastern Syria offensive|a major offensive]] against the DAANES' holdings in [[Raqqa Governorate|Raqqa]] and [[Deir ez-Zor Governorate]]s.[{{Cite web |last1=Jazeera |first1=Al |last2=Agencies |title=Photos: Syrian army enters Deir Hafer after SDF withdrawal |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2026/1/17/photos-syrian-army-enters-deir-hafer-after-sdf-withdrawal |access-date=17 January 2026 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en |archive-date=17 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260117181435/https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2026/1/17/photos-syrian-army-enters-deir-hafer-after-sdf-withdrawal |url-status=live }}] The new army [[2026 northeastern Syria offensive#By the Syrian Armed Forces|attacked civilians and civilian infrastructure]], carried out [[extrajudicial killing]]s, tortured SDF fighters and civilians, and physically abused and verbally threatened women;[{{cite Q|Q141154258 }}] the SDF also killed civilians[{{cite news |title=Documentation of the Killing of At Least 22 Civilians, Mostly by Snipers, at the Hands of the SDF in Raqqa Governorate on January 18 |work=[[Syrian Network for Human Rights]] |date=23 January 2026 |access-date=27 January 2026 |url=https://snhr.org/blog/2026/01/23/documentation-of-the-killing-of-at-least-22-civilians-mostly-by-snipers-at-the-hands-of-the-sdf-in-raqqa-governorate-on-january-18/ |archive-date=1 February 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260201125455/https://snhr.org/blog/2026/01/23/documentation-of-the-killing-of-at-least-22-civilians-mostly-by-snipers-at-the-hands-of-the-sdf-in-raqqa-governorate-on-january-18/ |url-status=live }}] and an SDF fighter carried out extrajudicial killings.[{{cite Q|Q141154258 }}] During the new government offensive, the [[Arab Tribal and Clan Forces]] waged a guerrilla war against the SDF in Deir ez-Zor, securing strategic oil fields. Arab SDF units in predominantly Arab cities such as Raqqa defected en masse.[{{Cite web |date=20 January 2025 |title=Iran Update, January 20, 2025 |url=https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-january-20-2025 |access-date=4 April 2025 |website=Institute for the Study of War |archive-date=27 March 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250327160536/https://www.understandingwar.org/backgrounder/iran-update-january-20-2025 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |last1=Hasano |first1=Mahmoud |last2=Taha |first2=Jaidaa |title=Syrian government, US-backed Kurdish forces agree immediate ceasefire |work=Reuters |date=18 January 2026 |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/syrian-forces-advance-deeper-into-usbacked-kurdishcontrolled-northeast-2026-01-18/ |archive-url=https://archive.today/20260118144754/https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/syrian-forces-advance-deeper-into-usbacked-kurdishcontrolled-northeast-2026-01-18/ |archive-date=18 January 2026 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite news |date=18 January 2026 |title=Syrian army extends control in north, seizes oil fields |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syrian-army-extends-control-in-north-seizes-gas-oil-fields/a-75551958 |work=DW |archive-date=18 January 2026 |access-date=18 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260118134623/https://www.dw.com/en/syrian-army-extends-control-in-north-seizes-gas-oil-fields/a-75551958 |url-status=live }}] A 14-point ceasefire agreement with the SDF, negotiated through the US envoy [[Tom Barrack]], was announced on 18 January, under which the SDF was set to be integrated into the Syrian government, while the governorates of Raqqa and Deir ez-Zor were immediately handed over to the government. Although some media outlets initially reported that the DAANES had collapsed,[{{Cite web |url=https://www.welt-sichten.org/artikel/45219/rojava-die-selbstverwaltung-ist-sich-selbst-gescheitert |title=Rojava: Die Selbstverwaltung ist an sich selbst gescheitert |language=de |trans-title=Rojava: Self-governance has failed due to its own shortcomings. |date=24 March 2026 |website=[www.welt-sichten.org](http://www.welt-sichten.org) |access-date=8 August 2026 |archive-date=8 August 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260808235548/https://www.welt-sichten.org/artikel/45219/rojava-die-selbstverwaltung-ist-sich-selbst-gescheitert |url-status=live }}] it became clear that the DAANES still existed and remained as a ''de facto'' administration in [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]].[{{Cite web |date=18 January 2026 |title=Syrian Interim government and SDF announce ceasefire, integration agreement under U.S. sponsorship |website=[[Hawar News]] |url=https://hawarnews.com/en/syrian-interim-government-and-sdf-announce-ceasefire-integration-agreement-under-us-sponsorship |access-date=18 January 2026 }}]
On 3 August 2026, Hasakah Governor [[Noureddin Issa Ahmed]] stated that the integration of the DAANES into the Syrian system was 70 percent complete, including "education, health care, agriculture and culture", whereas the "final step", the complete dissolution of the SDF and DAANES, was not yet possible. However, four SDF brigades had already been integrated into the Syrian Armed Forces. According to Jihan Said Hassam, director of the Qamishli Subdistrict, the dissolution of the SDF was imminent.[{{Cite web |last1=Online |first1=Perspektive |date=3 August 2026 |title=Integration der Rojava-Selbstverwaltung in syrischen Staat zu "70 Prozent" vollbracht |url=https://perspektive-online.net/2026/08/integration-der-rojava-selbstverwaltung-in-syrischen-staat-zu-70-prozent-vollbracht/ |work=Perspektive Online |access-date=7 August 2026 |archive-date=7 August 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260807151830/https://perspektive-online.net/2026/08/integration-der-rojava-selbstverwaltung-in-syrischen-staat-zu-70-prozent-vollbracht/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |date=2 May 2026 |title=Kurdish education key to Damascus integration deal success: Hasaka governor |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/020520262 |work=RUDAW English }}][{{Cite web |date=2 May 2026 |title=Four SDF brigades integrated, but army cohesion remains elusive: Kurdish defense official |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/020520261 |work=RUDAW English |access-date=8 August 2026 |archive-date=22 May 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260522165925/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/020520261 |url-status=live }}]
On 25 August, SDF Commander-in-Chief [[Mazloum Abdi]], YPJ commander Newroz Ahmed, and co-president of the DAANES Executive Council, [[Îlham Ehmed]], travelled to Damascus for a day of discussions. Following the discussions, Abdi gave a press conference in which he declared the integration of the SDF into the Syrian state and its formal dissolution, describing the moment as "historic". Abdi was quoted as saying, "the country has entered a new phase, one of peace and participation in building a new Syria", and characterized the new political stage as going "from the battlefields to the fields of reconstruction, from the era of weapons to the era of peace, and from the stage of defending Syria to the stage of building Syria." He emphasized that the next stage would prioritize Kurdish language and educational rights, claiming that al-Sharaa had pledged to "safeguard the right to Kurdish language education". This fell short of the expectations and desires of many Syrian Kurds, who argued for constitutional recognition and protection of citizenship and language rights. Alongside SDF military integration, there had been progress in economic and political integration, with, among other steps, state employees having been placed on the payroll of Damascus and the appointment of local governors having been completed.[{{Cite web |last=Morris-Gray |first=Eve |date=2026-08-25 |title=SDF Dissolves as Kurdish Leaders move into Syrian State |url=https://theamargi.com/posts/sdf-dissolves-as-kurdish-leaders-move-into-syrian-state |access-date=2026-08-25 |website=The Amargi |language=en}}]
== Government and politics ==
{{Further|Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria}}
{{See also|List of political parties in the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Democratic confederalism|Jineology}}
{{Politics of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria}}
[[File:Syrian Civil War map (November 24, 2023).svg|thumb|Location in the Syrian civil war, prior to [[2024 Syrian opposition offensives|the late 2024 offensives]]]]
Supporters of the region's administration stated that it was an officially [[Secularism|secular]] polity,{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=xviii, 66, 200}}[{{cite web |date=20 February 2016 |title=Syria Kurds challenging traditions, promote civil marriage |url=http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160222111444/http://aranews.net/2016/02/syria-kurds-challenging-traditions-promote-civil-marriage/ |archive-date=22 February 2016 |access-date=23 August 2016 |publisher=[[ARA News]] }}][ with [[direct democratic]] ambitions based on [[democratic confederalism]] and [[libertarian socialism]],][{{Cite web |last=Colella |first=Chris |date=Winter 2017 |title=The Rojava Revolution: Oil, Water, and Liberation – Commodities, Conflict, and Cooperation |url=https://sites.evergreen.edu/ccc/other/the-rojava-revolution/ |access-date=23 July 2023 |website=Commodities, Conflict, and Cooperation |publisher=[[Evergreen State College]] |language=en-US |archive-date=23 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230723092142/https://sites.evergreen.edu/ccc/other/the-rojava-revolution/ |url-status=live }}][{{Cite book |title=Libertarian Socialism: Politics in Black and Red |publisher=[[PM Press]] |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-62963-390-9 |editor-last=Prichard |editor-first=Alex |edition=2nd |location=Oakland, California |chapter=Preface |editor-last2=Kinna |editor-first2=Ruth |editor-last3=Pinta |editor-first3=Saku |editor-last4=Berry |editor-first4=David }}] promoted [[decentralization]], [[gender equality]],{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|p=219}}{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=156–163}} environmental sustainability, social [[ecology]], and pluralistic tolerance for [[Religious pluralism|religious]], cultural, and political [[Diversity (politics)|diversity]], and stated that these values were mirrored in [[Constitution of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|its constitution]], society, and politics, presenting it as a model for a [[federalized Syria]] as a whole rather than outright independence.{{Efn|Sources:[{{cite news |title=PYD leader: SDF operation for Raqqa countryside in progress, Syria can only be secular |url=http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/ |access-date=8 October 2016 |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=28 May 2016 |archive-date=1 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001094203/http://aranews.net/2016/05/poyd-leader-current-sdf-operation-recapture-northern-countryside-raqqa-not-city/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite news |last=Ross |first=Carne |date=30 September 2015 |title=The Kurds' Democratic Experiment |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/the-kurds-democratic-experiment.html |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618184815/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/09/30/opinion/the-kurds-democratic-experiment.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=In der Maur |first1=Renée |last2=Staal |first2=Jonas |title=Stateless Democracy |date=2015 |publisher=BAK |location=Utrecht |isbn=978-90-77288-22-1 |page=19 |url=http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf |chapter=Introduction |access-date=19 April 2016 |archive-date=25 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161025095239/http://newworldsummit.eu/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/NWA5-Stateless-Democracy1.pdf |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/12/turkey4358b.pdf |title=Rethinking Politics and Democracy in the Middle East |last=Jongerden |first=Joost |date=6 December 2012 |publisher=[[Ekurd.net]] |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-date=15 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315143043/http://ekurd.net/mismas/articles/misc2012/12/turkey4358b.pdf |url-status=dead }}][}} The region's administration was also accused by [[Partisan (politics)|partisan]] and non-partisan sources of [[authoritarianism]], [[media censorship]], [[forced disappearances]], support of the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist regime]],{{Efn|Sources:{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=94, 130–131, 184}}][{{Cite web |title=Syria 2022 |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/syria/report-syria/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210910183104/https://www.amnesty.org/en/location/middle-east-and-north-africa/syria/report-syria/ |archive-date=10 September 2021 |website=[[Amnesty International]] }}][{{Cite web |date=2022 |title=Syria: Events of 2021 |url=https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113054216/https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2022/country-chapters/syria |archive-date=13 January 2022 |website=[[Human Rights Watch]] }}] }} [[Kurdification]],{{Efn|Sources:[{{Cite news |date=14 November 2019 |title=The Future of the Kurds in Syria |language=en |work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |url=https://www.cfr.org/conference-calls/future-kurds-syria |access-date=16 February 2021}}{{Dead link|date=August 2026 |bot=InternetArchiveBot }}][{{Cite news |date=7 February 2017 |title=Have the Syrian Kurds Committed War Crimes? |language=en |work=[[Council on Foreign Relations]] |url=https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/have-the-syrian-kurds-committed-war-crimes/ |access-date=16 February 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427084144/https://www.thenation.com/article/archive/have-the-syrian-kurds-committed-war-crimes/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |title=Syria: 'We had nowhere to go' – Forced displacement and demolitions in Northern Syria |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/2503/2015/en/ |access-date=15 July 2022 |website=Amnesty International |date=12 October 2015 |archive-date=13 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151013105238/https://web.archive.org/web/20151013105238/https://www.amnesty.org/en/documents/mde24/2503/2015/en/ |url-status=live }}]}} and displacement.[{{cite journal |last1=Knapp |first1=Michael |last2=Jongerden |first2=Joost |title=Communal Democracy: The Social Contract and Confederalism in Rojava |journal=Comparative Islamic Studies |issn=1740-7125 |volume=10 |issue=1 |year=2014 |pages=87–109 |url=https://www.academia.edu/download/49608848/Knapp___Jongerden_Rojava.pdf |doi=10.1558/cis.29642 }}][{{Cite journal |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/115/1/184/3804/The-Rojava-Experience-Possibilities-and-Challenges |title=The Rojava Experience: Possibilities and Challenges of Building a Democratic Life |first1=Bülent |last1=Küçük |first2=Ceren |last2=Özselçuk |date=1 January 2016 |journal=South Atlantic Quarterly |volume=115 |issue=1 |pages=184–196 |via=read.dukeupress.edu |doi=10.1215/00382876-3425013 |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427094931/https://read.dukeupress.edu/south-atlantic-quarterly/article-abstract/115/1/184/3804/The-Rojava-Experience-Possibilities-and-Challenges |url-status=live |url-access=subscription }}][{{cite journal |last=Barkhoda |first=Dalir |title=The Experiment of the Rojava System in Grassroots Participatory Democracy: Its Theoretical Foundation, Structure, and Strategies |journal=Journal of Research in Humanities and Social Science |volume=4 |issue=11 |year=2016 |pages=80–88 |issn=2321-9467 |url=https://www.questjournals.org/jrhss/papers/vol4-issue11/L4118088.pdf |archive-date=12 April 2024 |access-date=3 June 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240412180634/https://questjournals.org/jrhss/papers/vol4-issue11/L4118088.pdf |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |url= |doi=10.1080/14650045.2018.1508016 |title=When Öcalan met Bookchin: The Kurdish Freedom Movement and the Political Theory of Democratic Confederalism |year=2018 |last1=Gerber |first1=Damian |last2=Brincat |first2=Shannon |journal=Geopolitics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1–25 |s2cid=150297675 }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf |title=Nation-building in Rojava: participatory democracy amidst the Syrian civl war |website=Imemo.ru |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=22 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220622151413/https://www.imemo.ru/files/File/magazines/puty_miru/2016/02/04Moberg.pdf |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1 |format=PDF |title=Ruptures and ripple effects in the Middle East and beyond |website=Repository.bilkent.edu.tr |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=18 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210718174324/http://repository.bilkent.edu.tr/bitstream/handle/11693/36653/bilkent-research-paper.pdf?sequence=1 |url-status=live }}] }}
DAANES had widespread support among western leftists and feminists for its universal [[Democracy|democratic]], [[sustainable]], [[autonomous]], [[pluralism (political philosophy)|pluralist]], [[Equality before the law|equal]], and [[Jineology|feminist]] policies in dialogues with other parties and organizations.[{{Cite journal |url=http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/80502/1/SRO%20version%20Final%20Rojava.pdf |doi=10.1080/14650045.2018.1554564 |title=Beyond Orientalism: Exploring the Distinctive Feminism of democratic confederalism in Rojava |year=2018 |last1=Shahvisi |first1=Arianne |journal=Geopolitics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1–25 |s2cid=149972015 |access-date=9 December 2023 |archive-date=29 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230629001622/http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/id/eprint/80502/1/SRO%20version%20Final%20Rojava.pdf |url-status=live |issn=1465-0045 }}][{{Cite web |url=https://anfenglish.com/news/german-mp-jelpke-rojava-needs-help-against-corona-pandemic-42546 |title=German MP Jelpke: Rojava needs help against Corona pandemic |website=ANF News |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526220312/https://anfenglish.com/news/german-mp-jelpke-rojava-needs-help-against-corona-pandemic-42546 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |title=Gender Revolution in Rojava: The Voices beyond Tabloid Geopolitics |first1=Bahar |last1=Şimşek |first2=Joost |last2=Jongerden |date=29 October 2018 |journal=Geopolitics |volume=26 |issue=4 |pages=1023–1045 |doi=10.1080/14650045.2018.1531283 |doi-access=free |hdl=1887/87090 |hdl-access=free }}][{{Cite journal |last=Burç |first=Rosa |date=22 May 2020 |title=Non-territorial autonomy and gender equality: The case of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria – Rojava |url=http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf |journal=Philosophy and Society |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=277–448 |doi=10.2298/FID2003319B |s2cid=226412887 |access-date=5 February 2021 |archive-date=17 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220617192825/http://www.doiserbia.nb.rs/img/doi/0353-5738/2020/0353-57382003319B.pdf |url-status=live }}]
The political system of the region was based on its adopted constitution, officially titled "Charter of the Social Contract".[{{cite web |url=https://peaceinkurdistancampaign.com/charter-of-the-social-contract/ |title=2014 Charter of the Social Contract of Rojava |publisher=Peace in Kurdistan |date=29 January 2014 |access-date=18 June 2016 |archive-date=31 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131222916/https://www.peaceinkurdistancampaign.com/charter-of-the-social-contract/ |url-status=live }}] The first version of the constitution was ratified on 9 January 2014 and provided that all residents of the region would enjoy fundamental rights such as [[gender equality]] and [[freedom of religion]].[ It also provided for [[property rights]].][{{cite news |first=Andrea |last=Glioti |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/08/rojava-libertarian-myth-scrutiny-160804083743648.html |title=Rojava: A libertarian myth under scrutiny |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160819212842/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2016/08/rojava-libertarian-myth-scrutiny-160804083743648.html |archive-date=19 August 2016 |work=Al Jazeera |date=6 August 2016 }}] The region's system of community government had [[direct democracy|direct democratic]] aspirations.[{{cite web |url=http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/29012015 |title=A Very Different Ideology in the Middle East |date=29 January 2015 |publisher=Rudaw |access-date=1 February 2015 |archive-date=31 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150131061530/http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/29012015 |url-status=live }}]
The former diplomat [[Carne Ross]] observed in September 2015 in ''[[The New York Times]]'':[{{cite web |last1=Khalaf |first1=Rana |title=Governing Rojava Layers of Legitimacy in Syria |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/publications/research/2016-12-08-governing-rojava-khalaf.pdf |publisher=The Royal Institute of International Affairs |access-date=31 May 2017 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009203952/https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamouse/publications/research/2016-12-08-governing-rojava-khalaf.pdf |url-status=dead }}] [[Abdullah Öcalan]], a [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK) leader [[Imprisonment of Abdullah Öcalan|imprisoned]] in [[İmralı prison|İmralı]], Turkey, became an iconic figure in the region whose ideology of [[democratic confederalism]] shaped the region's society and politics.[{{cite web |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/writings-of-obscure-american-leftist-drive-kurdish-forces-to-syria/3678233.html |title=Writings of Obscure American Leftist Drive Kurdish Forces in Syria |work=Voice of America |date=16 January 2017 |access-date=17 January 2017 |archive-date=17 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170117131225/http://www.voanews.com/a/writings-of-obscure-american-leftist-drive-kurdish-forces-to-syria/3678233.html |url-status=live }}]
Besides the parties represented in TEV-DEM and the KNC, several other political groups operated in northern Syria. Several of these, such as the [[Kurdish National Alliance in Syria]],[{{cite web |url=http://www.enabbaladi.net/archives/64962 |title='The Kurdish National Alliance', a new political entity in the column |work=Enab Baladi |date=15 February 2016 |access-date=7 November 2019 |archive-date=7 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191107194042/https://www.enabbaladi.net/archives/64962 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://en.hawarnews.com/high-electoral-commission-disclosed-local-administration-elections-outcomes/ |title=High Electoral Commission disclosed Local Administration elections' outcomes |publisher=[[Hawar News Agency]] |date=5 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171208042809/http://en.hawarnews.com/high-electoral-commission-disclosed-local-administration-elections-outcomes/ |archive-date=8 December 2017 }}] the [[Democratic Conservative Party (Syria)|Democratic Conservative Party]],[{{Cite web |url=http://buyerpress.com/?p=56143 |script-title=ar:"المحافظين الديمقراطي" حزبٌ جديد يُعلن عن نفسه في قامشلو |trans-title=The Democratic Conservatives are a new party declaring itself in Qamishlo |work=buyer |language=ar |date=28 August 2017 |access-date=25 September 2019 |archive-date=25 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190925081244/http://buyerpress.com/%3Fp%3D56143/ |url-status=live }}] the [[Assyrian Democratic Party (Syria)|Assyrian Democratic Party]],[{{cite web |url=http://en.hawarnews.com/electoral-commission-publish-video-of-elections-2nd-stage/ |title=Electoral Commission publish video of elections 2nd stage |work=[[Hawar News Agency]] |date=25 November 2017 |access-date=1 July 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201032359/http://en.hawarnews.com/electoral-commission-publish-video-of-elections-2nd-stage/ |archive-date=1 December 2017 }}] and others actively participated in governing the region.
The politics of the region was described as having "libertarian transnational aspirations" influenced by the PKK's shift toward [[anarchism]], but also included various "tribal, ethno-sectarian, capitalist and patriarchal structures".[{{cite news |last1=Enzinna |first1=Wes |title=A Dream of Secular Utopia in ISIS' Backyard |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html |access-date=5 June 2021 |work=The New York Times |date=24 November 2015 |archive-date=4 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204025745/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/29/magazine/a-dream-of-utopia-in-hell.html |url-status=live }}] Similarly, there were aspirations for equal political representation of all ethno-religious components – Arabs, Kurds and Assyrians being the most sizeable ones. This was compared to the [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] [[National Pact|confessionalist]] system, which was based on that country's major religions.[{{cite web |title=YPG, backed by al-Khabour Guards Forces, al-Sanadid army and the Syriac Military Council, expels IS out of more than 230 towns, villages and farmlands |url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/05/ypg-backed-by-al-khabour-guards-forces-al-sanadid-army-and-the-syriac-military-council-expels-is-out-of-more-than-230-towns-villages-and-farmlands/ |website=[[Syrian Observatory For Human Rights]] |access-date=28 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150529003959/http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/05/ypg-backed-by-al-khabour-guards-forces-al-sanadid-army-and-the-syriac-military-council-expels-is-out-of-more-than-230-towns-villages-and-farmlands/ |archive-date=29 May 2015 |date=28 May 2015 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |last1=Gupta |first1=Rahila |title=Rojava's commitment to Jineolojî: the science of women |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/rahila-gupta/rojava-s-commitment-to-jineoloj-science-of-women |website=[[openDemocracy]] |access-date=28 February 2017 |date=9 April 2016 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922025049/https://www.opendemocracy.net/rahila-gupta/rojava-s-commitment-to-jineoloj-science-of-women |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |title=SDF plays central role in Syrian civil war |url=http://www.janes360.com/images/assets/333/57333/SDF_plays_central_role_in_Syrian_civil_war__1_.pdf |website=IHS Jane's 360 |publisher=[[IHS Markit|IHS]] |access-date=28 February 2017 |pages=3–4 |date=20 January 2016 |archive-date=23 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160423194750/http://www.janes360.com/images/assets/333/57333/SDF_plays_central_role_in_Syrian_civil_war__1_.pdf |url-status=dead }}]
The PYD-led rule triggered protests in various areas since it first captured territory. In 2019, residents of tens of villages in the eastern [[Deir ez-Zor Governorate]] demonstrated for two weeks, regarding the new regional leadership as Kurdish-dominated and non-inclusive, citing arrests of suspected ISIL members, looting of oil, lack of infrastructure, as well as forced conscription into the SDF as reasons. The protests resulted in deaths and injuries.[{{cite news |url=https://www.apnews.com/3314a11ddb2b40fdbfbe689d812fa080 |title=Anti-Kurdish protests in east Syria could endanger US plans |work=Associated Press |date=5 September 2019 |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013194411/https://www.apnews.com/3314a11ddb2b40fdbfbe689d812fa080 |url-status=live }}] In 2016, researcher Kheder Khaddour stated that leaders of local councils in [[Raqqa Governorate]] had been chosen by the SDF in a top-down way, and that the vetting process for identifying ISIL members placed obstacles for the return of refugees. He stated that there was dissent about the new structures as well as a lack of trust between the SDF and some demographic components of the local population.[{{cite book |first1=Kheder |last1=Khaddour |title=Back to What Future? What Remains for Syria's Displaced People |url=https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CMEC_69_Khaddour_final.pdf |year=2018 |publisher=Carnegie Middle East Center |pages=13–14 |access-date=13 October 2019 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013194426/https://carnegieendowment.org/files/CMEC_69_Khaddour_final.pdf |url-status=live }}]
Qamishli initially served as the ''de facto'' capital of the administration,{{sfnp|Lister|2015|p=154}}[ but the area's governing body later relocated to [[Ayn Issa]].][
===Separation of powers===
During the period between 2018 and 2019, [[separation of powers]] in the political structure included three major components: the [[Syrian Democratic Council]] as a representative body of political parties and organisations; the AANES itself; and TEV-DEM as a representative body of trade unions and civil society associations.][{{cite Q|Q136529807 }}]{{rp|17}} The AANES itself was approximately structured according to the [[separation of powers#Montesquieu's separation of powers system|Montesquieu model]], with the [[Executive Council (Rojava)|Executive Council]] having executive oversight responsibilities through offices and commissions; the General Council coordinating legislation and aiming to promote legal unification between regions; and the Justice Council aiming to coordinate the justice systems of the regions.[{{cite web |url=http://www.kurdishinfo.com/derik-congress-decides-to-establish-democratic-syria-assembly |title=Dêrîk congress decides to establish Democratic Syria Assembly |work=Firat News Agency |publisher=kurdishinfo |access-date=2 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160919071745/http://www.kurdishinfo.com/derik-congress-decides-to-establish-democratic-syria-assembly |archive-date=19 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}] The co-leaders selected to lead the SDC at its founding were prominent human rights activist [[Haytham Manna]] and [[TEV-DEM]] Executive Board member Îlham Ehmed.[{{cite web |url=http://syrianobserver.com/EN/News/30279/Haytham_Manna_Elected_Joint_Chairman_Syrian_Democratic_Council |title=Haytham Manna Elected Joint Chairman of Syrian Democratic Council |publisher=The Syrian Observer |date=14 October 2015 |access-date=26 May 2016 |archive-date=23 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171023192133/http://syrianobserver.com/EN/News/30279/Haytham_Manna_Elected_Joint_Chairman_Syrian_Democratic_Council |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://anfenglish.com/kurdistan/executive-board-of-democratic-syria-assembly-elected |title=Executive Board of Democratic Syria Assembly elected |publisher=Ajansa Nûçeyan a Firatê English |access-date=2 August 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151220074139/http://anfenglish.com/kurdistan/executive-board-of-democratic-syria-assembly-elected |archive-date=20 December 2015 }}]
=== Elections ===
==== Method ====
Under the 2023 [[Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria|Constitution of AANES]], three-fifths of municipal representatives were elected by the general population, while two-fifths were representatives chosen by demographic components. The AANES-level Democratic Council of People of North and East Syria was required to have fifty percent women.[{{cite Q|Q135455160 }}]
The municipal governing bodies were referred to as city councils, town councils and, for the smallest units, communes. As of July 2025, there were 36 city councils, 152 town councils, and 3,950 communes.[{{cite web |title=Municipal elections called off in Syrian Tal Tamir because of ISIS fighting |work=[[Rudaw Media Network|Rûdaw]] |url=https://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/13032015 |date=14 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250724165737/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/13032015 |archive-date=24 July 2025 |url-status=live }}]
[[2017 Rojava local elections|Commune elections]] were held on 22 September 2017. A total of 12,421 candidates competed for around 3,700 communal positions during the elections, which were organized by the High Electoral Commission.[{{cite web |author=Rodi Said |date=22 September 2017 |title=Syrians vote in Kurdish-led regions of north |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds/syrians-vote-in-kurdish-led-regions-of-north-idUSKCN1BX1PY?il=0 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170923145216/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds/syrians-vote-in-kurdish-led-regions-of-north-idUSKCN1BX1PY?il=0 |archive-date=23 September 2017 |access-date=23 September 2017 |publisher=Reuters }}]
Elections for the city and town councils of the Jazira Region, Euphrates Region, and Afrin Region [[2017 Rojava regional elections|were held in December 2017]].[{{cite news |date=18 September 2019 |title=YPG attacks FSA-controlled Azaz province |url=https://www.dailysabah.com/war-on-terror/2019/09/18/ypg-attacks-fsa-controlled-azaz-province |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020142227/https://www.dailysabah.com/war-on-terror/2019/09/18/ypg-attacks-fsa-controlled-azaz-province |archive-date=20 October 2019 |access-date=20 October 2019 |work=Daily Sabah |quote=The eastern part of Syria's Afrin region is {{sic|comprised |hide=y|of}} two districts: Tel Rifaat, currently occupied by the terrorist group [i.e. YPG], and Azaz, which remains under the control of Syrian opposition forces. }}][{{cite news |last=Sabri |first=Baraa |date=17 July 2019 |title=The Fate of Tel Rifaat Hangs in the Balance |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/fikraforum/view/the-fate-of-tel-rifaat-hangs-in-the-balance |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191020142226/https://web.archive.org/web/20191020142226/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/fikraforum/view/the-fate-of-tel-rifaat-hangs-in-the-balance |archive-date=20 October 2019 |access-date=20 October 2019 |work=Washington Institute |quote=Whereas before the greater Afrin region was under Kurdish occupation with both Arab majorities and Kurdish majorities, the situation reversed into a complete Turkish occupation of entirely Kurdish areas as well as the initially disputed Arab majority areas. Meanwhile, Tel Rifaat and Menagh remained under YPG control with semi-official Russian protection. [...] The Kurdish battalions that remained in the Tel Rifaat area and guarded the camps of displaced Kurds from Afrin have lived in a tense environment, well within reach of the Turkish pincers. }}]
The [[2024 Rojava local elections|planned 2024 elections]] were repeatedly postponed and ultimately not held. They were intended to be the last elections in the DAANES before its integration into the Syrian state on 20 August 2026.[{{Cite web |title=Municipal elections in North-East Syria postponed |url=https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/municipal-elections-in-north-east-syria-postponed-73648 |access-date=24 July 2024 |website=ANF News |language=en |archive-date=14 July 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250714083159/https://anfenglishmobile.com/rojava-syria/municipal-elections-in-north-east-syria-postponed-73648 |url-status=live }}]
===Administrative divisions===
{{Main|Jazira Region|Euphrates Region|Afrin Region}}
[[File:Regions of the Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria.png|thumb|Regions of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria (2024–2026)]]
The polity was initially organised in the form of cantons, with Article 8 of the 2014 Constitution stating that "All Cantons [...] are founded on the principle of local self-government. Cantons may freely elect their representatives and representative bodies, and may pursue their rights insofar as it does not contravene the articles of the Charter."[{{cite web |title=Final statement of Autonomous Administration of North, East Syria – ANHA |url=http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/final-statement-of-autonomous-administration-of-north-east-syria-h3608.html |quote=Autonomous Administration of North East Syria |access-date=8 September 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319012446/http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/final-statement-of-autonomous-administration-of-north-east-syria-h3608.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |last=van Wilgenburg |first=Wladimir |title=New administration formed for northeastern Syria |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/c9e03dab-6265-4a9a-91ee-ea8d2a93c657 |website=[[Kurdistan24]] |access-date=8 September 2018 |archive-date=9 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909163756/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/c9e03dab-6265-4a9a-91ee-ea8d2a93c657 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |title=Amina Omar: Autonomous Administration its purpose to serve people |url=http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/amina-omar-autonomous-administration-its-purpose-to-serve-people-consolidation-of-administrations--h3599.html |website=hawarnews.com |quote=Consolidation of administrations – ANHA |access-date=8 September 2018 |archive-date=19 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190319082930/http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/amina-omar-autonomous-administration-its-purpose-to-serve-people-consolidation-of-administrations--h3599.html |url-status=live }}]
The SDF withdrew from the [[Afrin Region|Afrin region]] in 2018,[{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/18/world/middleeast/afrin-turkey-syria.html |title=Syrian Rebels, Backed by Turkey, Seize Control of Afrin |work=The New York Times |date=18 March 2018 |last1=Gall |first1=Carlotta |last2=Barnard |first2=Anne |access-date=10 December 2024 |archive-date=24 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180424070444/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/03/18/world/middleeast/afrin-turkey-syria.html |url-status=live }}] from the Manbij region in 2024,[{{cite web |last=van Wilgenburg |first=Wladimir |author-link=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |date=21 March 2016 |title=ANALYSIS: 'This is a new Syria, not a new Kurdistan' |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-kurds-syria-rojava-1925945786 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160317214552/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/analysis-kurds-syria-rojava-1925945786 |archive-date=17 March 2016 |access-date=25 May 2016 |website=[[Middle East Eye]] |publisher= }}]
[[File:Flag of Syrian Democratic Forces.svg|thumb|Flag of [[Syrian Democratic Forces]], military wing of the DAANES]]
The relations of the region with the [[Ba'athist Syria|Ba'athist government]] were determined within the context of the [[Syrian civil war]]. The [[2012 Constitution of Ba'athist Syria|2012 constitution of Syria]] and the [[Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria]] were legally incompatible with respect to legislative and executive authority. In the military realm, combat between the [[People's Defense Units]] (YPG) and Syrian government forces was rare; in most instances, some of the territory still controlled by the Syrian government in Qamishli and al-Hasakah was lost to the YPG. In some military campaigns, particularly in northern Aleppo governorate and in al-Hasakah, YPG and Syrian government forces tacitly cooperated against Islamist forces, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), and others.[{{cite news |title=Syria's war: Assad on the offensive |url=https://www.economist.com/news/21690203-city-was-once-syrias-largest-faces-siege-assadu2019s-grip-tightens |access-date=1 May 2016 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |date=13 February 2016 |archive-date=23 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223145327/https://www.economist.com/news/21690203-city-was-once-syrias-largest-faces-siege-assadu2019s-grip-tightens |url-status=live }}]
In March 2015, the Syrian Information Minister announced that his government considered recognizing Kurdish autonomy "within the law and constitution".[{{cite web |title=KRG: Elections in Jazira are Not Acceptable |publisher=Basnews |url=http://basnews.com/en/news/2015/03/14/krg-elections-in-jazira-are-not-acceptable/ |date=14 March 2015 |access-date=15 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316122001/http://basnews.com/en/news/2015/03/14/krg-elections-in-jazira-are-not-acceptable/ |archive-date=16 March 2015 |url-status=dead }}] While the region's administration was not invited to the [[Geneva peace talks on Syria (2016)|Geneva III peace talks on Syria]],[{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUSKCN0YE2NI |title=Syrian Kurds point finger at Western-backed opposition |publisher=Reuters |date=23 May 2016 |access-date=24 May 2016 |archive-date=2 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083032/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUSKCN0YE2NI |url-status=live }}] or any of the earlier talks, Russia in particular called for the region's inclusion and to some degree carried the region's positions into the talks, as documented in Russia's May 2016 draft for a new constitution for Syria.[{{cite web |url=https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567021-russia-finishes-draft-for-new-syria-constitution-report |title=Russia finishes draft for new Syria constitution |publisher=Now.MMedia/Al-Akhbar |date=24 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160807092054/https://now.mmedia.me/lb/en/NewsReports/567021-russia-finishes-draft-for-new-syria-constitution-report |archive-date=7 August 2016 }}] In October 2016, there were reports of a Russian initiative for federalization with a focus on northern Syria, which at its core called for turning the existing institutions of the region into legitimate institutions of Syria; it was also reported that the Syrian government rejected it at the time.[{{cite web |url=https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/publications/research/2016-09-15-kurdish-self-governance-syria-sary_0.pdf |title=Kurdish Self-governance in Syria: Survival and Ambition |author=Ghadi Sary |publisher=Chatham House |date=September 2016 |access-date=20 November 2016 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009204816/https://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/files/chathamhouse/publications/research/2016-09-15-kurdish-self-governance-syria-sary_0.pdf |url-status=dead }}]
An analysis released in June 2017 described the region's "relationship with the regime" as fraught but functional and as having a "semi-cooperative dynamic".[{{cite news |url=https://warontherocks.com/2017/06/the-signal-in-syrias-noise/ |title=The Signal in Syria's Noise |author=Sam Heller |publisher=warontherocks.com |date=30 June 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=30 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630154243/https://warontherocks.com/2017/06/the-signal-in-syrias-noise/ |url-status=live }}] In late September 2017, Syria's Foreign Minister said that Damascus would consider granting Kurds more autonomy in the region once ISIL was defeated.[{{cite web |url=http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/syria-granting-kurds-greater-autonomy-170926121821968.html |title=Syria to consider granting Kurds greater autonomy |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-date=28 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228052604/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/09/syria-granting-kurds-greater-autonomy-170926121821968.html |url-status=live }}]
On 13 October 2019, the SDF announced that it had reached an agreement with the Syrian Army which allowed the latter to enter the SDF-held cities of Manbij and Kobani in order to dissuade a Turkish attack on those cities as part of the cross-border offensive by Turkish and Turkish-backed Syrian rebels.[{{cite web |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0 |title=Report: Syrian army to enter SDF-held Kobani, Manbij |website=Reuters |date=14 October 2019 |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=13 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191013164335/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-towns-report-idUSKBN1WS0K0 |url-status=live }}] The Syrian Army also deployed in the north of Syria together with the SDF along the Syrian-Turkish border and entered several SDF-held cities such as Ayn Issa and Tell Tamer.[{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF |title=Syrian army to deploy along Turkish border in deal with Kurdish-led forces |website=Reuters |date=14 October 2019 |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=22 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191022053311/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-government-sdf-idUSKBN1WS0PF |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A |title=Syrian Kurds accuse Turkey of violations, Russia says peace plan on track |website=Reuters |date=24 October 2019 |access-date=1 November 2019 |archive-date=24 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024140036/https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-syria-security-idUKKBN1X319A |url-status=dead }}]
With the 2024 [[fall of the Assad regime]], the autonomous administration was initially in an uncertain position between the ascendant rebel government and the Turkish government, which had been amicable and hostile towards the administration, respectively.[{{Cite web |last1=Krauss |first1=Joseph |title=America's closest ally in Syria is losing ground as a new order takes shape |work=[[AP News]] |date=12 December 2024 |url=https://apnews.com/article/syria-war-assad-kurds-rebels-turkey-us-2b4af609c4dcf853ac6d7a22d3dccf5d |language=en |access-date=17 December 2024 |archive-date=17 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241217165102/https://apnews.com/article/syria-war-assad-kurds-rebels-turkey-us-2b4af609c4dcf853ac6d7a22d3dccf5d |url-status=live }}] On 10 March 2025, an [[Syrian peace process#10 March agreement|agreement]] was signed to integrate the SDF into the structures of the transitional government.[{{cite web |date=10 March 2025 |title=Syria merges Kurdish-led Syrian Democratic Forces into state institutions |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/10/syria-merges-kurdish-led-syrian-democratic-forces-into-state-institutions |access-date=10 March 2025 |website=Al Jazeera English |archive-date=22 June 2025 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250622234520/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2025/3/10/syria-merges-kurdish-led-syrian-democratic-forces-into-state-institutions |url-status=live }}] However, tensions resurfaced during a subsequent government [[2026 northeastern Syria offensive|offensive in northeastern Syria]], prompting negotiations that culminated in a 14-point ceasefire and integration agreement announced on 18 January 2026.[{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/syria-announces-new-ceasefire-deal-with-kurdish-led-sdf/live-75553804 |title=Syria announces new ceasefire deal with Kurdish-led SDF |publisher=DW |date=18 January 2026 |access-date=31 January 2026 |archive-date=25 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260125095945/https://www.dw.com/en/syria-announces-new-ceasefire-deal-with-kurdish-led-sdf/live-75553804 |url-status=live }}] The agreement was finalized by 30 January, ending the fighting and providing for the withdrawal of forces, the entry of government troops into key Kurdish-held cities, the integration of SDF forces into state institutions, recognition of Kurdish civil rights, and the return of displaced persons.[{{cite web |url=https://www.dw.com/en/sdf-ypg-syria-ceasefire-integration-al-sharaa/a-75724282 |title=Syria: Kurdish-led SDF and government agree integration deal |publisher=DW |date=30 January 2026 |access-date=31 January 2026 |archive-date=31 January 2026 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260131104001/https://www.dw.com/en/sdf-ypg-syria-ceasefire-integration-al-sharaa |url-status=live }}]
===External relations===
====Kurdish issues====
{{See also|Kurdistan|Kurdish nationalism}}
[[File:Kurdish-inhabited area by CIA (1992).jpg|thumb|Kurdish-inhabited areas in 1992 according to the [[CIA]]]]
The region's dominant political party, the [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]] (PYD), was a member organisation of the [[Kurdistan Communities Union]] (KCK) organization; however, the other KCK member organisations in the neighbouring states (Turkey, Iran and Iraq) with Kurdish minorities were either outlawed ([[Turkish Kurdistan]], [[Iranian Kurdistan]]) or politically marginal with respect to other Kurdish parties (Iraq). Expressions of sympathy for Syrian Kurds were numerous among [[Kurds in Turkey]].[{{cite magazine |url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/kobani-means-turkeys-kurds |title=What Kobani Means for Turkey's Kurds |magazine=The New Yorker |date=8 November 2014 |access-date=20 February 2020 |archive-date=15 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191015072820/https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/kobani-means-turkey-kurds |url-status=live }}] During the [[Siege of Kobanî]], some ethnic Kurdish citizens of Turkey crossed the border and volunteered in the defense of the town.[{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/09/turkey-kurds-pkk-daglica-war-be-sustained-bloody-day.html |title=6 reasons why Turkey's war against the PKK won't last |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=8 September 2015 |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160328074432/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/09/turkey-kurds-pkk-daglica-war-be-sustained-bloody-day.html |archive-date=28 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |last1=Stein |first1=Aaron |url=http://warontherocks.com/2016/03/kurdish-militants-and-turkeys-new-urban-insurgency/ |title=Kurdish Militants and Turkey's New Urban Insurgency |publisher=War on the Rocks |date=23 March 2016 |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-date=21 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121051955/https://warontherocks.com/2016/03/kurdish-militants-and-turkeys-new-urban-insurgency/ |url-status=live }}]
The region's relationship with the [[Government of the Kurdistan Region|Kurdistan Regional Government]] in Iraq was complicated. One context was that the governing party there, the [[Kurdistan Democratic Party]] (KDP), viewed itself and its affiliated Kurdish parties in other countries as a more conservative and nationalist alternative and competitor to the KCK political agenda and blueprint in general.[{{cite web |last1=Hassan |first1=Kawa |url=http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/08/17/kurdistan-s-politicized-society-confronts-sultanistic-system/ieta |title=Kurdistan's Politicized Society Confronts a Sultanistic System |work=Carnegie Middle East Center |date=18 August 2015 |access-date=8 June 2016 |archive-date=20 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150820232502/http://carnegie-mec.org/2015/08/17/kurdistan-s-politicized-society-confronts-sultanistic-system/ieta |url-status=live }}] stood in stark contrast to the region's system. Like the KCK umbrella organization, the PYD had some anti-nationalist ideological leanings while having Kurdish nationalist factions as well.[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/syrian-kurdish-leader-will-respect-outcome-independence-referendum/ |title=Syrian Kurdish leader: We will respect outcome of independence referendum |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=3 August 2016 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019142847/http://aranews.net/2016/08/syrian-kurdish-leader-will-respect-outcome-independence-referendum/ |url-status=dead }}] They had traditionally been opposed by the Iraqi-Kurdish KDP-sponsored [[Kurdish National Council]] in Syria, which had more clearly defined Kurdish nationalist leanings.[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-national-council-announces-plan-setting-syrian-kurdistan-region/ |title=Kurdish National Council announces plan for setting up 'Syrian Kurdistan Region' |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=4 August 2016 |access-date=4 August 2016 |archive-date=6 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206050619/http://web.archive.org/web/20171206050619/http://aranews.net/2016/08/kurdish-national-council-announces-plan-setting-syrian-kurdistan-region/ |url-status=dead }}]
====International relations====
{{Main|Foreign relations of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria}}
{{See also|Syrian Democratic Forces#Support by the United States, France and other Western nations}}
[[File:Salih Muslim & Ulla Jelpke.jpg|thumb|left|[[Salih Muslim]], co-chairman of the region's leading Democratic Union Party (PYD) with [[Ulla Jelpke]] at [[Rosa Luxemburg Foundation]] in Berlin]]
Aside from the representation offices DAANES had established in France, Sweden, Germany and Switzerland[{{Cite news |last=Duchêne |first=Claude |title=The opening of a Syrian Kurdish 'representation office' in Geneva stirs tensions |language=en |work=SWI swissinfo.ch |url=https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/the-opening-of-a-syrian-kurdish--representation-office--in-geneva-stirs-tensions/46891808 |access-date=12 June 2022 |archive-date=12 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220612220827/https://www.swissinfo.ch/eng/the-opening-of-a-syrian-kurdish--representation-office--in-geneva-stirs-tensions/46891808 |url-status=live }}], the region's role in the international arena included comprehensive military cooperation between its militias, under the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] (SDF) umbrella, and the United States and the [[Military intervention against ISIL#3 December 2014|international (US-led) coalition against the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]].[{{cite news |title=Inside Syria: Kurds Roll Back ISIS, but Alliances Are Strained |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/10/world/middleeast/syria-turkey-islamic-state-kurdish-militia-ypg.html |date=10 August 2015 |access-date=28 October 2016 |work=[[The New York Times]] |archive-date=11 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160911181943/http://www.nytimes.com/2015/08/10/world/middleeast/syria-turkey-islamic-state-kurdish-militia-ypg.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=ANALYSIS: Kurds welcome US support, but want more say on Syria's future |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/kurds-syria-us-general-292550977 |date=23 May 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |author=Wladimir von Wilgenburg |publisher=Middle East Eye |archive-date=14 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161214075024/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/kurds-syria-us-general-292550977 |url-status=live }}] In a public statement in March 2016, the day after the declaration of the regions autonomy, U.S. Defense Secretary Ashton Carter praised the [[People's Protection Units]] (YPG) militia as having "proven to be excellent partners of ours on the ground in fighting ISIL. We are grateful for that, and we intend to continue to do that, recognizing the complexities of their regional role."[{{cite web |title=Pentagon chief praises Kurdish fighters in Syria |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/pentagon-chief-praises-kurdish-fighters-in-syria.aspx?pageID=238&nID=96609&NewsCatID=352 |work=Hurriyet Daily News |date=18 March 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=16 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616220112/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/pentagon-chief-praises-kurdish-fighters-in-syria.aspx?pageID=238&nID=96609&NewsCatID=352 |url-status=live }}] Late October 2016, U.S. Army Lt. Gen. [[Stephen Townsend]], the commander of the international Anti-ISIL-coalition, said that the SDF would lead the impending [[Raqqa offensive (2016–present)|assault on Raqqa]], ISIL's stronghold and capital, and that SDF commanders would plan the operation with advice from American and coalition troops.[{{cite news |url=http://www.stripes.com/news/us-general-syrian-democratic-forces-will-lead-the-assault-on-raqqa-1.435953 |publisher=Stars and Stripes |title=US general: Syrian Democratic Forces will lead the assault on Raqqa |date=26 October 2016 |access-date=31 October 2016 |archive-date=1 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101043408/http://www.stripes.com/news/us-general-syrian-democratic-forces-will-lead-the-assault-on-raqqa-1.435953 |url-status=live }}] At various times, the U.S. deployed U.S. troops embedded with the SDF to the border between the region and Turkey, in order to deter Turkish aggressions against the SDF.[{{cite web |url=https://calrev.org/2018/07/24/iraq-iranian-subversion-and-american-engagement/ |title=Iraq: Iranian Subversion and American Engagement |last=Schrupp |first=Kenneth |date=24 July 2018 |website=The California Review |access-date=25 July 2019 }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/us-troops-in-manbij-to-deter-skirmishes-between-turks-kurds/3752065.html |title=US Troops in Manbij to 'Deter' Skirmishes Between Turks, Kurds |work=VOA News |author=Carla Babb |date=6 March 2017 |access-date=8 April 2025 |archive-date=7 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307004911/http://www.voanews.com/a/us-troops-in-manbij-to-deter-skirmishes-between-turks-kurds/3752065.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/01/tensions-rise-along-the-turkey-syria-border-pkk-ypg-erdogan |title=Ever-closer ties between US and Kurds stoke Turkish border tensions |work=The Guardian |date=1 May 2017 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=1 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501093210/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/may/01/tensions-rise-along-the-turkey-syria-border-pkk-ypg-erdogan |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://syriadirect.org/news/kurdish-citizens-%E2%80%98rest-easy%E2%80%99-after-american-military-patrols-parade-through-cities-in-northern-syria/ |title=Kurdish citizens 'rest easy' after American military patrols parade through cities in northern Syria |work=syriadirect.org |date=2 May 2017 |access-date=3 May 2017 |archive-date=2 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170502210458/http://syriadirect.org/news/kurdish-citizens-%e2%80%98rest-easy%E2%80%99-after-american-military-patrols-parade-through-cities-in-northern-syria/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/05/turkey-syria-de-facto-protection-zone-for-kurds.html |title=How the US stood with Syria's Kurds |work=Al-Monitor |date=4 May 2017 |access-date=5 May 2017 |archive-date=5 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505023422/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2017/05/turkey-syria-de-facto-protection-zone-for-kurds.html |url-status=live }}] In February 2018, the [[United States Department of Defense]] released a budget blueprint for 2019 with respect to the region, which included $300 million for the [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] (SDF) and $250 million for border security.[{{cite news |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/02/pentagon-budget-troop-levels-iraq-syria.html |title=Pentagon budget retains same troop levels in Iraq, Syria |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=12 February 2018 |access-date=13 February 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213231319/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2018/02/pentagon-budget-troop-levels-iraq-syria.html |archive-date=13 February 2018 |url-status=dead }}] In April 2018, the president of [[France]], [[Emmanuel Macron]] dispatched troops to [[Manbij]] and [[Rmelan]] in a bid to assist [[Syrian Democratic Forces]] (SDF) militias and in order to defuse tensions with Turkey.[{{cite news |url=http://www.leparisien.fr/international/afrin-emmanuel-macron-recoit-une-delegation-du-rojava-29-03-2018-7636626.php |title=Syrie : Emmanuel Macron annonce l'envoi de soldats au secours des Kurdes |publisher=Le Parisien |language=fr |date=29 March 2018 |archive-date=29 March 2018 |access-date=6 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329214238/http://www.leparisien.fr/international/afrin-emmanuel-macron-recoit-une-delegation-du-rojava-29-03-2018-7636626.php |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Demonstration in Afrin against Turkish military operation.png|thumb|A demonstration in the city of [[Afrin, Syria|Afrin]] in support of the [[People's Protection Units|YPG]] against the [[Operation Olive Branch|Turkish invasion of Afrin]], 19 January 2018]]
In the diplomatic field, the de facto autonomous region lacked any formal recognition. While there was comprehensive activity involving the reception of the region's representatives[{{cite news |last1=Taştekin |first1=Fehim |title=Hollande-PYD meeting challenges Erdogan |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/02/turkey-france-kurdish-guerillas-elysee.html |agency=Al-Monitor |date=12 February 2015 |archive-date=22 June 2019 |access-date=14 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622215314/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/02/turkey-france-kurdish-guerillas-elysee.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://jinha.com.tr/en/ALL-NEWS/content/view/25309 |title=YPJ Commander Nesrin Abdullah speaks in Italian Parliament |publisher=JINHA |date=23 June 2015 |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-date=6 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906052138/http://jinha.com.tr/en/ALL-NEWS/content/view/25309 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite news |url=http://ekurd.net/kurdish-pyd-hdp-ocalan-athens-2016-02-17 |title=Syrian Kurdish PYD, Turkey's HDP leaders attend 'Ocalan conference' in Athens |publisher=eKurd |date=17 February 2016 |access-date=13 October 2016 |archive-date=14 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714115358/https://ekurd.net/kurdish-pyd-hdp-ocalan-athens-2016-02-17 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/foreign-affairs-committee/news/report-kurdistan-region/ |title=Build Kurdistan relationship or risk losing vital Middle East partner – News from Parliament |publisher=UK Parliament |access-date=22 May 2016 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327102013/https://www.parliament.uk/business/committees/committees-a-z/commons-select/foreign-affairs-committee/news/report-kurdistan-region/ |url-status=live }}] and appreciation[{{cite web |url=http://kurdishquestion.com/oldsite/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/rome-declares-kobane-sister-city.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20161213100544/http://kurdishquestion.com/oldsite/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/rome-declares-kobane-sister-city.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 December 2016 |title=Rome Declares Kobane 'Sister City' |publisher=Kurdishquestion |date=5 April 2015 |access-date=19 August 2016 }}] from a broad range of countries, only [[Russia]] occasionally openly supported the region's political ambition of [[federalization of Syria]] in the international arena,[{{cite web |title=Mark C. Toner, Deputy Spokesperson. Daily Press Briefing. Washington, DC. November 7, 2016 |url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2016/11/264175.htm |work=United States Department of State |date=7 November 2016 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=7 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181107124602/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/prs/dpb/2016/11/264175.htm |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=http://aranews.net/2017/03/us-led-coalition-has-no-intention-to-create-federal-kurdish-state-in-syria-official/ |publisher=Ara news |title=US-led coalition has no intention to create federal Kurdish state in Syria: official |date=30 March 2017 |access-date=12 April 2017 |archive-date=13 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413073249/http://aranews.net/2017/03/us-led-coalition-has-no-intention-to-create-federal-kurdish-state-in-syria-official/ |url-status=dead }}] After peace talks between Syrian civil war parties in Astana in January 2017, Russia offered a draft for a future constitution of Syria, which would, among other things, change the "Syrian Arab Republic" into the "Republic of Syria", introduce decentralized authorities as well as elements of [[Federalization of Syria|federalism]] like "association areas", strengthen the parliament at the cost of the presidency, and realize [[Islam and secularism|secularism]] by abolishing Islamic jurisprudence as a source of legislation.[{{cite news |title=Syria Opposition Rejects Russian Draft of New Constitution |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2017-01-25/syria-opposition-rejects-russian-draft-of-new-constitution |publisher=Bloomberg |date=25 January 2017 |access-date=26 January 2017 |archive-date=2 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202023455/https://www.bloomberg.com/politics/articles/2017-01-25/syria-opposition-rejects-russian-draft-of-new-constitution |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=Syrian draft constitution recognizes Kurdish language, no mentions of federalism |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/26012017 |publisher=Rudaw |date=26 January 2017 |access-date=26 January 2017 |archive-date=24 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624204352/http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/26012017 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |script-title=ar:رووداو تنشر مسودة الدستور السوري التي أعدها خبراء روس |url=http://www.rudaw.net/mobile/arabic/middleeast/syria/250120172 |publisher=Rudaw |language=ar |access-date=26 January 2017 |archive-date=24 June 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180624204404/http://www.rudaw.net/mobile/arabic/middleeast/syria/250120172 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=Moscow invites Kurds and Syrian opposition to explain Astana |url=http://aranews.net/2017/01/moscow-invites-kurds-and-syrian-opposition-to-explain-astana/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126011845/http://aranews.net/2017/01/moscow-invites-kurds-and-syrian-opposition-to-explain-astana/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 January 2017 |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=26 January 2017 |access-date=26 January 2017 }}] The region opened official representation offices in [[Moscow]] during 2016,[{{cite web |url=http://www.nationalia.info/new/10714/rojava-first-representation-office-outside-kurdistan-opens-in-moscow |title=Rojava's first representation office outside Kurdistan opens in Moscow |website=Nationalia |date=11 February 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=9 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190409033055/https://www.nationalia.info/new/10714/rojava-first-representation-office-outside-kurdistan-opens-in-moscow |url-status=live }}] [[Stockholm]],[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/04/syrian-kurds-inaugurate-representation-office-sweden/ |title=Syrian Kurds inaugurate representation office in Sweden |date=18 April 2016 |publisher=[[ARA News]] |access-date=22 May 2016 |archive-date=19 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180719175351/https://web.archive.org/web/20180719175351/http://aranews.net/2016/04/syrian-kurds-inaugurate-representation-office-sweden/ |url-status=dead }}] [[Berlin]],[{{cite web |url=http://www.evrensel.net/haber/279449/berlinde-rojava-temsilciligi-acildi |title=Berlin'de Rojava temsilciliği açıldı |date=7 May 2016 |website=Evrensel.net |language=tr-TR |access-date=22 May 2016 |archive-date=30 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190530203135/https://www.evrensel.net/haber/279449/berlinde-rojava-temsilciligi-acildi |url-status=live }}] Paris,[{{cite web |url=https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2016/05/24/Syrian-Kurds-open-unofficial-representative-mission-in-Paris-.html |title=Syrian Kurds open unofficial representative mission in Paris |publisher=Al Arabiya |date=24 May 2016 |access-date=22 May 2016 |archive-date=23 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190723003138/https://english.alarabiya.net/en/News/middle-east/2016/05/24/Syrian-Kurds-open-unofficial-representative-mission-in-Paris-.html |url-status=live }}] and [[The Hague]].[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/09/syrian-kurds-inaugurate-representation-office-in-the-netherlands/ |title=Syrian Kurds inaugurate representation office in the Netherlands |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=8 September 2016 |access-date=8 September 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019135921/http://aranews.net/2016/09/syrian-kurds-inaugurate-representation-office-in-the-netherlands/ |url-status=dead }}] A broad range of public voices in the U.S. and Europe called for more formal recognition of the region.[{{cite magazine |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-10-14/rojava-model |title=The Rojava Model |author=Meredith Tax |magazine=Foreign Affairs |date=14 October 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303053137/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/2016-10-14/rojava-model |url-status=live }}][{{cite magazine |author=Steven A. Cook |url=https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2016-03-14/between-ankara-and-rojava/ |title=Between Ankara and Rojava |magazine=Foreign Affairs |date=14 March 2016 |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-date=18 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318061311/https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/turkey/2016-03-14/between-ankara-and-rojava/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |author=Kamran Matin |url=http://www.nrttv.com/en/birura-details.aspx?Jimare=4434 |title=The Geneva Peace Talks on Syria and the Kurds |work=NRT |date=12 December 2016 |access-date=18 December 2016 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220180449/http://www.nrttv.com/en/birura-details.aspx?Jimare=4434 |url-status=dead }}] International cooperation was in the field of educational and cultural institutions, such as the cooperation agreement of [[Paris 8 University]] with the newly founded [[University of Rojava]] in [[Qamishli]],[{{cite web |url=http://www.lejdd.fr/Culture/Livres/L-ecrivain-Patrice-Franceschi-veut-creer-un-centre-culturel-au-Kurdistan-syrien-778553 |title=L'écrivain Patrice Franceschi veut créer un centre culturel au Kurdistan syrien |publisher=Europe1 |date=27 March 2016 |access-date=23 November 2016 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327112046/https://www.lejdd.fr/Culture/Livres/L-ecrivain-Patrice-Franceschi-veut-creer-un-centre-culturel-au-Kurdistan-syrien-778553 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=http://www.nrttv.com/EN/Details.aspx?Jimare=9371 |title=French delegation seeks to open cultural center in Rojava |publisher=NRT |date=9 August 2016 |access-date=29 October 2016 |archive-date=28 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728131543/http://web.archive.org/web/20170728131543/http://www.nrttv.com/EN/Details.aspx?Jimare=9371 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/09/kurds-plan-set-french-institute-syria/ |title=Kurds plan to set up French institute in Syria |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=8 September 2016 |access-date=23 November 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019170202/http://aranews.net/2016/09/kurds-plan-set-french-institute-syria/ |url-status=dead }}]
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Neighbouring [[Turkey]] was consistently hostile, which was attributed to a perceived threat from the region's emergence, as it could encourage activism for autonomy among [[Kurds in Turkey]] in the [[Kurdish–Turkish conflict (1978–present)|Kurdish–Turkish conflict]]. In this context, in particular the region's leading [[Democratic Union Party (Syria)|Democratic Union Party]] (PYD) and the YPG militia were members of the [[Kurdistan Communities Union]] (KCK) network of organisations, which also included both political and military Kurdish organizations in Turkey itself, including the [[Kurdistan Workers' Party]] (PKK). Turkey's policy towards the region was based on an economic blockade,[ persistent attempts at international isolation,][{{cite web |url=http://www.mfa.gov.tr/speech-by-h_e_-mevlut-cavusoglu_-minister-of-foreign-affairs-of-the-republic-of-turkey-at-the-meeting-of-council-of-foreign-mini.en.mfa |title=From Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205011325/http://www.mfa.gov.tr/speech-by-h_e_-mevlut-cavusoglu_-minister-of-foreign-affairs-of-the-republic-of-turkey-at-the-meeting-of-council-of-foreign-mini.en.mfa |archive-date=5 December 2016 |url-status=dead }}] opposition to the cooperation between the American-led anti-ISIL coalition and the Syrian Democratic Forces,[{{cite web |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-president-erdogan-slams-us-over-ypg-support.aspx?PageID=238&NID=99783&NewsCatID=510 |title=Turkish President Erdoğan slams US over YPG support |work=Hurryiet Daily News |date=28 May 2016 |access-date=2 November 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019092032/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/turkish-president-erdogan-slams-us-over-ypg-support.aspx?PageID=238&NID=99783&NewsCatID=510 |url-status=live }}] and support for [[Islamism|Islamist]] opposition fighters hostile to the autonomous region,[{{cite web |url=https://lobelog.com/how-can-turkey-overcome-its-foreign-policy-mess/ |title=How Can Turkey Overcome Its Foreign Policy Mess? |publisher=Lobolog (Graham E. Fuller) |date=19 February 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=19 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190719220131/http://lobelog.com/how-can-turkey-overcome-its-foreign-policy-mess/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://menafn.com/1098284482/Syrias-Afrin-a-plundered-settlement-one-year-on |title=Syria's Afrin: a plundered settlement one year on |access-date=23 March 2018 |archive-date=23 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323105306/https://menafn.com/1098284482/Syrias-Afrin-a-plundered-settlement-one-year-on |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=http://www.jamestown.org/single/?tx_ttnews[tt_news]=44027 |title=The Rise of Jaysh al-Fateh in Northern Syria |author=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |newspaper=Jamestown |publisher=Jamestown Foundation |date=12 June 2015 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=18 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170518043203/https://jamestown.org/program/the-rise-of-jaysh-al-fateh-in-northern-syria/ |url-status=live }}] with some reports even including ISIL among these.[{{cite web |url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-l-phillips/research-paper-isis-turke_b_6128950.html |title=Research Paper: ISIS-Turkey Links |author=David L. Phillips |work=The Huffington Post |date=11 September 2014 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=3 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303075757/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/david-l-phillips/research-paper-isis-turke_b_6128950.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/links-between-turkey-and-isis-are-now-undeniable-2015-7 |title=Senior Western official: Links between Turkey and ISIS are now 'undeniable' |publisher=Businessinsider |date=28 July 2015 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327111927/https://www.businessinsider.com/links-between-turkey-and-isis-are-now-undeniable-2015-7 |url-status=live }}][{{cite journal |url=http://www.meforum.org/5317/turkey-isis |title=Turkey's Double Game with ISIS |author=Burak Bekdil |journal=Middle East Quarterly |date=Summer 2015 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=3 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190703223503/https://www.meforum.org/5317/turkey-isis |url-status=live }}] Turkey attacked the region's territory and defence forces militarily on several occasions.[{{cite web |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/turkey-shells-kurdish-held-village-in-syria |title=Turkey accused of shelling Kurdish-held village in Syria |work=The Guardian |date=27 July 2015 |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091020/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/jul/27/turkey-shells-kurdish-held-village-in-syria |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/02/turkey-bombs-kurdish-city-of-afrin-northern-syria-civilian-casualties-reported/ |title=Turkey strikes Kurdish city of Afrin northern Syria, civilian casualties reported |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=19 February 2016 |access-date=9 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161103054447/http://supportkurds.org/news/wednesday-28-october-2015/ |archive-date=3 November 2016 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://europe.newsweek.com/turkeys-syria-intervention-sign-weakness-not-strength-501516 |title=Turkey's Syria Intervention: A Sign of Weakness Not Strength |author=Christopher Phillips |publisher=Newsweek |date=22 September 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160927005531/http://europe.newsweek.com/turkeys-syria-intervention-sign-weakness-not-strength-501516 |url-status=live }}] This resulted in some expressions of international solidarity with the region.{{efn|Concerns over Turkish actions were expressed by US, Russian, and German officials.[{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/09/turkey-syria-intervention-wreck-arab-kurdish-alliance.html |title=US backing ensures Arab-Kurd alliance in Syria will survive |author=Fehim Taştekin |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=9 September 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160909181341/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/09/turkey-syria-intervention-wreck-arab-kurdish-alliance.html |archive-date=9 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.iraqinews.com/baghdad-politics/germany-warns-turkey-attacking-kurds-syria/ |title=Germany warns Turkey from attacking Kurds in Syria |work=Iraqi News |date=28 August 2016 |access-date=29 October 2016 |archive-date=14 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190514224445/https://www.iraqinews.com/baghdad-politics/germany-warns-turkey-attacking-kurds-syria/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2016/10/statement-by-sasc-chairman-john-mccain-on-turkish-government-attacks-on-syrian-kurds |title=Statement by SASC Chairman John McCain on Turkish Government Attacks on Syrian Kurds |author=U.S. Senator John McCain, Chairman of the United States Senate Armed Services Committee |date=27 October 2016 |access-date=28 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161028084602/http://www.mccain.senate.gov/public/index.cfm/2016/10/statement-by-sasc-chairman-john-mccain-on-turkish-government-attacks-on-syrian-kurds |archive-date=28 October 2016 |url-status=dead }}]}}
On 9 October 2019, Turkey launched an [[2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria|attack on northern Syria]] "to destroy the terror corridor" on the Turkish southern border, as President Erdogan put it, after U.S. President Donald Trump abandoned his support. Subsequent media reports speculated that the offensive would lead to the displacement of hundreds of thousands of people.[{{cite news |url=https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2019/10/09/turkey-launches-an-attack-on-northern-syria?cid1=cust/dailypicks1/n/bl/n/2019109n/owned/n/n/dailypicks1/n/n/NA/322032/n |title=Turkey launches an attack on northern Syria |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=9 October 2019 |issn=0013-0613 |archive-date=9 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191009212238/https://www.economist.com/middle-east-and-africa/2019/10/09/turkey-launches-an-attack-on-northern-syria%3Fcid1%3Dcust/dailypicks1/n/bl/n/2019109n/owned/n/n/dailypicks1/n/n/NA/322032/n |url-status=live }}]
In December 2019, an international conference hosted by the International Alliance for the Defence of Rights and Freedoms (AIDL) was held at the European Parliament, where the Turkish invasion of northeastern Syria was condemned and calls were made for the self-declared Autonomous Administration of North East Syria to be recognized and included in the UN-led Constitutional Committee tasked with drafting a new constitution for Syria. The official position of the European Union remained the same, however: that the Autonomous Administration should be "respected" and included in talks, while rejecting "any recognition in the national sense of the word" and maintaining that "the territorial integrity of Syria is fundamental".[[https://www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/eu-affairs/84361/eu-condemns-turkey-again-while-sticking-to-its-position-on-the-kurdish-administration-in-north-east-syria/ EU condemns Turkey again while sticking to its position on the Kurdish administration in north-east Syria] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191218020920/https://www.brusselstimes.com/all-news/eu-affairs/84361/eu-condemns-turkey-again-while-sticking-to-its-position-on-the-kurdish-administration-in-north-east-syria/ |date=18 December 2019 }}, Brusselstimes.com, 17 December 2019.][{{Cite news |url=https://anfenglish.com/news/final-declaration-of-the-ep-conference-on-rojava-40065 |title=Final declaration of the EP Conference on Rojava |newspaper=Anf News |archive-date=6 May 2021 |access-date=7 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210506102220/https://anfenglish.com/news/final-declaration-of-the-ep-conference-on-rojava-40065 |url-status=live }}]
===Law and security===
{{See also|Constitution of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria}}
[[File:Claimed and de facto territory of Rojava.png|thumb|[[Syrian Democratic Forces|SDF]]-controlled territory (green) and [[Turkish occupation of northern Syria|Turkish-occupied territory]] (red) in October 2019]]
====Legal system====
Syrian civil laws were valid in the region if they did not conflict with the Constitution of the autonomous region. One example of an amendment was the personal status law, which in Syria was based on [[Sharia]][{{cite web |title=Syria |url=http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Syria_APS.doc |publisher=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace |page=13 |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=18 January 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060118223456/http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/Syria_APS.doc |url-status=live }}] and applied by [[Sharia#Court procedures|Sharia Courts]],[{{cite web |url=https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/islamic-family-law/home/research/legal-profiles/syria-syrian-arab-republic/ |title=Islamic Family Law: Syria (Syrian Arab Republic) |publisher=Law.emory.edu |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-date=24 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210224161046/https://scholarblogs.emory.edu/islamic-family-law/home/research/legal-profiles/syria-syrian-arab-republic/ |url-status=live }}] while the [[Secularism|secular]] autonomous region proclaimed absolute equality of women under the law, allowed [[civil marriage]], and banned [[forced marriage]], [[polygamy]]{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|pp=156–163}}[{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37337908 |title=Kurdish 'Angelina Jolie' devalued by media hype |work=BBC |date=12 September 2016 |access-date=12 September 2016 |archive-date=5 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205151921/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-37337908 |url-status=live }}] and underage marriage.[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/11/syrian-kurds-tackle-underage-marriages-polygamy/ |title=Syrian Kurds tackle conscription, underage marriages and polygamy |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=15 November 2016 |access-date=16 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161116150435/http://aranews.net/2016/11/syrian-kurds-tackle-underage-marriages-polygamy/ |archive-date=16 November 2016 |url-status=dead }}][{{Cite web |last=Magpie |first=Jo |title=Regaining hope in Rojava |url=https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/regaining-hope-in-rojava/ |url-status=live |access-date=21 July 2021 |website=[[Open Democracy]] |date=6 June 2016 |language=en |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190910000045/https://www.opendemocracy.net/en/north-africa-west-asia/regaining-hope-in-rojava/ |archive-date=10 September 2019 }}]
A new criminal justice approach was implemented that emphasized [[restorative justice|restoration]] over retribution.[{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/50102294-77fd-11e5-a95a-27d368e1ddf7.html |title=Power to the people: a Syrian experiment in democracy |work=Financial Times |date=23 October 2015 |access-date=6 June 2016 |archive-date=25 October 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025032533/http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/2/50102294-77fd-11e5-a95a-27d368e1ddf7.html |url-status=live }}] The death penalty was abolished.[{{cite web |url=http://www.biehlonbookchin.com/justice-system-in-rojava/ |title=The New Justice System in Rojava |first=Ercan |last=Ayboğa |translator-first=Janet |translator-last=Biehl |translator-link=Janet Biehl |publisher=biehlonbookchin.com |date=13 October 2014 |access-date=6 June 2016 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015101028/http://www.biehlonbookchin.com/justice-system-in-rojava/ |archive-date=15 October 2014 }}] Prisons housed mostly people charged with terrorist activity related to ISIL and other extremist groups.[{{cite news |title=Syrian Kurds Get Outside Help to Manage Prisons |url=https://www.voanews.com/a/syria-kurds-prisons/2976077.html |access-date=6 June 2016 |publisher=Voice of America |date=23 September 2015 |archive-date=24 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624210340/http://www.voanews.com/content/syria-kurds-prisons/2976077.html |url-status=live }}] A September 2015 report by [[Amnesty International]] stated that 400 people were incarcerated by the region's authorities and criticized deficiencies in [[due process]] within the judicial system of the region.[{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/09/syria-abuses-mar-pyd-fight-against-terrorism/ |title=Syria: Arbitrary detentions and blatantly unfair trials mar PYD fight against terrorism |publisher=Amnesty International |date=7 September 2015 |access-date=12 September 2016 |archive-date=6 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160406062855/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/09/syria-abuses-mar-pyd-fight-against-terrorism/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison_population_rate |title=Highest to Lowest – Prison Population Rate |publisher=World Prison Brief |access-date=13 September 2016 |archive-date=18 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918224245/http://www.prisonstudies.org/highest-to-lowest/prison_population_rate |url-status=live }}]
At the local level, citizens created ''Peace and Consensus Committees'', which made group decisions on minor criminal cases and disputes, while separate committees resolved issues of specific concern to women's rights, such as domestic violence and marriage. At the regional level, citizens (who did not need to be trained jurists) were elected by the regional ''People's Councils'' to serve on seven-member ''People's Courts''. At the next level were four ''Appeals Courts'', composed of trained jurists. The court of last resort was the ''Regional Court'', which served the region as a whole. Separate from this system, the ''Constitutional Court'' rendered decisions on the compatibility of acts of government and legal proceedings with the constitution of the region (called the Social Contract).[{{cite news |title=Rojava Asayish: Security institution not above but within the society |url=http://www.anfenglish.com/features/rojava-asayish-security-institution-not-above-but-within-the-society |access-date=6 June 2016 |publisher=ANF |date=6 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924211035/http://www.anfenglish.com/features/rojava-asayish-security-institution-not-above-but-within-the-society |archive-date=24 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}] Under the [[Constitution of North and East Syria]], policing was a competence of the regions. The Asayish forces of the regions were composed of 26 official bureaus that aimed to provide security and solutions to social problems. The six main units of the Asayish were the Checkpoints Administration, Anti-Terror Forces Command (HAT), Intelligence Directorate, Organized Crime Directorate, Traffic Directorate, and Treasury Directorate. 218 Asayish centers were established, and 385 checkpoints with 10 Asayish members at each checkpoint were set up. 105 Asayish offices provided security against ISIL on the frontlines across Northern Syria. Larger cities had general directorates responsible for all aspects of security, including road controls. Each region had a HAT command, and each Asayish center organized itself autonomously.[{{cite web |url=http://modernslavery.calpress.org/?p=949 |title=Rojava Dispatch Six: Innovations, the Formation of the Hêza Parastina Cewherî (HPC) |date=31 October 2015 |publisher=Modern Slavery |access-date=16 July 2016 |archive-date=18 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170818045008/http://modernslavery.calpress.org/?p=949 |url-status=live }}] and the regional [[Self-Defense Forces (NES regions)|Self-Defense Forces]] (HXP)[{{cite web |author=Rudaw |url=http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/04062015 |title=Rojava defense force draws thousands of recruits |work=Rudaw |date=6 April 2015 |access-date=22 June 2015 |archive-date=21 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160721224146/http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/04062015 |url-status=live }}] also served local-level security. In Jazira Region, the Asayish were further complemented by the Assyrian [[Sutoro]] police force, which was organized in every area with an Assyrian population and provided security and solutions to social problems in collaboration with other Asayish units.[ There was also the [[Syriac Military Council]] (MFS), an Assyrian militia associated with the [[Syriac Union Party (Syria)|Syriac Union Party]]. There were also [[Free Syrian Army]] groups in the alliance, such as the [[Army of Revolutionaries]] and the [[Northern Democratic Brigade]], tribal militias such as the Arab [[Al-Sanadid Forces]], and municipal military councils in the [[Shahba Canton|Shahba region]], such as the [[Manbij Military Council]], the [[Al-Bab Military Council]], and the [[Jarablus Military Council]].
The [[Self-Defense Forces (NES regions)|Self-Defence Forces]] (HXP) was a territorial defense militia and the only conscripted armed force in the region.][{{Cite web |date=10 June 2020 |title=Translation: Law concerning military service in North and East Syria |url=https://www.rojavainformationcenter.com/2020/06/translation-law-concerning-military-service-in-north-and-east-syria/ |website=Rojava Information Center }}]
=== Human rights ===
{{main|Human rights in the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria}}
[[File:Husseiniya village.png|thumb|upright=0.8|Satellite images of the village of [[Husseiniya, Syria|Husseiniya]] in 2014 and 2015, reportedly leveled by the YPG ]]
In the course of the Syrian Civil War, including the years 2014 and 2015, reports by [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) and [[Amnesty International]] stated that [[Human rights in North and East Syria#NES-associated militias|militias associated with the autonomous region]] were committing war crimes, in particular members of the [[People's Protection Units]] (YPG).[{{cite web |date=18 June 2014 |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]] |title=Syria: Abuses in Kurdish-run Enclaves |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/06/18/syria-abuses-kurdish-run-enclaves |access-date=4 December 2016 |archive-date=2 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161202135232/https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/06/18/syria-abuses-kurdish-run-enclaves |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/10/syria-us-allys-razing-of-villages-amounts-to-war-crimes/ |title=Syria |work=[[Amnesty International]] |date=13 October 2015 |access-date=13 October 2015 |archive-date=21 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121071122/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/10/syria-us-allys-razing-of-villages-amounts-to-war-crimes/ |url-status=live }}] The reports from 2014 included reports of arbitrary arrests and torture, while other reports included the use of [[child soldiers]].[{{cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/10/syria-kurdish-forces-violating-child-soldier-ban-0 |title=Syria: Kurdish Forces Violating Child Soldier Ban |date=15 July 2015 |website=Hrw.org |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-date=14 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151214054259/https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/10/syria-kurdish-forces-violating-child-soldier-ban-0 |url-status=live }}][{{cite journal |url=https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/06/19/under-kurdish-rule/abuses-pyd-run-enclaves-syria |title=Under Kurdish Rule – Abuses in PYD-run Enclaves of Syria |date=19 June 2014 |website=Hrw.org |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-date=20 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160320092001/https://www.hrw.org/report/2014/06/19/under-kurdish-rule/abuses-pyd-run-enclaves-syria |url-status=live }}][{{cite report |author=[[United Nations Security Council|U.N. Security Council]] |date=5 June 2015 |title=Report of the Secretary-General: Children and armed conflict |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/926 |at=para. 191 |quote=Actual numbers are expected to be higher.... A number of pro-Government groups, including Hizbullah, also reportedly recruited children in small numbers. |access-date=27 August 2018 |archive-date=7 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171207014355/http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/69/926 |url-status=live }}] After the reports, the YPG publicly accepted the deficiencies[{{cite report |date=28 October 2015 |title=YPG demobilizes 21 children under the age of 18 from the military service in its ranks |url=http://www.syriahr.com/en/2015/10/ypg-demobilizes-21-children-under-the-age-of-18-from-the-military-service-in-its-ranks/ |publisher=[[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121223140/http://supportkurds.org/news/wednesday-28-october-2015/ |archive-date=21 November 2015 }}] Reports were comprehensively debated and contested by both the YPG and other human rights organizations.[{{cite web |url=https://www.jpost.com/Breaking-News/Amnesty-accuses-US-backed-Syrian-Kurdish-group-of-demolishing-homes-423773 |title=Amnesty accuses US-backed Syrian Kurdish group of demolishing homes |work=The Jerusalem Post |date=13 October 2015 |access-date=8 November 2016 |archive-date=21 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121065231/http://www.jpost.com/Breaking-News/Amnesty-accuses-US-backed-Syrian-Kurdish-group-of-demolishing-homes-423773 |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |title=Syria: Kurdish Forces Violating Child Soldier Ban Despite Promises, Children Still Fight |url=http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interview-syrian-kurds-have-risen-out-of-nowhere-since-2011.aspx?pageID=238&nID=90267&NewsCatID=386 |publisher=Hurriyet Daily News |date=24 October 2015 |access-date=13 June 2016 |archive-date=16 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160616214742/http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/interview-syrian-kurds-have-risen-out-of-nowhere-since-2011.aspx?pageID=238&nID=90267&NewsCatID=386 |url-status=live }}] In 2018, HRW again accused the YPG of recruiting minors. The YPG responded that if 16- and 17-year-olds were hired, their relatives were notified but did not have to consent, and the minors were kept away from combat zones.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/03/syria-armed-group-recruiting-children-camps |title=Syria: Armed Group Recruiting Children in Camps |date=3 August 2018 |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=2 May 2020 |archive-date=17 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180817011234/https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/08/03/syria-armed-group-recruiting-children-camps |url-status=live }}] Since September 2015, the YPG received human rights training from [[Geneva Call]] and other international organizations.[{{cite news |last1=Perry |first1=Tom |last2=Malla |first2=Naline |date=10 September 2015 |title=Western states train Kurdish force in Syria, force's leader says |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUKKCN0RA1MO20150910 |work=[[Reuters]] |quote=Amnesty International this month faulted the Kurdish administration for arbitrary detentions and unfair trials.... [Ciwan] Ibrahim said ... efforts were underway to improve its human rights record.... The Geneva Call ... promotes good treatment of civilians in war zones... |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=9 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210909185919/https://www.reuters.com/article/uk-mideast-crisis-syria-kurds-idUKKCN0RA1MO20150910 |url-status=live }}] A September 2020 article from [[Syria Direct]] found that the SDF was continuing to recruit child soldiers, despite signing an action plan on 1 July 2019 with the [[United Nations]] to "end and prevent the recruitment and use of child soldiers."[{{Cite web |last1=Christou |first1=Will |last2=Ibrahim |first2=Mohammad Abdulssattar |date=17 September 2020 |title=SDF continues to recruit child soldiers, despite pledges to stop the practice – Syria Direct |url=https://syriadirect.org/news/sdf-continues-to-recruit-child-soldiers-despite-previous-un-agreements/ |access-date=12 June 2022 |website=[[Syria Direct]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917065416/https://syriadirect.org/news/sdf-continues-to-recruit-child-soldiers-despite-previous-un-agreements/ |archive-date=17 September 2020 }}]
[[File:Yezidi House.jpg|thumb|SDF [[Yazidis]] praying in a Yazidi temple, with a mural of the holy [[Melek Taus]], in DAANES following the expulsion of ISIS]]
The region's civil government was hailed in international media for human rights advancement, in particular [[Human rights in North and East Syria#Human rights development in the legal system|in the legal system]], concerning [[Human rights in North and East Syria#Women's rights|women's rights]], [[Human rights in North and East Syria#Ethnic minority rights|ethnic minority rights]], [[Human rights in North and East Syria#Freedom of Speech and Press|freedom of speech and press]], and for [[Human rights in North and East Syria#Hosting inbound refugees|hosting inbound refugees]].[{{cite web |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/syrian-kurds-women-equal-rights-snubbing-jihadists-193905057.html |title=Syrian Kurds give women equal rights, snubbing jihadists |publisher=Yahoo |date=9 November 2014 |access-date=13 November 2016 |archive-date=13 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161113175819/https://www.yahoo.com/news/syrian-kurds-women-equal-rights-snubbing-jihadists-193905057.html |url-status=dead }}][{{cite news |url=http://aranews.net/2016/03/assyrian-leader-accuses-pyd-monopolizing-power-syrias-north/ |publisher=ARA |title=Assyrian leader accuses PYD of monopolizing power in Syria's north |date=23 March 2016 |access-date=22 October 2016 |archive-date=6 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161106210654/http://aranews.net/2016/03/assyrian-leader-accuses-pyd-monopolizing-power-syrias-north/ |url-status=dead }}][{{Cite journal |last=Al-Jabassini |first=Abdullah |date=December 2017 |title=Civil Resistance to Military Conscription in Kurdish Areas of Northern Syria: the Untold Story |journal=Journal of Peacebuilding and Development |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=106 |doi=10.1080/15423166.2017.1371064 |jstor=48603196 }}]
Some persistent issues in the region concerned [[Human rights in North and East Syria#Ethnic minority rights|ethnic minority rights]]. One issue of contention was the consequence of [[Human rights in the DAANES#Confiscation of Kurdish land and settlement by Arabs|Baathist Syrian government's expropriation]] of land from Kurdish owners and settling of tribal Arabs there in 1973 and 2007.[{{cite web |title=Syria rejects Russian proposal for Kurdish federation |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkey-russia-mediates-between-kurds-and-assad.html |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=24 October 2016 |access-date=26 October 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019130318/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/10/turkey-russia-mediates-between-kurds-and-assad.html |url-status=live }}]
During the Syrian Civil War, organizations such as the Turkish government,[{{cite news |title=Turkey accuses Kurdish forces of 'ethnic cleansing' in Syria |url=https://news.yahoo.com/turkey-accuses-kurdish-forces-ethnic-cleansing-syria-093148734.html |date=16 June 2015 |agency=Agence France-Presse |quote=President Recep Tayyip Erdogan on Sunday said he was troubled by the advance of Kurdish forces, saying they could in the future create a structure to threaten Turkey. |access-date=27 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181105202740/https://news.yahoo.com/turkey-accuses-kurdish-forces-ethnic-cleansing-syria-093148734.html |archive-date=5 November 2018 |url-status=live }}] Amnesty International[{{cite news |title=Syria: US ally's razing of villages amounts to war crimes |url=https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/10/syria-us-allys-razing-of-villages-amounts-to-war-crimes/ |publisher=Amnesty International |date=13 October 2015 |access-date=13 October 2015 |archive-date=21 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151121071122/https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/10/syria-us-allys-razing-of-villages-amounts-to-war-crimes/ |url-status=live }}] and the Middle East Observer[{{cite news |title=Syria: Kurdish militias plan a demographic change in Manbij |url=https://www.middleeastobserver.org/2016/08/14/syria-kurdish-militias-plan-a-demographic-change-in-manbij/ |publisher=Middle East Observer |date=14 August 2016 |access-date=26 May 2019 |archive-date=26 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526223319/https://www.middleeastobserver.org/2016/08/14/syria-kurdish-militias-plan-a-demographic-change-in-manbij/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=Tal Abyad: Achilles Heel of the Syrian Kurdish Belt |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/tal-abyad-achilles-heel-of-the-syrian-kurdish-belt |publisher=Middle East Observer |date=21 December 2018 |access-date=26 May 2019 |archive-date=17 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190217084951/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/tal-abyad-achilles-heel-of-the-syrian-kurdish-belt |url-status=live }}] stated that SDF was forcibly displacing inhabitants of captured areas with predominantly Arab populations, such as Tell Abyad. These displacements were considered attempts at [[ethnic cleansing]].[{{cite news |title=Syrian Kurds accused of ethnic cleansing and killing opponents |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/18/syrian-kurds-accused-of-ethnic-cleansing-and-killing-opponents/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/05/18/syrian-kurds-accused-of-ethnic-cleansing-and-killing-opponents/ |archive-date=11 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |work=The Telegraph |date=18 May 2016}}{{cbignore }}] However, the head of the [[Syrian Observatory for Human Rights]] rebutted these reports[{{cite web |url=https://www.gfbv.de/en/news/theres-no-ethnic-cleansing-in-til-abyad-against-the-turkmen-and-arabic-population-7568/ |title=''"There's no 'ethnic cleansing' in Til Abyad against the Turkmen and Arabic population."'', Gesellschaft für bedrohte Völker, 26. Juni 2015 |website=GFBV.de |access-date=27 May 2019 |archive-date=24 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190424045725/https://www.gfbv.de/en/news/theres-no-ethnic-cleansing-in-til-abyad-against-the-turkmen-and-arabic-population-7568/ |url-status=live }}] and the UN Independent International Commission of Inquiry found no evidence of YPG or SDF forces committing ethnic cleansing in order to change the demographic composition of territories under their control.[{{cite news |date=10 March 2017 |title=Syria, Report by UN Commission of Inquiry (March 2017) |work=[[International Committee of the Red Cross]] |url=https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/syria-report-un-commission-inquiry-march-2017 |access-date=27 May 2019 |archive-date=27 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527220225/https://casebook.icrc.org/case-study/syria-report-un-commission-inquiry-march-2017 |url-status=live }}]
{{Clear}}
==Economy==
{{See also|Economy of Syria|Jazira Region#Economy|Euphrates Region#Economy|Democratic confederalism}}
The Jazira Region was a major wheat and cotton producer and had a considerable oil industry. The Euphrates Region suffered the most destruction of the three regions and faced huge challenges in reconstruction, and had also seen some [[greenhouse]] agriculture construction. [[Price controls]] were managed by local committees, which could set the prices of basic goods such as food and medical goods.[{{cite web |url=http://diclenews.com/en/news/content/view/436354 |title=Efrîn Economy Minister Yousef: Rojava challenging norms of class, gender and power |website=Diclenews.com |access-date=18 February 2015 |archive-date=18 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150118203533/http://diclenews.com/en/news/content/view/436354 |url-status=dead }}]
It was theorized that the Assad government had deliberately underdeveloped parts of Northern Syria in order to Arabize the region and make secession attempts less likely.[ During the Syrian Civil War, the infrastructure of the region on average experienced less destruction than other parts of Syria. In May 2016, Ahmed Yousef, head of the Economic Body and chairman of Afrin University, stated that at the time, the economic output of the region (including agriculture, industry and oil) accounted for about 55% of Syria's gross domestic product.][{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/04/kurdish-areas-norther-syria-economy-self-sufficiency.html |title=Will Syria's Kurds succeed at self-sufficiency? |date=3 May 2016 |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508233809/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/04/kurdish-areas-norther-syria-economy-self-sufficiency.html |archive-date=8 May 2016 |url-status=dead }}] In 2014, the Syrian government was still paying some state employees,[{{cite web |title=Flight of Icarus? The PYD's Precarious Rise in Syria |url=http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |publisher=International Crisis Group |access-date=3 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220181554/http://www.crisisgroup.org/~/media/Files/Middle%20East%20North%20Africa/Iraq%20Syria%20Lebanon/Syria/151-flight-of-icarus-the-pyd-s-precarious-rise-in-syria.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2016 |url-status=dead }}] but fewer than before.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/en/7359 |title=زمان الوصل|website=Zamanalwsl.net |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=4 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211204161549/https://www.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/en/7359 |url-status=live }}] However, the administration of the region stated that "none of our projects are financed by the regime".[{{cite news |title=Efrîn Economy Minister: Rojava Challenging Norms Of Class, Gender And Power |url=https://rojavareport.wordpress.com/2014/12/22/efrin-economy-minister-rojava-challenging-norms-of-class-gender-and-power/ |date=22 December 2014 |access-date=11 January 2015 |archive-date=11 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111234252/https://rojavareport.wordpress.com/2014/12/22/efrin-economy-minister-rojava-challenging-norms-of-class-gender-and-power/ |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Sustaniable Micro irrigation in Northern Syria.jpg|thumb|Sustainable [[micro-irrigation]] system in Syria created by the DAANES in southern [[Afrin Region|Afrin]]]]
At first, there were no [[Direct tax|direct]] or [[indirect tax]]es on people or businesses in the region; instead, the administration raised money mainly through [[tariff]]s and selling oil and other natural resources.[{{cite web |url=http://www.biehlonbookchin.com/poor-in-means/ |title=Poor in means but rich in spirit |work=Ecology or Catastrophe |access-date=18 February 2015 |archive-date=25 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225093300/http://www.biehlonbookchin.com/poor-in-means/ |url-status=usurped }}][{{cite web |author1=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |title=Rojava Administration to Impose Tax System in Northern Syria |url=https://mesopotamia.coop/rojava-administration-to-impose-tax-system-in-northern-syria/ |website=Co-operation in Mesopotamia |date=11 July 2017 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327161801/https://mesopotamia.coop/rojava-administration-to-impose-tax-system-in-northern-syria/ |url-status=live }}] In May 2016, ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'' reported that traders in Syria experienced the region as "the one place where they aren't forced to pay bribes."[{{cite web |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-syrias-mangled-economy-truckers-stitch-together-warring-regions-1464106368 |title=In Syria's Mangled Economy, Truckers Stitch Together Warring Regions |publisher=The Wall Street Journal |date=24 May 2016 |access-date=24 May 2016 |archive-date=17 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617113445/https://www.wsj.com/articles/in-syrias-mangled-economy-truckers-stitch-together-warring-regions-1464106368 |url-status=live }}] Electricity was produced by the [[Tabqa Dam]] on the [[Euphrates]] River, Syria's largest.[{{Cite web |date=June 2021 |title=Beyond Rojava: North and East Syria's Arab Regions |url=https://rojavainformationcenter.com/storage/2021/06/RIC-Dossier-Arab-regions.pdf |website=[[Rojava Information Center]] |page=9 |access-date=13 June 2022 |archive-date=14 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220614004553/https://rojavainformationcenter.com/storage/2021/06/RIC-Dossier-Arab-regions.pdf |url-status=live }}]
The main sources of revenue for the autonomous region were presented as: 1. Public properties such as grain silos and oil and gas in the Jazira Region, 2. Local taxation and customs fees taken at the border crossings, 3. Service delivery, 4. Remittances from Iraq and Turkey, and 5. Local donations. In 2015, the autonomous administration shared information about the region's finances, where its 2014 revenue was about LS 3 billion (≈US$5.8 million), of which 50% was spent on "self-defense and protection", 18% for the Jazira Canton (now Jazira Region), 8.5% for the Kobani Canton (now Euphrates Region), 8.5% for the Afrin Canton (later Afrin Region), 15% for the "Internal Committee", and any remainder was a reserve for the next year.[ In 2021, the DAANES had by far the highest average [[salaries]] and [[standard of living]] throughout Syria, with salaries being twice as large as in regime-controlled Syria. Following the collapse of the [[Syrian pound]], the DAANES doubled salaries to maintain [[inflation]] and allow for good wages.][{{cite web |date=9 August 2021 |title=Syrian Kurdish region increases salaries amid currency crash |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/18062020 |access-date=13 June 2022 |website=[[Rudaw]] |archive-date=5 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220705161639/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/18062020 |url-status=live }}] The DAANES still faced challenges with distribution, [[food security]], and [[healthcare]].[{{cite web |url=https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/20012021 |title=Renewed water shortages hit Hasaka |website=Rudaw.net |date=20 January 2021 |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=22 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211022230211/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/20012021 |url-status=live }}][{{Cite journal |url=https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v43/n03/patrick-cockburn/after-is |title=After IS |first=Patrick |last=Cockburn |journal=London Review of Books |date=4 February 2021 |volume=43 |issue=3 |access-date=30 January 2021 |archive-date=1 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201101018/https://www.lrb.co.uk/the-paper/v43/n03/patrick-cockburn/after-is |url-status=live }}]
===External economic relations===
{{See also|Foreign relations of the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria}}
[[File:The pontoon bridge at Semalka.jpg|thumb|[[Border crossing]] at [[Semalka Border Crossing|Semalka]] between [[Iraqi Kurdistan government]] and DAANES on the [[Tigris]] river]]
Oil and food production was substantial,[{{cite news |title=Striking out on their own |url=https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21628887-syrias-kurds-are-enjoying-more-autonomy-striking-out-their-own |newspaper=The Economist |access-date=11 September 2017 |archive-date=11 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011050215/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21628887-syrias-kurds-are-enjoying-more-autonomy-striking-out-their-own |url-status=live }}] so they were important exports. Agricultural products included sheep, grain and cotton. Important imports were consumer goods and auto parts.[{{cite news |url=https://online.wsj.com/articles/kurds-fight-islamic-state-to-claim-a-piece-of-syria-1415843557 |title=Kurds Fight Islamic State to Claim a Piece of Syria |work=The Wall Street Journal |access-date=14 March 2017 |archive-date=28 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141128181119/http://online.wsj.com/articles/kurds-fight-islamic-state-to-claim-a-piece-of-syria-1415843557 |url-status=live }}] Trade with Turkey and access to humanitarian and military aid were difficult due to a blockade by Turkey.[{{cite web |url=https://www.nadir.org/nadir/initiativ/isku/erklaerungen/2014/05/14.htm |title=Das Embargo gegen Rojava |publisher=TATORT (Kurdistan Delegation) |access-date=7 August 2015 |archive-date=8 May 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20160508163704/https://www.nadir.org/nadir/initiativ/isku/erklaerungen/2014/05/14.htm |url-status=live }}] Turkey did not allow business people or goods to cross its border.[{{cite web |title=Syrian Kurds risk their lives crossing into Turkey |url=http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/syrian-kurds-risk-lives-cross-turkey-33769556 |publisher=Middle East Eye |access-date=11 January 2015 |date=29 December 2014 |archive-date=10 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010002246/http://www.middleeasteye.net/in-depth/features/syrian-kurds-risk-lives-cross-turkey-33769556 |url-status=live }}] The blockade from adjacent territories held by Turkey and ISIL, and partially also the KRG, temporarily caused heavy distortions of relative prices in Jazira Region and Euphrates Region (while separate, Afrin Region bordered government-controlled territory since February 2016); for example, in Jazira Region and Euphrates Region, through 2016, petrol cost only half as much as bottled water.[{{cite web |url=https://cooperativeeconomy.info/rojava-the-economic-branches-in-detail/ |title=Rojava: The Economic Branches in Detail |work=cooperativeeconomy.info |date=14 January 2017 |access-date=16 January 2017 |archive-date=28 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728225813/https://cooperativeeconomy.info/rojava-the-economic-branches-in-detail/ |url-status=dead }}]
The [[Semalka Border Crossing]] with [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] had been intermittently closed by the [[Government of the Kurdistan Region|Kurdistan Regional Government]] (KRG), but had been open permanently since June 2016,[{{cite news |title=US welcomes opening of border between Rojava and Iraqi Kurdistan |url=http://aranews.net/2016/06/us-welcomes-opening-border-rojava-iraqi-kurdistan/ |publisher=ARA News |date=10 June 2016 |access-date=10 June 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160610162132/http://aranews.net/2016/06/us-welcomes-opening-border-rojava-iraqi-kurdistan/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/economy/1b332ce0-5791-4ca1-9bc1-1603fb830879/Business-booming-in-Rojava-after-outlet-opened-with-Kurdistan-Region |title=Business booming in Rojava after outlet opened with Kurdistan Region |date=22 April 2017 |publisher=Kurdistan24 |access-date=20 May 2017 |archive-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428200020/http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/economy/1b332ce0-5791-4ca1-9bc1-1603fb830879/Business-booming-in-Rojava-after-outlet-opened-with-Kurdistan-Region |url-status=live }}] and along with the establishment of a corridor to Syrian government-controlled territory in April 2017,[{{cite news |url=http://aranews.net/2017/06/first-aid-convoy-arrives-rojava-new-land-corridor/ |title=First aid convoy arrives in Rojava through new land corridor |publisher=ARA News |date=26 June 2017 |access-date=30 June 2017 |archive-date=28 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170628070501/http://aranews.net/2017/06/first-aid-convoy-arrives-rojava-new-land-corridor/ |url-status=dead }}] economic exchange increasingly normalized. Further, in May 2017 in northern Iraq, the [[Popular Mobilization Forces]] fighting ISIL cleared a corridor connecting the autonomous region and Iraqi government-controlled territory.[{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-syria-idUSKBN18P1C0 |title=Iran-backed Iraqi force says takes Islamic State villages near Syria |work=Reuters |date=29 May 2017 |access-date=1 July 2017 |archive-date=2 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190502025039/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-iraq-syria-idUSKBN18P1C0 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/iraq-paramilitaries-move-key-town-syrian-border-47700766 |title=Iraq paramilitaries reach Iraq's border with Syria |work=ABC News |date=29 May 2017 |access-date=28 June 2020 |archive-date=8 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608220437/http://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/iraq-paramilitaries-move-key-town-syrian-border-47700766 |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |url=http://www.iraqinews.com/arab-world-news/pkk-planning-open-trade-route-rojava-iraq/ |title=PKK planning to open trade route between Rojava and Iraq |publisher=Iraqi News |date=4 June 2017 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-date=8 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608084946/http://www.iraqinews.com/arab-world-news/pkk-planning-open-trade-route-rojava-iraq/ |url-status=live }}]
===Economy policy framework===
{{See also|Collective farming}}
[[File:Rojava Sewing Cooperative.jpg|thumb|The autonomous administration is supporting efforts for workers to form cooperatives, such as this sewing cooperative in Derik.]]
The autonomous region was ruled by a coalition which had been described as pursuing a model of economy that blended co-operative and private enterprise.[{{cite web |url=http://www.vancouverobserver.com/opinion/rojava-syria-revolution-hope-and-healing |title=Rojava, Syria: A revolution of hope and healing |publisher=[[Vancouver Observer]] |date=19 April 2017 |access-date=19 April 2017 |archive-date=24 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170424052804/http://www.vancouverobserver.com/opinion/rojava-syria-revolution-hope-and-healing |url-status=live }}] In 2012, the PYD launched what it called the "Social Economy Plan", later renamed the "People's Economy Plan" (PEP).[{{cite book |title=A Small Key Can Open a Large Door: The Rojava Revolution |date=4 March 2015 |publisher=Strangers in a Tangled Wilderness |edition=1st }}] [[Private property]] and entrepreneurship were protected under the principle of "ownership by use". Dr. Dara Kurdaxi, a regional official, stated: "The method in Rojava was not so much against private property, but rather had the goal of putting private property in the service of all the peoples who lived in Rojava."[Michael Knapp, [https://mesopotamia.coop/rojava-the-formation-of-an-economic-alternative-private-property-in-the-service-of-all/ 'Rojava{{snd}} the formation of an economic alternative: Private property in the service of all'] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416181451/https://mesopotamia.coop/rojava-the-formation-of-an-economic-alternative-private-property-in-the-service-of-all/ |date=16 April 2021 }}.] Communes and co-operatives were established to provide essentials.[{{cite web |url=https://cooperativeeconomy.info/how-do-cooperatives-work-in-rojava/ |title=How do cooperatives work in Rojava? |work=cooperativeeconomy.info |date=19 November 2016 |access-date=16 January 2017 |archive-date=18 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170118035058/https://cooperativeeconomy.info/how-do-cooperatives-work-in-rojava/ |url-status=live }}] Co-operatives accounted for a large proportion of agricultural production and were active in construction, factories, energy production, livestock, pistachio and roasted seeds, and public markets.[{{cite web |url=http://sange.fi/kvsolidaarisuustyo/wp-content/uploads/Dr.-Ahmad-Yousef-Social-economy-in-Rojava.pdf |title=Rojava experience of the social economy : reality and prospects |author=Dr. Ahmad Yousef |website=Sange.fi |access-date=25 April 2018 |archive-date=9 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009203955/http://sange.fi/kvsolidaarisuustyo/wp-content/uploads/Dr.-Ahmad-Yousef-Social-economy-in-Rojava.pdf |url-status=live }}] According to the region's "Ministry of Economics", approximately three-quarters of all property had been placed under community ownership and a third of production had been transferred to direct management by [[workers' council]]s.[{{cite book |title=A Small Key Can Open a Large Door: The Rojava Revolution |date=4 March 2015 |publisher=Strangers in a Tangled Wilderness |edition=1st |quote=According to Dr. Ahmad Yousef, an economic co-minister, three-quarters of traditional private property is being used as commons and one quarter is still being owned by use of individuals...According to the Ministry of Economics, worker councils have only been set up for about one third of the enterprises in Rojava so far. }}]
{{clear}}
==Demographics==
{{See also|Demographics of Syria|Al-Jazira Province}}
[[File:Kurdish YPG Fighter (23306158716).jpg|thumb|A [[YPJ]] member next to a large [[reservoir]] in Northern Syria]]
The demographics of the region had historically been highly diverse, with several major shifts in regard to which groups formed majorities or minorities in the preceding centuries.{{efn|Since at least the early Middle Ages, northern Syria had been settled by a mixed population of Arabs,{{sfnp|Retso|2003|p=480}}{{sfnp|Morton|2020|p=167}} Turkmen,{{sfnp|Morton|2020|p=167}} Kurds,{{sfnp|Morton|2020|p=167}}{{sfnp|Vanly|1992|p=116|ps=: "To the east of Kurd-Dagh and separated from it by the Afrin valley lies the western and mountainous part of the Syrian district of Azaz which is also inhabited by Kurds, and a Kurdish minority lives in the northern counties of Idlib and Jerablos. There is reason to believe that the establishment of Kurds in these areas, a defensive site commanding the path to Antioch, goes back to the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucid]] era."}}{{sfnp|Meri|2006|p=445}} and Christian ethnoreligious groups including [[Assyrian people]].{{sfnp|Morton|2020|pp=122–123, 167}} Arab nomads came to dominate the region after the [[Ikhshidid dynasty]]'s decline in the 10th century.{{sfnp|Meri|2006|p=445}} During the [[Ottoman Empire]] (1516–1922), large [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish-speaking]] tribal groups both settled in and were deported to areas of northern Syria from [[Anatolia]].{{sfnp|Tejel|2009|p=123}} In addition, Cherkessians farmers migrated to northern Syria in the 19th century.{{sfnp|Meri|2006|p=713}} }} The [[Al-Hasakah Governorate]] had historically been the domain of nomad and sedentary Arabs.[{{cite journal |author1=Fevret, Maurice |author2=Gibert, André |year=1953 |title=La Djezireh syrienne et son réveil économique |journal=Revue de géographie de Lyon |volume=28 |issue=28 |pages=1–15 |doi=10.3406/geoca.1953.1294 |language=fr |url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geoca_0035-113x_1953_num_28_1_1294 |access-date=29 March 2012 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924194716/http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/geoca_0035-113x_1953_num_28_1_1294 |url-status=live }}] Most of the Kurdish population in the area had immigrated from Turkey during the 20th century.[{{cite book |last1=Storm |first1=Lise |title=A Companion to the History of the Middle East |date=2005 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Utrecht |isbn=1-4051-0681-6 |page=475 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qgKE_-HtfoAC&q=kurds+in+Syria&pg=PA475 |chapter=Ethnonational Minorities in the Middle East Berbers, Kurds, and Palestinians |access-date=16 December 2020 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063811/https://books.google.com/books?id=qgKE_-HtfoAC&q=kurds+in+Syria&pg=PA475 |url-status=live }}] One major shift in modern times occurred in the early part of the 20th century due to the [[Assyrian genocide|Assyrian]] and [[Armenian genocide]]s, when many Assyrians and Armenians fled to Syria from Turkey. In the 1920s, after the failed [[Kurdish rebellions]] in [[Single-party period of the Republic of Turkey|Kemalist Turkey]], there was a large influx of Kurds to Syria's northeast, called "Jazira province" at the time. It was estimated that 25,000 Kurds fled to Syria at this time under [[French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon|French Mandate authorities]], who encouraged their immigration,[{{cite book |last=McDowell |first=David |title=A Modern History of the Kurds |year=2005 |publisher=Tauris |location=London [u.a.] |isbn=1-85043-416-6 |pages=469 |edition=3. revised and updated. ed., repr. }}] and granted them Syrian citizenship.[{{cite book |last=Kreyenbroek |first=Philip G. |title=The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview |year=1992 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=0-415-07265-4 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/147 147] |author2=Sperl, Stefan |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/147 }}] Consequently, the French official reports showed the existence of at most 45 Kurdish villages in Jazira prior to 1927. A new wave of refugees arrived in 1929.{{sfnp|Tejel|2009|p=144}} The mandatory authorities continued to encourage Kurdish immigration into Syria, and by 1939, the villages numbered between 700 and 800.{{sfnp|Tejel|2009|p=144}} Another account by Sir John Hope Simpson estimated the number of Kurds in Jazira province at 20,000 out of 100,000 people at the end of 1930.[{{cite book |last=Yildiz |first=Kerim |title=The Kurds in Syria : the forgotten people |year=2005 |publisher=Pluto Press, in association with Kurdish Human Rights Project |location=London [etc.] |page=25 |isbn=0745324991 |edition=1. publ. }}] The last significant wave of Kurdish incoming migration from Turkey occurred between 1945 and 1961, which strongly contributed to the growth of al-Hasakah Governorate's population from 240,000 to 305,000 between 1954 and 1961.[McDowall, David. Modern History of the Kurds, I. B. Tauris & Company, Limited, 2004. pp. 473–474.] In addition to the demographic changes brought about by Kurdish immigration from Turkey, the Syrian government initiated an Arabization policy. Therefore, 4,000 Arab families from areas flooded by the Tabqa Dam in Raqqa and Aleppo were resettled in new villages in al-Hasakah Governorate.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=27}}[
Another shift in modern times was the Baath policy of settling additional Arab population in northern Syria, while displacing local Kurds.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=27}}][ Most recently, during the Syrian Civil War, many refugees fled to the north of the country. Some ethnic Arab citizens from Iraq also fled to northern Syria.][{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/10/kurds-rojava-syria-isis-iraq-assad/505037/ |title=What the Syrian Kurds Have Wrought. The radical, unlikely, democratic experiment in northern Syria |author=Si Sheppard |publisher=The Atlantic |date=25 October 2016 |access-date=25 October 2016 |archive-date=26 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161026075957/http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2016/10/kurds-rojava-syria-isis-iraq-assad/505037/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |title=Syrian Kurds provide safe haven for thousands of Iraqis fleeing ISIS |url=http://aranews.net/2016/07/syrian-kurds-provide-safe-haven-thousands-iraqis-fleeing-isis/ |access-date=2 July 2016 |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=3 July 2016 |archive-date=19 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171019170008/http://aranews.net/2016/07/syrian-kurds-provide-safe-haven-thousands-of-iraqis-fleeing-isis/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite news |title=Rojava hosts thousands of displaced Iraqi civilians as war on ISIS intensifies |url=http://aranews.net/2016/10/rojava-hosts-thousands-of-displaced-iraqi-civilians-as-war-on-ISIS-intensifies/ |access-date=18 October 2016 |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=17 October 2016 |archive-date=21 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021073557/http://web.archive.org/web/20161021073557/http://aranews.net/2016/10/rojava-hosts-thousands-of-displaced-iraqi-civilians-as-war-on-ISIS-intensifies/ |url-status=dead }}] However, as of January 2018, only two million people were estimated to remain in the area under the region's administration, with estimates of around half a million people having emigrated since the beginning of the civil war, to a large degree because of the economic hardships the region had faced during the war.[{{cite web |author1=[[Fabrice Balanche]] |title=Sectarianism in Syria's Civil War |page=24 |url=https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/SyriaAtlasCOMPLETE-3.pdf |website=[[The Washington Institute for Near East Policy]] |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922063624/https://www.washingtoninstitute.org/uploads/Documents/pubs/SyriaAtlasCOMPLETE-3.pdf |url-status=dead }}] As a result of the civil war, estimates as to the ethnic composition of northern Syria varied widely, ranging from claims about a Kurdish majority and Arab minority to claims about Kurds being a small minority;{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=7–16}} [[Al Jazeera Media Network|Al Jazeera]] stated in October 2019 that just 10 percent of the 4.5 million inhabitants of northern and northeastern Syria were Kurds.[{{cite web |title='We're Arabs just as much as Kurds': Syrian Kurds call for unity |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/arabs-kurds-syrian-kurds-call-unity-191016203957105.html |website=Al Jazeera |access-date=1 July 2020 |archive-date=3 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200703144415/https://web.archive.org/web/20200703144415/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/10/arabs-kurds-syrian-kurds-call-unity-191016203957105.html |url-status=live }}]
===Population===
This list included all cities and towns in the region with more than 10,000 inhabitants. The population figures were given according to the 2004 Syrian census.[{{cite web |url=http://www.cbssyr.org/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf |title=2004 Syrian Census |date=2004 |website=Cbssyr.org |access-date=22 May 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130310211017/http://www.cbssyr.org/General%20census/census%202004/pop-man.pdf |archive-date=10 March 2013 }}]
{|class="wikitable sortable"
|+
|- style="background:lavender;"
!English name
![[Northern Kurdish|Kurdish]] Name
![[Arabic]] Name
![[Syriac language|Syriac]] Name
![[Turkish language|Turkish]] Name
!Population
!Region
|-
|[[Raqqa]]
|Reqa
|الرقة
|ܪܩܗ
|Rakka
|220,488
|[[#Administrative divisions|Raqqa]]
|-
|[[Al-Hasakah]]
|Hesîçe
|الحسكة
|ܚܣܟܗ
|Haseke
|188,160
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Qamishli]]
|Qamişlo
|القامشلي
|ܩܡܫܠܐ
|Kamışlı
|184,231
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Al-Thawrah|Tabqa]]
|Tebqa
|الطبقة
|ܛܒܩܗ
|Tabka
|69,425
|[[#Administrative divisions|Tabqa]]
|-
|[[Kobani]]
|Kobanî
|عين العرب
|ܟܘܒܐܢܝ
|Arappınar
|44,821
|[[Euphrates Region|Euphrates]]
|-
|[[Hajin]]
|Hecîn
|هجين{{lrm}}
|ܗܓܝܢ
|
|37,935
|[[#Administrative divisions|Deir Ez-Zor]]
|-
|[[Amuda]]
|Amûdê
|عامودا
|ܥܐܡܘܕܐ
|Amudiye
|26,821
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Al-Malikiyah]]
|Dêrika Hemko
|المالكية
|ܕܪܝܟ
|Deyrik
|26,311
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Gharanij]]
|
|غرانيج
|ܓܪܐܢܝܓ
|
|23,009
|[[#Administrative divisions|Deir Ez-Zor]]
|-
|[[Abu Hamam]]
|Ebû Hemam
|أبو حمام{{lrm}}
|ܐܒܘ ܚܡܐܡ
|
|21,947
|[[#Administrative divisions|Deir Ez-Zor]]
|-
|[[Al-Shaafah]]
|
|الشعفة
|ܫܥܦܗ
|
|18,956
|[[#Administrative divisions|Deir Ez-Zor]]
|-
|[[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah Governorate|Al-Qahtaniyah]]
|Tirbespî
|القحطانية
|ܩܒܪ̈ܐ ܚܘܪ̈ܐ
|Kubur el Bid
|16,946
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Al-Mansurah, Raqqa Governorate|Al-Mansurah]]
|
|المنصورة{{lrm}}
|ܡܢܨܘܪܗ
|
|16,158
|[[#Administrative divisions|Tabqa]][{{Cite news |url=https://sdf-press.com/?p=21029 |title=أعمال وإنجازات مجلس المنصورة المدني خلال عامه الأول |newspaper=قوات سوريا الديمقراطية – Syrian Democratic Forces |date=10 July 2018 |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-date=27 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220427091236/https://sdf-press.com/?p=21029 |url-status=live }}]
|-
|[[Al-Shaddadah]]
|Şeddadê
|الشدادي
|ܫܕܐܕܝ
|Şaddadi
|15,806
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Al-Muabbada]]
|Girkê Legê
|المعبدة
|ܡܥܒܕܗ
|Muabbada
|15,759
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Al-Kishkiyah]]
|
|الكشكية
|ܟܫܟܝܗ
|
|14,979
|[[#Administrative divisions|Deir Ez-Zor]]
|-
|[[Al-Sabaa wa Arbain]]
|Seba û Erbîyn
|السبعة وأربعين
|ܣܒܥܗ ܘܐܪܒܥܝܢ
|El Seba ve Arbayn
|14,177
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Rmelan]]
|Rimêlan
|رميلان
|ܪܡܝܠܐܢ
|Rimelan
|11,500
|[[Jazira Region|Jazira]]
|-
|[[Al-Baghuz Fawqani]]
|Baxoz
|الباغوز فوقاني{{lrm}}
|ܒܐܓܘܙ ܦܘܩܐܢܝ
|
|10,649
|[[#Administrative divisions|Deir Ez-Zor]]
|}
=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Further|Kurds in Syria|Syrians|Assyrians in Syria|Syrian Turkmen|Yazidis in Syria}}
Two ethnic groups had a significant presence throughout Northern Syria:
* '''[[Arabs]]''' were an [[ethnic group]][{{cite web |title=Culturally Sensitive Social Work Practice with Arab Clients in Mental Health Settings |url=http://www.socialworkers.org/pressroom/events/911/alkrenawi.asp |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170913230624/http://www.socialworkers.org/pressroom/events/911/alkrenawi.asp |archive-date=13 September 2017 |access-date=3 April 2017 |website=Socialworkers.org }}][{{cite book |last1=Shoup |first1=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC |title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia |date=31 October 2011 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=9781598843620 |access-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230110222117/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC |archive-date=10 January 2023 |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=Shoup |first1=John A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC&pg=PA16 |title=Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia |date=31 October 2011 |publisher=Abc-Clio |isbn=9781598843620 |page=16 |access-date=26 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117054121/https://books.google.com/books?id=SPBfnT_E1mgC&pg=PA16 |archive-date=17 November 2023 |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |last1=Barakat |first1=Halim |title=The Arab world society, culture, and state |date=1993 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=0520914422 |location=Berkeley }}] or [[ethnolinguistic group]][{{cite book |author=Dona J. Stewart |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XV2SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT49 |title=The Middle East Today: Political, Geographical and Cultural Perspectives |date=22 December 2008 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-98078-8 |page=49 |access-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063833/https://books.google.com/books?id=XV2SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT49#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=15 May 2024 |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |author1=Anthony Gorman |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=stl97FdyRswC&pg=PA32 |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East |author2=Andrew Newman |publisher=Infobase Publishing |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-2676-0 |page=32 }}][{{cite book |author1=W. Montgomery Watt |url=https://worldview.carnegiecouncil.org/archive/worldview/1976/01/2630.html/_res/id=File1/ |title=Who Is an Arab? |author2=Pierre Cachia |publisher=Carnegie Council |year=1976 |access-date=3 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009204817/https://worldview.carnegiecouncil.org/archive/worldview/1976/01/2630.html/_res/id=File1/ |archive-date=9 October 2017 |url-status=live }}] living throughout Northern Syria, mainly defined by [[Arabic]] as their [[first language]]. They encompassed [[Bedouin]] tribes who traced their ancestry to the [[Arabian Peninsula]] as well as [[Arabization|arabized]] indigenous peoples and preexisting Arab groups.[{{cite book |author=Margaret Nydell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i46Brt0bFucC&pg=PA169 |title=Understanding Arabs, Fifth Edition: A Contemporary Guide to Arab Society |date=23 March 2012 |publisher=Nicholas Brealey |isbn=9780983955801 |page=169 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063837/https://books.google.com/books?id=i46Brt0bFucC&pg=PA169 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |author=John Joseph |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC&pg=PA30 |title=The Modern Assyrians of the Middle East |publisher=BRILL |year=2000 |isbn=9004116419 |page=30 |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218163525/https://books.google.com/books?id=79wj2hj4wKUC&pg=PA30#v=onepage&q&f=false |archive-date=18 February 2024 |url-status=live }}] Arabs formed the majority or plurality in some parts of Northern Syria, in particular in the southern parts of the Jazira Region, in [[Tell Abyad District]] and in [[Azaz District]]. While in [[Shahba region]] the term Arab was mainly used to denote arabized Kurds[[https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4555000.stm Killing of Iraq Kurds 'genocide'] , ''[[BBC]]'', "The Dutch court said it considered "legally and convincingly proven that the Kurdish population meets requirement under Genocide Conventions as an ethnic group"."] living in northeastern and northwestern Syria, culturally and linguistically classified among the [[Iranian peoples]].[{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Kurds.html |title=Kurds |date=2014 |encyclopedia=The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. |publisher=Encyclopedia.com |access-date=29 December 2014 |archive-date=27 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080927221638/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1E1-Kurds.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite book |chapter=Kurds, Kurdistan |last1=Bois |first1=T. |last2=Minorsky |first2=V. |last3=MacKenzie |first3=D.N. |title=Encyclopaedia Islamica |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=T. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C. E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W. P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |publisher=Brill |year=2009 |quote=The Kurds, an Iranian people of the Near East, live at the junction of more or less laicised Turkey. ... We thus find that about the period of the Arab conquest a single ethnic term ''Kurd'' (plur. ''Akrād'') was beginning to be applied to an amalgamation of Iranian or iranicised tribes. ... The classification of the Kurds among the Iranian nations is based mainly on linguistic and historical data and does not prejudice the fact there is a complexity of ethnical elements incorporated in them. }}] Many Kurds considered themselves descended from the ancient Iranian people of the [[Medes]],[{{cite book |author=Barbara A. West |title=Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA518 |date=1 January 2009 |publisher=Infobase Publishing |isbn=978-1-4381-1913-7 |page=518 }}] using a calendar dating from 612 BC, when the [[Assyria]]n capital of [[Nineveh]] was conquered by the Medes.[{{cite encyclopedia |last=[[Richard N. Frye|Frye]] |first=Richard Nelson |title=IRAN v. PEOPLES OF IRAN (1) A General Survey |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Iranica |access-date=4 March 2016 |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey |archive-date=17 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517075943/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-v1-peoples-survey |url-status=live }}] Kurds formed 55% of the 2010 population of what later became both Jazira Region and Euphrates Region.[{{cite news |title=Rojava's Sustainability and the PKK's Regional Strategy |url=http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/rojavas-sustainability-and-the-pkks-regional-strategy |publisher=Washington Institute |date=24 August 2016 |access-date=7 November 2016 |archive-date=10 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610071311/http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/rojavas-sustainability-and-the-pkks-regional-strategy |url-status=live }}]
[[File:Qamishli in winter.jpg|thumb|The streets of Qamishli during Christmas]]
Two [[ethnic group]]s had a significant presence in certain regions of Northern Syria:
* '''[[Assyrians]]'''[For Assyrians as indigenous to the Middle East, see
* Mordechai Nisan, Minorities in the Middle East: A History of Struggle and Self-Expression, p. 180
* Carl Skutsch, Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities, p. 149
* Steven L. Danver, Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues, p. 517
* UNPO Assyria
* Richard T. Schaefer, Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity, and Society, p. 107] were in Syria in the [[Jazira Region]] of the autonomous region, particularly in the urban areas ([[Qamishli]], [[al-Hasakah]], [[Ras al-Ayn]], [[Al-Malikiyah]], [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah Governorate|Al-Qahtaniyah]]), in the northeastern corner and in villages along the [[Khabur (Euphrates)|Khabur River]] in the [[Tell Tamer]] area. They traditionally spoke varieties of [[Northeastern Neo-Aramaic]], a Semitic language.[For Assyrians speaking a Neo-Aramaic language, see
* The British Survey, by the British Society for International Understanding, 1968, p. 3
* Carl Skutsch, Encyclopedia of the World's Minorities, p. 149
* [[Farzad Sharifian]], René Dirven, Ning Yu, Susanne Niemeier, Culture, Body, and Language: Conceptualizations of Internal Body Organs across Cultures and Languages, p. 268
* UNPO Assyria] There were many Assyrians among recent refugees to Northern Syria, who had fled Islamist violence elsewhere in Syria back to their traditional lands.[{{cite news |title=Glavin: In Iraq and Syria, it's too little, too late |url=https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/columnists/iraq-and-syria-too-little-too-late |access-date=7 May 2016 |work=Ottawa Citizen |date=14 November 2014 |archive-date=17 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617110929/https://ottawacitizen.com/opinion/columnists/iraq-and-syria-too-little-too-late |url-status=live }}] In the secular polyethnic political climate of the region, the [[Dawronoye]] modernization movement had a growing influence on Assyrian identity in the 21st century.[
* '''[[Syrian Turkmen|Turkmen]]''' were an ethnic group with a major presence in the area between Afrin Region and Euphrates Region, where they formed regional majorities in the countryside from [[Azaz]] and [[Mare']] to [[Jarabulus]], and a minor presence in Afrin Region and Euphrates Region.
There were also smaller minorities of '''[[Armenians in Syria|Armenians]]''' throughout Northern Syria as well as '''[[Chechens]]''' in [[Ras al-Ayn]].
===Languages===
[[File:Raqqa,center2.jpg|thumb|Town center of Raqqa, 2009]]
Regarding the status of different languages in the autonomous region, its "Social Contract" stipulated that "all languages in Northern Syria are equal in all areas of life, including social, educational, cultural, and administrative dealings. Every people shall organize its life and manage its affairs using its mother tongue."][{{Cite web |url=http://rojavabenelux.nl/?page_id=1862 |title=Social Contract – Democratic Federation of North Syria |access-date=3 February 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181209113945/http://rojavabenelux.nl/?page_id=1862 |url-status=dead }}] In practice, Arabic and Kurmanji were predominantly used across all areas and for most official documents, with Syriac being mainly used in the Jazira Region, with some usage across all areas.
The four main languages spoken in Northern Syria were the following, and came from three different language families:
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]] in the [[North Mesopotamian Arabic]] dialect ([[Modern Standard Arabic]] in education and writing), a [[Central Semitic language]] from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic branch]] of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic language family]].
* [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]] (in [[Northern Kurdish]] dialect), a [[Western Iranian languages|Northwestern Iranian language]][{{cite news |url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kurdish-language-i |title=HISTORY OF THE KURDISH LANGUAGE |publisher=Encyclopædia Iranica |last1=Foundation |first1=Encyclopaedia Iranica |access-date=29 May 2016 |archive-date=17 November 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111117044331/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/kurdish-language-i |url-status=live }}][{{cite journal |author=D. N. MacKenzie |year=1961 |title=The Origins of Kurdish |journal=Transactions of the Philological Society |volume=60 |pages=68–86 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-968X.1961.tb00987.x }}] from the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language family]].
* [[Eastern Aramaic languages]] mainly in the [[Turoyo]] and [[Assyrian Neo-Aramaic]] varieties (mainly [[Syriac language|Syriac]] in education and writing), [[Northwest Semitic languages]] from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic branch]] of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afroasiatic language family]].
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (in [[Turkish dialects#Syrian Turkmen dialect|Syrian Turkmen]] dialect), from the [[Turkic languages|Turkic language family]].
For these four languages, three different scripts were in use in Northern Syria:
* The [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic alphabet (abjad)]] for Arabic
* The [[Latin alphabet]] for Kurdish, Turkish and Turoyo
* The [[Syriac alphabet]] for Syriac, Turoyo and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic
===Religion===
{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| image1 = Raqqa, Moderne Moschee unweit des Bagdhdad Tores (Bab Baghdad) (38651064386).jpg
| caption1 = [[Uwais al-Qarni Mosque|Uwais al-Qarni]] [[Shi'ite]] mosque in Raqqa (destroyed by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] in 2014)
| width1 =
| image2 = Assyrian Church of the East parish in al-Hasakah.jpg
| caption2 = [[Syriac Christianity|Assyrian]] cathedral in Al-Hasakah
| width2 =
}}
Most ethnic Arab and Kurdish people in Northern Syria adhered to [[Sunni Islam]], while ethnic Assyrian people generally were [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Syriac Orthodox]], [[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean Catholic]], [[Syriac Catholic Church|Syriac Catholic]] or adherents of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]]. There were also adherents to other religions, such as [[Yazidis]]m.[{{cite news |title=Could Christianity be driven from Middle East? |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32287806 |access-date=15 April 2015 |publisher=BBC |date=15 April 2015 |archive-date=26 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526161551/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-32287806 |url-status=live }}] The dominant PYD party and the political administration in the region were decidedly [[secularism|secular]].[{{cite web |author=Carl Drott |url=http://www.warscapes.com/reportage/revolutionaries-bethnahrin |title=The Revolutionaries of Bethnahrin |publisher=Warscapes |date=25 May 2015 |access-date=8 October 2016 |archive-date=10 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190710040436/http://www.warscapes.com/reportage/revolutionaries-bethnahrin |url-status=live }}][
===Education===
{{See also|Education in Syria|Human rights in the Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria#Social and educational aspects of human rights development}}
[[File:At the culture center.jpg|thumb|Theater center in Rojava in Kobani 2014]]
Under the rule of the [[Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region|Ba'ath Party]], school education consisted of only [[Arabic]] language public schools, supplemented by Assyrian private confessional schools.][{{citation |surname1=David Commins |surname2=David W. Lesch |title=Historical Dictionary of Syria |publisher=Scarecrow Press |page=239 |isbn=978-0-8108-7966-9 |date=5 December 2013 |language=de |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wpBWAgAAQBAJ |access-date=19 May 2016 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063500/https://books.google.com/books?id=wpBWAgAAQBAJ |url-status=live }}] In 2015, the region's administration introduced primary education in the [[first language|native language]] (either [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]] or Arabic) and mandatory [[Multilingualism|bilingual]] education (Kurdish and Arabic) for public schools,{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=109–110}}[{{cite web |url=https://anfenglish.com/culture/education-in-rojava-after-the-revolution |title=Education in Rojava after the revolution |publisher=ANF |date=16 May 2016 |access-date=10 June 2016 |archive-date=24 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924230823/https://anfenglish.com/culture/education-in-rojava-after-the-revolution |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/290820151/ |title=Rojava schools to re-open with PYD-approved curriculum |publisher=Rudaw |date=29 August 2015 |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-date=10 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510184635/http://rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/290820151/ |url-status=live }}] There were ongoing disagreements and negotiations over curriculums with the Syrian central government,{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=111}}[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2015/10/kurds-introduce-own-curriculum-at-schools-of-rojava-2/ |title=Kurds introduce own curriculum at schools of Rojava |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=2 October 2015 |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-date=6 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170606071936/http://aranews.net/2015/10/kurds-introduce-own-curriculum-at-schools-of-rojava-2/ |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://new-compass.net/articles/revolutionary-education-rojava |title=Revolutionary Education in Rojava |publisher=New Compass |date=17 February 2015 |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-date=21 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200621051923/http://new-compass.net/articles/revolutionary-education-rojava |url-status=dead }}][{{cite web |url=http://kurdishquestion.com/oldsite/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/education-system-in-rojava/538-education-system-in-rojava.html/ |title=Education in Rojava: Academy and Pluralistic versus University and Monisma |publisher=Kurdishquestion |date=12 January 2014 |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160510103830/http://kurdishquestion.com/oldsite/index.php/kurdistan/west-kurdistan/education-system-in-rojava/538-education-system-in-rojava.html/ |archive-date=10 May 2016 |url-status=dead }}]
[[File:Tev-Cand, Tirbespi.jpg|thumb|High school students in Tev-Cand in a classroom, dancing during a class on Syrian culture]]
In August 2016, the Ourhi Centre was founded by the Assyrian community in the city of Qamishli, to educate teachers in order to make [[Syriac language|Syriac-Aramaic]] an additional language in public schools in Jazira Region,[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817064715/http://aranews.net/2016/08/syriac-christians-revive-ancient-language-despite-war-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 August 2016 |title=Syriac Christians revive ancient language despite war |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=19 August 2016 |access-date=19 August 2016 }}] which then started in the 2016/17 academic year.[{{cite web |url=http://syrianobserver.com/EN/News/31729/Hassakeh_Syriac_Language_Be_Taught_PYD_controlled_Schools/ |title=Hassakeh: Syriac Language to Be Taught in PYD-controlled Schools |publisher=The Syrian Observer |date=3 October 2016 |access-date=5 October 2016 |archive-date=14 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210514082443/https://syrianobserver.com/news/25299/hassakeh_syriac_language_be_taught_pyd_controlled_schools.html |url-status=dead }}] According to the region's Education Committee, in 2016/2017 "three curriculums have replaced the old one, to include teaching in three languages: Kurdish, Arabic and Syriac."[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/10/rojava-administration-launches-new-education-system-kurdish-arabic-assyrian-2/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161007194102/http://aranews.net/2016/10/rojava-administration-launches-new-education-system-kurdish-arabic-assyrian-2/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 October 2016 |title=Rojava administration launches new curriculum in Kurdish, Arabic and Assyrian |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=7 October 2016 |access-date=7 October 2016 }}] In August 2017, Galenos Yousef Issa of the Ourhi Centre announced that the Syriac curriculum would be expanded to grade 6, which earlier had been limited to grade 3, with teachers being assigned to Syriac schools in [[Al-Hasakah]], [[Al-Qahtaniyah, al-Hasakah Governorate|Al-Qahtaniyah]] and [[Al-Malikiyah]].[{{cite web |url=http://en.hawarnews.com/syriacs-will-study-their-language-in-schools-this-year/ |title=Syriacs will study their language in schools this year – ANHA |website=en.hawarnews.com |access-date=1 September 2017 |archive-date=23 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240523061341/https://hawarnews.com/ar/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |url=http://en.hawarnews.com/the-syriacs-are-taught-their-language-for-the-first-time/ |title=The Syriacs are taught their language for the first time – ANHA |website=en.hawarnews.com |access-date=25 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160924094715/http://en.hawarnews.com/the-syriacs-are-taught-their-language-for-the-first-time/ |archive-date=24 September 2016 |url-status=dead }}] At the start of the academic year 2018–2019, the curricula in Kurdish and Arabic had been expanded to grades 1–12 and Syriac to grades 1–9. "[[Jineology]]" classes had also been introduced.[{{cite web |title=What is reality of educational process in North Syria, new year's curricula? |url=http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/what-is-reality-of-educational-process-in-north-syria-new-years-curricula-h4282.html |website=Hawar |access-date=14 October 2018 |archive-date=14 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014164955/http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/what-is-reality-of-educational-process-in-north-syria-new-years-curricula-h4282.html |url-status=live }}] In general, schools were encouraged to teach the administration's "utopian doctrine", which promoted diversity, democracy, and the ideas of [[Abdullah Öcalan]].{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|p=219}}{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=110–111}} Local reactions to the changes to the school system and curriculum were mixed. While many praised the new system because it encouraged tolerance and allowed Kurds and other minorities to be taught in their own languages,{{sfnp|Zabad|2017|p=219}} others criticised it as ''de facto'' compulsory indoctrination.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=111–112}}
The federal, regional and local administrations in the region put much emphasis on promoting libraries and educational centers, to facilitate learning and social and artistic activities. Examples were the Nahawand Center for Developing Children's Talents in [[Amuda]] (est. 2015) and the Rodî û Perwîn Library in [[Kobani]] (May 2016).[{{cite web |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/dfa4b335-fe1c-4a3c-b5b6-7bc5848e9e97/Kurds-establish-university-in-Rojava-amid-Syrian-instability |title=Kurds establish university in Rojava amid Syrian instability |publisher=Kurdistan24 |date=7 July 2016 |access-date=7 July 2016 |archive-date=18 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180718115201/http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/dfa4b335-fe1c-4a3c-b5b6-7bc5848e9e97/Kurds-establish-university-in-Rojava-amid-Syrian-instability |url-status=live }}]
For Assyrian private confessional schools there had at first been no changes.[{{cite web |url=http://www.aina.org/news/20151221023437.htm |title=The Assyrians of Syria: History and Prospects |publisher=AINA |date=21 December 2015 |access-date=18 May 2016 |archive-date=15 May 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240515063831/http://www.aina.org/news/20151221023437.htm |url-status=live }}] However, in August 2018 it was reported that the region's authorities were trying to implement their own Syriac curriculum in private Christian schools that had continued to use an Arabic curriculum with limited Syriac classes approved by the Assad regime and originally developed by the Syrian Education Ministry in cooperation with Christian clergy in the 1950s. The threat of closure of schools that did not comply with this resulted in protests erupting in Qamishli.[{{cite web |title=Christians, Kurds at Odds Over Syria School Curriculum |url=https://alshahidwitness.com/christians-kurds-syria-curriculum/ |website=Al Shahid News |date=13 September 2018 |access-date=14 September 2018 |archive-date=27 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190327091732/https://alshahidwitness.com/christians-kurds-syria-curriculum/ |url-status=usurped }}][{{cite web |title=Why Did the Kurdish "Self-Management" Close the Syriac Private School in Eastern al-Hasakah? |url=https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2018/08/why-did-the-kurdish-self-management-close-the-syriac-private-school-in-eastern-al-hasakah/ |website=Enab Baladi |date=11 August 2018 |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618151758/https://english.enabbaladi.net/archives/2018/08/why-did-the-kurdish-self-management-close-the-syriac-private-school-in-eastern-al-hasakah/ |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |last1=By Rudaw |title=Rojava authority's efforts to provide Syriac education met with resistance |date=30 August 2018 |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/300820181 |publisher=Rudaw |access-date=3 September 2018 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922024739/http://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/300820181 |url-status=live }}] A deal was later reached in September 2018 between the region's authorities and the local Syriac Orthodox archbishopric, where the two first grades in these schools would learn the region's Syriac curriculum and grades three to six would continue to learn the Damascus-approved curriculum.[{{cite web |author1=Wladimir van Wilgenburg |title=Syrian Kurds open church in Kobani, once besieged by IS |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/36aacc2b-4dbd-4d85-9d36-68c1a15aaffb |publisher=Kurdistan24 |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=22 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922024739/http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/36aacc2b-4dbd-4d85-9d36-68c1a15aaffb |url-status=live }}][{{cite web |author1=Delil Souleiman |title=Syriacs protest Kurdish authorities over Syria school curriculum |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/kurds-christians-split-over-syria-school-curriculum-041427147.html |publisher=Yahoo News |access-date=21 September 2018 |archive-date=21 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621152808/https://www.yahoo.com/news/kurds-christians-split-over-syria-school-curriculum-041427147.html |url-status=dead }}]
As of 2024, the region had three universities: [[University of Rojava]] in [[Qamishli]], Kobani University in [[Kobani]], and Al-Sharq University in [[Raqqa]] and [[Al-Thawrah|Tabqa]].[{{cite web |url=https://medyanews.net/call-from-rojava-university-to-academics-lets-work-together/ |accessdate=4 December 2024 |date=6 October 2021 |title=Call from Rojava University to academics: Let's work together |website=Medya News }}] The three universities were represented by the Universities Council of Northern and Eastern Syria.[{{cite web |url=https://anfenglish.com/rojava-syria/universities-council-of-northern-and-eastern-syria-established-in-raqqa-canton-76258 |accessdate=4 December 2024 |date=10 November 2024 |title=Universities Council of Northern and Eastern Syria established in Raqqa Canton |website=ANF }}]
While there had been no institution of tertiary education on the territory of the region at the onset of the Syrian Civil War, an increasing number of such institutions had been established by the regional administrations in the region since.
* In September 2014, the [[Mesopotamian Social Sciences Academy]] in Qamishli started classes.[ More such academies designed under a non-traditional academic philosophy and concept were in the process of being founded or planned.][{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/05/kurds-rojava-afrin-first-university-ideology-ocalan.html |title=Syria's first Kurdish university attracts controversy as well as students |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=18 May 2016 |access-date=19 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521193644/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/05/kurds-rojava-afrin-first-university-ideology-ocalan.html |archive-date=21 May 2016 |url-status=dead }}] After the Turkish army invaded Afrin in 2018, several of its students were transferred to the [[University of Rojava]] in Qamishli.[{{Cite web |date=29 June 2018 |title=Afrin University students continuing their studies at Rojava's University |url=http://www.hawarnews.com/en/haber/afrin-university-students-continuing-their-studies-at-rojavas-university-h2239.html |access-date=3 July 2021 |website=[[Hawar News Agency]] |language=en |archive-date=3 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180803074340/http://www.hawarnews.com/en/haber/afrin-university-students-continuing-their-studies-at-rojavas-university-h2239.html |url-status=live }}]
* In July 2016, Jazira Canton Board of Education started the University of Rojava in Qamishli, with faculties for Medicine, Engineering, Sciences, and Arts and Humanities. Programs taught included health, computer and agricultural engineering; physics, chemistry, history, psychology, geography, mathematics and primary school teaching and Kurdish literature.[{{cite web |url=http://www.anfenglish.com/kurdistan/university-of-rojava-to-be-opened |title='University of Rojava' to be opened |publisher=ANF |date=4 July 2016 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104144550/http://www.anfenglish.com/kurdistan/university-of-rojava-to-be-opened |archive-date=4 January 2017 |url-status=dead }}] There was an additional Faculty for Petroleum and Pharmacology in [[Rmelan]].[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/08/rojava-university-seeks-eliminate-constraints-education-syrias-kurdish-region/ |title=Rojava university seeks to eliminate constraints on education in Syria's Kurdish region |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=15 August 2016 |access-date=15 August 2016 |archive-date=28 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180828182907/http://aranews.net/2016/08/rojava-university-seeks-eliminate-constraints-on-education-syrias-kurdish-region |url-status=dead }}]
* In August 2016, [[Jazira Canton]] police forces [[Battle of al-Hasakah (2016)|took control]] of the remaining parts of [[Al-Hasakah|Hasakah]] city, which included the Hasakah campus of the Arabic-language [[Al-Furat University]], and with mutual agreement the institution continued to be operated under the authority of the Damascus government's Ministry of Higher Education.
=== Health ===
Healthcare was organized through the region's "Health and Environment Authority" and through sub-region- and canton-level Health Committees.[{{Cite web |title=Al-Hasaka Health Directorate: One person infection to endanger everyone's life |url=http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/al-hasaka-health-directorate-one-person-infection-to-endanger-everyones-life-h15599.html |website=HAWAR NEWS |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407102641/http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/al-hasaka-health-directorate-one-person-infection-to-endanger-everyones-life-h15599.html |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |url=http://smne-syria.com/eb/category/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%88%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9/ |title=هيئة الصحة والبيئة – المجلس التنفيذي |website=Smne-syria.com |access-date=4 December 2021 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308001003/http://smne-syria.com/eb/category/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A7%D8%AA-%D9%88%D9%85%D9%83%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%A8/%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%AD%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9/ |url-status=dead }}][{{Cite web |title=An appeal from Health Body of Al-Jazeera region |url=http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/an-appeal-from-health-body-of-al-jazeera-region-h15465.html |website=HAWARNEWS |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=7 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200407102649/http://hawarnews.com/en/haber/an-appeal-from-health-body-of-al-jazeera-region-h15465.html |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |title=Search Results for "Health" |date=8 February 2020 |url=https://sdf-press.com/en/?s=Health |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=1 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210301155551/https://sdf-press.com/en/?s=Health |url-status=live }}] Independent organizations providing healthcare in the region included the [[Kurdish Red Crescent]], the [[Syrian American Medical Society]], the [[Free Burma Rangers]] and [[Doctors Without Borders]]. The [[2019 Turkish offensive into north-eastern Syria|2019 Turkish offensive]] left thousands of people in the region without access to basic necessities, as the majority of international aid groups withdrew during the violence.[{{Cite web |title=In Northern Syria, Destruction and Displacement Confront Health Workers – Syrian Arab Republic |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/northern-syria-destruction-and-displacement-confront-health-workers |website=ReliefWeb.int |date=28 October 2019 |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=6 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406183009/https://reliefweb.int/report/syrian-arab-republic/northern-syria-destruction-and-displacement-confront-health-workers |url-status=live }}][{{Cite web |title=Syria: Caring for displaced people and preparing for coronavirus in Idlib |url=https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/story/syria-caring-displaced-people-and-preparing-coronavirus-idlib |website=Doctors Without Borders – USA |access-date=5 May 2020 |archive-date=6 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200506202403/https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news-stories/story/syria-caring-displaced-people-and-preparing-coronavirus-idlib |url-status=live }}]
==Culture==
{{See also|Kurdish culture|Culture of Syria}}
===Arts===
[[File:Tev-Cand.jpg|thumb|Children learning to play [[Musical instrument|instrument]]s and arts]]
After the establishment of the de facto autonomous region, the Center of Art and Democratic Culture, located in Jazira Region, became a venue for aspiring artists who showcased their work.[{{cite web |url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/07/syria-kurdish-rojava-revolutionary-art.html |title=Kurdish art, music flourish as regime fades from northeast Syria |publisher=Al-Monitor |date=19 July 2016 |access-date=20 July 2016 |archive-date=20 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720165914/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2016/07/syria-kurdish-rojava-revolutionary-art.html |url-status=live }}][{{cite news |script-title=ar:هيئة الثقافة تفتتح معرضاً في سري كانيه بالحسكة |url=http://aranews.org/2015/09/هيئة-الثقافة-تفتتح-معرضاً-في-سري-كانيه/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150913011724/http://aranews.org/2015/09/%d9%87%d9%8a%d8%a6%d8%a9-%d8%a7%d9%84%d8%ab%d9%82%d8%a7%d9%81%d8%a9-%d8%aa%d9%81%d8%aa%d8%aa%d8%ad-%d9%85%d8%b9%d8%b1%d8%b6%d8%a7%d9%8b-%d9%81%d9%8a-%d8%b3%d8%b1%d9%8a-%d9%83%d8%A7%D9%86%d9%8A%D9%87/ |url-status=dead |archive-date=13 September 2015 |agency=ARA News |date=12 September 2015 |language=ar }}] Among the major cultural events in the region were the annual ''Festival of Theater'' in March/April and the ''Rojava Short Story Festival'' in June, both held in the city of Qamishli, as well as the ''Afrin Short Film Festival'' in April.[{{cite web |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/3cfd84f7-b2fb-4370-a8b0-67fcfadbb58f/Syrian-Kurds-hold-theatre-festival-in-Rojava-amid-war |title=Syrian Kurds hold theatre festival in Rojava amid war |publisher=[[Kurdistan24]] |date=April 2017 |access-date=19 April 2017 |archive-date=28 April 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170428050915/http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/3cfd84f7-b2fb-4370-a8b0-67fcfadbb58f/Syrian-Kurds-hold-theatre-festival-in-Rojava-amid-war |url-status=live }}]
===Media===
{{See also|Media of Syria}}
[[File:Tev-Cand, Tirbespi2.jpg|thumb|Public performance]]
Incorporating the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]], the [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]], the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]], as well as other internationally recognized human rights conventions, the 2014 [[Constitution of North and East Syria]] guaranteed [[freedom of speech]] and [[freedom of the press]]. As a result, a diverse media landscape developed in the region,{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|pp=99, 113}}[{{cite web |url=https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/syria |title=Syria Country report, Freedom of the Press 2015 |work=Freedom House |date=2015 |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170711061821/https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-press/2015/syria |url-status=dead }}] in each of the [[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]], [[Arabic]], [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Syriac-Aramaic]] and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] languages of the land, as well as in English, and media outlets frequently used more than one language. Among the most prominent media in the region were [[Hawar News Agency]] and [[ARA News]] agencies and websites, as well as TV outlets Rojava Kurdistan TV, [[Ronahî TV]], and the bimonthly magazine ''Nudem''. A landscape of local newspapers and radio stations developed. However, media agencies often faced economic pressure, as was demonstrated by the closure of news website ''Welati'' in May 2016.[{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/05/blow-kurdish-independent-media-syrian-kurdish-website-shuts/ |title=In blow to Kurdish independent media, Syrian Kurdish website shuts down |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=15 May 2016 |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021223915/http://aranews.net/2016/05/blow-kurdish-independent-media-syrian-kurdish-website-shuts/ |url-status=dead }}] In addition, the autonomous regions imposed some limits on press freedom, for example by requiring the press to obtain work permits. These could be cancelled, thereby curtailing the ability of certain press agencies to operate. However, the extent of these restrictions differed greatly from area to area. By 2016, Kobani Canton was the least restrictive, followed by Jazira Canton, which closely monitored and occasionally regulated press activity.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=99}} Afrin Canton was the most restrictive, and many local reporters operated anonymously.{{sfnp|Allsopp|van Wilgenburg|2019|p=114}}
Political extremism in the context of the Syrian Civil War could put media outlets under pressure; for example, in April 2016, the premises of [[Arta FM]] ("the first, and only, independent radio station staffed and broadcast by Syrians inside Syria") in [[Amuda]] were threatened and burned down by unidentified assailants.[{{cite web |url=http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/b2cd5731-94cf-4181-94bf-debfa4208992/Syria%E2%80%99s-first-Kurdish-radio-station-burnt |title=Syria's first Kurdish radio station burnt |publisher=Kurdistan24 |date=27 April 2016 |access-date=6 July 2016 }}][{{cite web |url=http://aranews.net/2016/04/syrian-kurdish-administration-condemns-burning-radio-arta-fm-office-amude/ |title=Syrian Kurdish administration condemns burning of radio ARTA FM office in Amude |publisher=[[ARA News]] |date=27 April 2016 |access-date=9 July 2016 |archive-date=21 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021223912/http://web.archive.org/web/20161021223912/http://aranews.net/2016/04/syrian-kurdish-administration-condemns-burning-radio-arta-fm-office-amude/ |url-status=dead }}] In December 2018, the Rojava Information Center was established.[{{Cite web |url=https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-rojava-information-center-journalists-report-conflict.html |title=Rojava Information Center, a media bridge to the world outside |last=Bellingreri |first=Marta |date=24 December 2019 |website=Al-Monitor |access-date=29 March 2020 |archive-date=6 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200306134236/https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/12/syria-rojava-information-center-journalists-report-conflict.html |url-status=live }}] During the [[Turkish military operation in Afrin]], the [[Kurdistan Democratic Party|KDP]]-affiliated Iraqi Kurdish [[Rudaw Media Network]] was also banned from reporting in the region.[{{cite web |last1=By Rudaw |title=Rudaw expresses regret over ban by Kobani authorities in Syria |url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/250220161 |website=Rudaw |date=25 February 2016 |access-date=22 September 2018 |archive-date=18 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190618170338/http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/250220161 |url-status=live }}] On 2 September 2019, the [[Iraqi Kurdistan]]-based [[Kurdistan 24]] network had its license to work in the region withdrawn and had its offices confiscated by Rojava authorities.[{{cite web |url=https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/e9639851-d3aa-42c4-962b-7a04e733e3bf |title=Statement from Kurdistan 24 Company for Media and Research Ltd. |website=Kurdistan24 |access-date=2 September 2019 |archive-date=2 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902180754/https://www.kurdistan24.net/en/news/e9639851-d3aa-42c4-962b-7a04e733e3bf |url-status=live }}] International media and journalists operated with few restrictions in the region, making it one of the only regions in Syria where they could operate with some degree of freedom.[{{cite web |url=http://syriannewscenter.net/ar/article/23775-%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%84%D9%8A-%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84-10-%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85.html |script-title=ar:انترنت في الحسكة والقامشلي خلال 10 أيام |publisher=syriannewscenter.net |language=ar-sy |date=12 January 2017 |access-date=13 January 2017 |archive-date=15 January 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170115012539/https://web.archive.org/web/20170115012539/http://syriannewscenter.net/ar/article/23775-%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%86%D8%AA-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AD%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B4%D9%84%D9%8A-%D8%AE%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84-10-%D8%A3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85.html |url-status=dead }}]
==See also==
* [[Zapatista territories]]
==Notes==
{{Notelist}}
==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
=== Works cited ===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |last1=Allsopp |first1=Harriet |last2=van Wilgenburg |first2=Wladimir |title=The Kurds of Northern Syria. Volume 2: Governance, Diversity and Conflicts |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9vWlDwAAQBAJ |date=2019 |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |location=London; New York City; etc. |isbn=978-1-8386-0445-5}}
* {{cite book |last=Lister |first=Charles R. |title=The Syrian Jihad: Al-Qaeda, the Islamic State and the Evolution of an Insurgency |url=https://archive.org/details/CharlesR.ListerTheSyrianJihadAlQaedaTheIslamicStateAndTheEvolutionOfAnInsurgency. |date=2015 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |isbn=9780190462475}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Meri |editor-first=Josef W. |editor-link=Josef Meri |title=Medieval Islamic Civilization: An Encyclopedia. Volume 1: A - K |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H-k9oc9xsuAC |date=2006 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |series=Routledge encyclopedias of Middle Edges |location=New York City & London |isbn=978-0-415-96691-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Morton |first=Nicholas |title=The Crusader States and their Neighbours: A Military History, 1099-1187 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kMnhDwAAQBAJ |date=2020 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0198824541}}
* {{cite book |last=Retso |first=Jan |title=The Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9RN6gE8z40C |date=2003 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London; New York City |isbn=0-7007-1679-3}}
* {{cite book |last1=Sinclair |first1=Christian |last2=Kajjo |first2=Sirwan |chapter=The Evolution of Kurdish Politics in Syria |editor1=David A. McMurray |editor2=Amanda Ufheil-Somers |title=The Arab Revolts. Dispatches on Militant Democracy in the Middle East |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RQIXtU-EYN4C |date=2013 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=[[Bloomington, Indiana]] |isbn=978-0-253-00975-3 |pages=177–187}}
* {{cite book |last=Tejel |first=Jordi |title=Syria's Kurds: History, Politics and Society |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g4f54qsU618C |date=2009 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=[[Abingdon-on-Thames]], New York City |isbn=978-0-415-42440-0}}
* {{cite book |last=Vanly |first=Ismet Chériff |chapter=The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon |editor1=Philip G. Kreyenbroek |editor2=Stefan Sperl |title=The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JZ6JAgAAQBAJ |date=1992 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=New York City, London |pages=112–134 |isbn=978-0-415-96691-7}}
* {{cite book |last=Zabad |first=Ibrahim |title=Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of the Arab Spring |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XiAlDwAAQBAJ |date=2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |location=London; New York City |isbn=978-1-472-47441-4}}
{{Refend}}
==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last1=Holmes |first1=Amy Austin |title=Statelet of Survivors: The Making of a Semi-Autonomous Region in Northeast Syria |date=2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-762103-5 |language=en}}
==External links==
{{Commons}}
* {{Official website}}
* [http://civiroglu.net/the-constitution-of-the-rojava-cantons/ The 2014 Constitution of the Rojava Cantons]; {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140622054728/http://civiroglu.net/the-constitution-of-the-rojava-cantons/ |date=22 June 2014 }}
* [http://anarchism.pageabode.com/andrewnflood/resources-rojava-revolution-kurdistan-syria Resources on the Rojava revolution in West Kurdistan (Syria)]; {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150319082033/http://anarchism.pageabode.com/andrewnflood/resources-rojava-revolution-kurdistan-syria |date=19 March 2015 }}
* [https://libcom.org/library/rojava-revolution-reading-guide 'Rojava Revolution' Reading Guide]
{{Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria topics}}
{{Syrian Civil War}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Democratic Autonomous Administration of North and East Syria| ]]
[[Category:2012 establishments in Syria]]
[[Category:2026 disestablishments in Syria]]
[[Category:Anarchist communities]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Deir ez-Zor Governorate in the Syrian civil war]]
[[Category:Raqqa Governorate in the Syrian civil war]]
[[Category:States and territories disestablished in 2026]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 2012]]
[[Category:Subdivisions of Syria]]
[[Category:Syrian Kurdistan]]
[[Category:Upper Mesopotamia]]