{{Short description|Abrahamic monotheistic religion}} {{Redirect|Christian faith|the theological concept|Faith in Christianity}} {{Protection padlock|small=yes}} {{Use American English|date=October 2019}} {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}} {{Infobox religion | name = Christianity | image = Church of the Holy Sepulchre by Gerd Eichmann (cropped).jpg | imagewidth = 275px | alt = | caption = The [[Church of the Holy Sepulchre]] in the [[Christian Quarter]] of the [[Old City of Jerusalem]], a [[List of Christian holy places in the Holy Land|holy place of Christianity]] | main_classification = [[Abrahamic religions|Abrahamic]] | scripture = [[Bible#Christian Bible|Bible]] ([[Old Testament|Old]] and [[New Testament]]) | theology = [[Christian Theology|Monotheistic]] | area = [[Christianity by country|Worldwide]] | language = {{Plainlist| * [[Biblical Hebrew]] * [[Biblical Aramaic]] * [[Koine Greek|Biblical Greek]] }} | territory = [[Christendom]] | founder = [[Jesus]] | founded_date = [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century AD]] | founded_place = [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period|Jerusalem]], [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]],
Roman Empire | separated_from = [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|Judaism]]{{refn|group=note|Christianity originated in 1st-century [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]] from the [[Jewish Christian]] sect of [[Second Temple Judaism]].{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |author-link=Bart D. Ehrman |year=2005 |orig-year=2003 |title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew |chapter=At Polar Ends of the Spectrum: Early Christian Ebionites and Marcionites |volume=74 |issue=2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA95 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=95–112 |doi=10.1017/s0009640700110273 |isbn=978-0-19-518249-1 |s2cid=152458823 |access-date=20 January 2021}} ''Church History''. {{doi|10.1017/s0009640700110273}}{{cite book |last=Hurtado |first=Larry W. |author-link=Larry Hurtado |year=2005 |chapter=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Approaches to Jesus-Devotion in Earliest Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi5xIxgnNgcC&pg=PA13 |title=How on Earth Did Jesus Become a God? Historical Questions about Earliest Devotion to Jesus |location=Grand Rapids and Cambridge |publisher=[[Wm. B. Eerdmans]] |pages=13–55 |isbn=978-0-8028-2861-3 |access-date=20 July 2021}}{{cite book |last=Freeman |first=Charles |author-link=Charles Freeman (historian) |year=2010 |title=A New History of Early Christianity |chapter=Breaking Away: The First Christianities |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5_in-6VLgRoC&pg=PA31 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=31–46 |doi=10.12987/9780300166583 |isbn=978-0-300-12581-8 |jstor=j.ctt1nq44w |s2cid=170124789 |access-date=20 January 2021}}{{cite book |last=Wilken |first=Robert Louis |year=2013 |title=The First Thousand Years: A Global History of Christianity |chapter=Beginning in Jerusalem |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iW1-JImrwQUC&pg=PA6 |location=New Haven and London |publisher=[[Yale University Press]] |pages=6–16 |isbn=978-0-300-11884-1 |jstor=j.ctt32bd7m |s2cid=160590164 |access-date=20 January 2021}}{{cite book |author-last=Lietaert Peerbolte |author-first=Bert Jan |year=2013 |chapter=How Antichrist Defeated Death: The Development of Christian Apocalyptic Eschatology in the Early Church |editor1-last=Krans |editor1-first=Jan |editor2-last=Lietaert Peerbolte |editor2-first=L. J. |editor3-last=Smit |editor3-first=Peter-Ben |editor4-last=Zwiep |editor4-first=Arie W. |title=Paul, John, and Apocalyptic Eschatology: Studies in Honour of Martinus C. de Boer |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |series=[[Novum Testamentum|Novum Testamentum: Supplements]] |volume=149 |pages=238–255 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MoKxIeOTkqYC&pg=PA238 |doi=10.1163/9789004250369_016 |isbn=978-90-04-25026-0 |issn=0167-9732 |s2cid=191738355 |access-date=13 February 2021}}}} | separations = | number_of_followers = {{est.}} [[Christianity by country|2.3 billion]]{{Cite web|doi=10.58094/fj71-ny11|author-last6=Fahmy|author-first1=Conrad|author-last1=Hackett|author-first2=Marcin|author-last2=Stonawski|author-first3=Yunping|author-last3=Tong|author-first4=Stephanie|author-last4=Kramer|author-first5=Anne|author-last5=Shi|author-first6=Dalia|date=2025-06-09|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|access-date=2025-06-10|website=Pew Research Center|language=en-US|archive-date=9 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609194548/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|url-status=live}} {{increase}} ([[List of Christian synonyms|referred to]] as [[Christians]]) }} {{Christianity|expanded=all}}{{Religion sidebar}} '''Christianity''' is an [[Abrahamic]] [[monotheistic]] [[religion]] based on the [[Bible#Christian Bible|Bible]] and the teachings of [[Jesus]]. The [[Gospels]] state that [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]] is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] and [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]] after [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion]], whose coming as the [[Messiah#Christianity|messiah]] ([[Christ (title)|Christ]]) was [[Old Testament messianic prophecies quoted in the New Testament|prophesied]] in the [[Old Testament]] and [[chronicle]]d in the [[New Testament]]. It is the [[Major religious groups|world's largest]] and most widespread religion with over 2.3 billion followers, comprising around 28.8% of the [[world population]]. Its adherents, known as [[Christians]], are estimated to make up a majority of the population in [[Christianity by country|120 countries and territories]]. Christianity remains [[Christian culture|culturally diverse]] in its [[Western Christianity|Western]] and [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern branches]], and doctrinally diverse concerning [[Justification (theology)|justification and the nature of salvation]], [[ecclesiology]], [[ordination]], and [[Christology]]. Most [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]], however, generally hold in common the belief that Jesus is [[God the Son]]{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"}}—the [[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]] [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnated]]—who [[Ministry of Jesus|ministered]], [[Passion of Jesus|suffered]], and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|died on a cross]], but [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]] for the [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of humankind; this message is called [[the gospel]], meaning the "good news". The four [[canonical gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]] and [[Gospel of John|John]] describe the [[life of Jesus]] and teachings as preserved in the early [[Christian tradition]], with the Old Testament as the gospels' respected background. Christianity [[Christianity in the 1st century|began in the 1st century]], after the death of Jesus, as a [[Second Temple Judaism|Judaic]] sect with [[Hellenistic Judaism|Hellenistic influence]] in the [[Roman Empire|Roman]] province of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]]. The [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]] of Jesus [[Spread of Christianity|spread their faith]] around the [[Eastern Mediterranean]] area, despite [[Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire|significant persecution]]. The inclusion of [[Gentile]]s led Christianity to slowly [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|separate from Judaism]] in the 2nd century. Emperor [[Constantine I]] decriminalized Christianity in the [[Roman Empire]] in 313 with the [[Edict of Milan]]. In 325, Constantine convened the [[First Council of Nicaea|Council of Nicaea]], where the [[Nicene Creed]] was adopted, and where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the state religion by around 380. The [[Church of the East]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy]] both split over differences in [[Christology]] during the 5th century, while the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] and the [[Catholic Church]] separated in the [[East–West Schism]] in 1054. [[Protestantism]] split into numerous denominations from the Catholic Church during the [[Reformation]] era (16th century). Following the [[Age of Discovery]] (15th–17th century), Christianity expanded globally via [[Christian mission|missionary work]], [[evangelism]], immigration, and trade. Christianity played [[Role of Christianity in Western society|a prominent role]] in the [[Christian ethics|development]] of [[Western culture|Western civilization]], particularly in [[Europe]] from [[Christianity in late antiquity|late antiquity]] and the [[Christianity in the Middle Ages|Middle Ages]]. The three main [[Christian denomination|branches of Christianity]] are [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] (1.3 billion people), [[Protestantism]] (800 million),{{refn|group=note|The denominations of [[Adventism]], [[Anabaptism]] ([[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]], [[River Brethren]], and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]]), [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptist]]s, [[Lutheranism]], [[Methodism]], [[Moravian Church|Moravianism/Hussites]], [[Pentecostalism]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakers|Quakerism]], [[Calvinism|Reformed Christianity]] ([[Congregational church|Congregationalists]], [[Continental Reformed Protestantism|Continental Reformed]], and [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]]), and [[Waldensians|Waldensianism]] are the main families of Protestantism. Other groups that are sometimes regarded as Protestant include [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational Christian]] congregations.{{Cite book |last=Melton |first=J. Gordon |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism |year=2005 |publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5 |page=398}}}} and [[Eastern Orthodoxy]] (300 million), while other prominent branches include [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodoxy]] (60 million) and [[Restorationism]] (35 million).{{refn|group=note|The denominations of Restorationism include the [[Catholic Apostolic Church|Irvingians]], [[The New Church (Swedenborgian)|Swedenborgians]], [[Christadelphians]], [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saints]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], [[La Luz del Mundo]], and [[Iglesia ni Cristo]].{{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=Paul W. |last2=Mittelstadt |first2=Martin William |title=What's So Liberal about the Liberal Arts?: Integrated Approaches to Christian Formation |date=27 April 2016 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-4982-3145-9 |quote=The Second Great Awakening (1790-1840) spurred a renewed interest in primitive Christianity. What is known as the Restoration Movement of the nineteenth century gave birth to an array of groups: Mormons (The Latter Day Saint Movement), the Churches of Christ, Adventists, and Jehovah's Witnesses. Though these groups demonstrate a breathtaking diversity on the continuum of Christianity they share an intense restorationist impulse.}}{{cite book |last1=Spinks |first1=Bryan D. |title=Reformation and Modern Rituals and Theologies of Baptism: From Luther to Contemporary Practices |date=2 March 2017 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-351-90583-1 |quote=However, Swedenborg claimed to receive visions and revelations of heavenly things and a 'New Church', and the new church which was founded upon his writings was a Restorationist Church. The three nineteenth-century churches are all examples of Restorationist Churches, which believed they were refounding the Apostolic Church, and preparing for the Second Coming of Christ.}}}} Smaller church communities number in the thousands. In Christianity, efforts toward unity ([[ecumenism]]) are underway.{{cite web |last1=Briggs |first1=Kenneth A. |title=Protestants and Catholics Get a Common Catechism |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1975/03/17/archives/protestants-and-catholics-get-a-common-catechism-protestants-and.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=8 July 2025 |date=17 March 1975 |quote=Forty Lutheran, Reformed and Roman Catholic theologians worked over a five‐year period to produce the statement {[[The Common Catechism]]}.}}{{cite book |last1=Chia |first1=Edmund Kee-Fook |title=World Christianity Encounters World Religions: A Summa of Interfaith Dialogue |date=23 October 2018 |publisher=Liturgical Press |isbn=978-0-8146-8447-4 |page=160 |language=en|quote=The observance was renamed [[Week of Prayer for Christian Unity|Universal Week of Prayer for Christian Unity]] in 1935. With the founding of the [[World Council of Churches]] in 1948 it became more universally adopted by the different denominations around the world, even as the dates of the observance may differ.}} In the [[Western world|West]], Christianity remains the dominant religion even with a [[Decline of Christianity in the Western world|decline in adherence]], with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. [[Christian population growth|Christianity is growing]] in Africa and [[Asia]], the world's most populous continents. Many Christians are still [[persecution of Christians|persecuted]] in some regions of the world, particularly where they are a minority, such as in the [[Middle East]], [[North Africa]], [[East Asia]], and [[South Asia]]. == Etymology == {{further|Christ (title)}} Early Jewish Christians referred to themselves as being of 'The Way' ({{langx|grc-x-koine|τῆς ὁδοῦ|tês hodoû}}), an expression possibly coming from [[Isaiah 40:3]], "prepare the way of the Lord".{{refn|group=note|It appears in the Acts of the Apostles, {{bibleverse|Acts|9:2|KJV}}, {{bibleverse|Acts|19:9|KJV}} and {{bibleverse|Acts|19:23|KJV}}. Some [[English translations of the Bible|English translations of the New Testament]] capitalize 'the Way' (e.g. the [[New King James Version]] and the [[English Standard Version]]), indicating that this was how 'the new religion seemed then to be designated'{{cite web|title=Acts 19 {{!}} Jamieson-Fausset-Brown Bible Commentary|url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/jfb//acts/19.htm |website=Bible Hub|access-date=8 October 2015}} whereas others treat the phrase as indicative—'the way',Jubilee Bible 2000 'that way'[[American King James Version]] or 'the way of the Lord'.[[Douai-Rheims Bible]] The [[Syriac language|Syriac]] version reads, "the way of God" and the [[Vulgate]] Latin version, "the way of the Lord".{{cite web|url=https://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm|title=Online Bible Study Suite {{!}} Gill, J., ''Gill's Exposition of the Bible'', commentary on Acts 19:23|access-date=8 October 2015|archive-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151025104001/http://biblehub.com/commentaries/gill/acts/19.htm|url-status=live}}}} According to [[Acts 11:26]], the term "Christian" ({{lang|grc-x-koine|Χρῑστῐᾱνός}}, {{transliteration|grc|Khrīstiānós}}), meaning "followers of Christ" and referring to Jesus' [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]], was first used in the city of [[Early centers of Christianity#Antioch|Antioch]] by the non-Jewish inhabitants there.{{Cite book|first1=E. |last1=Peterson|year=1959|chapter=Christianus|title=Frühkirche, Judentum und Gnosis|publisher=Herder, Freiburg|pages= 353–72}} The earliest recorded use of the term "Christianity/Christianism" ({{lang|grc-x-koine|Χρῑστῐᾱνισμός}}, {{transliteration|grc|Khrīstiānismós}}) was by [[Ignatius of Antioch]] around 100 [[Anno Domini|AD]].{{Sfn|Elwell|Comfort|2001|pp=266, 828}} The name Jesus comes from {{langx|grc|Ἰησοῦς}} ({{transliteration|grc|Iēsous}}), probably from {{langx|he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[Hebrew]]/[[Aramaic]]}} ({{Transliteration|he|Yēšūaʿ|}})''.'' == History == {{Main|History of Christianity}} {{For timeline}} === Early Christianity === {{Main|Early Christianity}} {{further|Historical background of the New Testament}} ==== Apostolic Age ==== {{Main|Christianity in the 1st century}} {{further|Chronology of Jesus}} [[File:PikiWiki Israel 73792 mount zion jerusalem.jpg|thumb|The [[Cenacle]] on [[Mount Zion]] in [[Jerusalem]], claimed to be the location of the [[Last Supper]] and [[Pentecost]]]] Christianity originated as a [[Jewish religious movements#Sects in the Second Temple period|Jewish movement]] in [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]] during the 1st century AD, within the context of late [[Second Temple Judaism]].{{Cite book |last=Fredriksen |first=Paula |title=[[Ancient Christianities: The First Five Hundred Years]] |date=2024 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-26497-4 |edition=1 |location=Princeton|author-link=Paula Fredriksen}}{{rp|1}}{{cite book |first=Catherine |last=Cory |title=Christian Theological Tradition |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SsZcCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA20 |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-34958-7 |at=p. 20 and forward}}{{cite book |first=Stephen |last=Benko |title=Pagan Rome and the Early Christians |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LHHxkapsiEgC&pg=PA22 |year=1984 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]]|isbn=978-0-253-34286-7 |at=p. 22 and forward}} The earliest followers of Jesus were Jews who understood his life, death and expected return through familiar [[Jewish eschatology|Jewish apocalyptic]] and [[Messiah in Judaism|messianic]] frameworks. They remained embedded in [[Judaism|Jewish religious life]] and did not initially conceive of themselves as departing from Israel or founding a new faith. Following their conviction that Jesus had been [[Resurrection of Jesus|raised from the dead]],{{rp|7}} they established a community in [[Jerusalem]] that awaited Jesus's [[Second Coming|return]] and eschatological renewal, seeking to spread this message throughout Israel and the [[Jewish diaspora]].{{Cite book |last=Fredriksen |first=Paula |title=[[When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation]] |date=2018 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24840-1 |location=New Haven London|author-link=Paula Fredriksen}}{{rp|191}}{{Cite book |last=Allison|first=Dale|title=The New Cambridge Companion to Jesus|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2024|isbn=978-1009232999|pages=13}}{{refn|group=note|Many scholars consider the Parousia in the gospels to be contingent, though with detractors.{{Cite journal |last=Ferda |first=Tucker |title=The Jerusalem Oracle Reconsidered (Mt. 23.37–39): The Grammar of Messianism and the Future Coming of Jesus |journal=Journal for the Study of the New Testament |volume=47 |issue=4}} The timing of the end in early Christian expectation is also debated.{{cite book |last= Keown |first= Mark |title= Christian Origins and the Establishment of the Early Jesus Movement |publisher= Brill |year= 2017 |page= 243}}}} Early Jewish Christianity maintained a high [[Christology]] alongside monotheism.{{cite book |last= Novenson |first= Matthew |title= Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity |year= 2020 |page= 2 |publisher= Brill |isbn= 978-9004437975}} This early community was led by the three [[Pillars of the Church]], namely [[James the Just]], [[Saint Peter|Peter]], and [[John the Apostle|John]].{{Citation |last=McGrath |first=Alister E. |author-link=Alister McGrath |year=2006 |title=Christianity: An Introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-0899-1 |page=174}} What eventually became of this earliest [[Jewish Christianity|Christ-following community]] remains unclear; they were possibly displaced, relocated, or killed when the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|Romans destroyed Jerusalem]] in 70 AD.{{rp|190}} Meanwhile, as the message about Jesus spread beyond [[Judea]] and [[Galilee]] into the broader [[Greco-Roman world]], it increasingly attracted [[Gentile]] adherents, especially among "[[God-fearer]]s": non-Jews who were attracted to Judaism and participated in [[Synagogue|synagogal worship]] without fully [[Conversion to Judaism|converting]].{{rp|8–9}} This created a challenge for the movement's [[Jewish principles of faith|Jewish religious outlook]], which insisted on close observance of the Jewish commandments. Against this backdrop, [[Paul the Apostle]], a Jew of the [[Pharisees|Pharisaic]] school{{rp|42}} who had initially persecuted the Jesus movement, became one of its most influential missionaries following his conversion, focusing on spreading the message to non-Jews in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]].{{rp|2, 8–9}} Paul argued that Gentiles could participate in the promises of Israel through exclusive devotion to the [[God in Judaism|God of Israel]], [[Pistis Christou|faith in Christ]], [[baptism]], and [[Participation in Christ|participation]] in his death and resurrection, without full adherence to the [[Torah]], including [[Circumcision controversy in early Christianity|circumcision]].{{Cite book |last=Seifrid |first=Mark A. |author-link=Mark A. Seifrid |title=Justification by Faith: The Origin and Development of a Central Pauline Theme |chapter='Justification by Faith' and The Disposition of Paul's Argument |series=[[Novum Testamentum]] |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=1992 |isbn=9004095217 |issn=0167-9732 |pages=210–211, 246–247 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KdUkuOtOw68C&pg=PA210}} This had a formative effect on the emerging [[Christians|Christian]] identity as [[Split of Christianity and Judaism|separate from Judaism]]. Over time, such developments contributed to the gradual differentiation between the Jesus movement and other Jewish communities, a process that resulted in the emergence of Christianity as a separate religion.Wylen, Stephen M., ''The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction'', Paulist Press (1995), {{ISBN|0809136104}}, pp. 190–192; Dunn, James D.G., ''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'', Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), {{ISBN|0802844987}}, pp. 33–34.; Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander, ''The Romans: From Village to Empire'', Oxford University Press (2004), {{ISBN|0195118758}}, p. 426. ==== Ante-Nicene period ==== {{Main|Christianity in the ante-Nicene period}} {{further|Great Church|Gnosticism}} [[File:Ann Arbor, University of Michigan P.Mich.inv. 6238 (Papyrus 46) fol. 142r - 2 Corinthians 11,33-12,9.jpg|thumb|A folio from [[Papyrus 46]], an early-3rd-century collection of [[Pauline epistles]]]] This formative period was followed by the early [[bishop]]s, whom Christians consider the [[apostolic succession|successors of Christ's apostles]]. From the year 150, Christian teachers began to produce theological and apologetic works aimed at defending the faith. These authors are known as the [[Church Fathers]], and the study of them is called [[patristics]]. Notable early Fathers include [[Ignatius of Antioch]], [[Polycarp]], [[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]] and [[Origen]]. During this period, there was no unified Christian movement but rather [[Diversity in early Christian theology|multiple competing sects]], which held radically different beliefs. Christian authors began using the Greek term ''hairesis'', meaning "school of thought", to describe rival communities, which gave rise to the concept of [[Heresy in Christianity|heresy]].{{rp|32–33}} In the second and third centuries, figures like [[Justin Martyr]], [[Irenaeus]], [[Tertullian]], and [[Clement of Alexandria]], often retrospectively referred to as "[[Proto-orthodox Christianity|proto-orthodox]]", insisting that there was one original apostolic teaching and that all rivals had deviated from it.{{rp|33}} Meanwhile, [[Valentinus (Gnostic)|Valentinus]], an [[Alexandria]]n teacher, developed a [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] theology in which Christ brought saving knowledge (''[[gnosis]]'') that enabled believers to be redeemed from the material world.{{rp|39–40}} [[Marcion of Sinope|Marcion]], from [[Sinop, Turkey|Sinope]], drew a distinction between high, purely good god, father of Christ, and the lower, merely "just" god of Israel, who demanded [[Korban|sacrifice]] and [[Be fruitful and multiply|procreation]].{{rp|41–42}} Marcion is also known to have assembled a collection of Christian texts, including his own [[Gospel of Marcion|gospel]], and in doing so created one of the earliest known Christian scriptural canons.{{rp|43}} Justin Martyr, from [[Nablus|Neapolis]], disagreed with both, arguing the God of the Jewish scriptures was Christ himself before his incarnation.{{rp|45}} A gradual splitting off of [[Gentile Christianity]] left [[Jewish Christians]] continuing to follow the [[Law of Moses]], including practices such as circumcision. By the fifth century, they and the [[Jewish–Christian gospels]] would be largely suppressed by the dominant sects in both Judaism and Christianity. Christianity occupied an unstable position within the Roman world. In antiquity, what moderns call "religion" was closely associated with ancestral traditions and embedded within other aspects of ethnic identity.{{rp|61}} It is possible that Gentile Christians, having rejected their native gods, were perceived by their pagan neighbors as disrupting the relationship between the divine and the community, on which civic welfare depended.{{rp|65–66}} Early examples of [[persecution of Christians]] include the [[Acts of the Apostles]], which portrays [[Saint Stephen]] as being killed by a mob in Jerusalem, while Paul writes that he himself had persecuted Christians prior to his vision of Christ.{{rp|64–66}} Additionally, [[Tacitus]] wrote that Emperor [[Nero]] blamed Christians for the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in 64 AD.{{rp|67–68}} In the following centuries, Church Fathers recorded accusations that Christians were responsible for droughts, famines, and plagues.{{rp|74}} Nevertheless, before the mid-3rd century, persecutions were often reactive, sporadic and local.{{rp|73}} This changed in 249, when the emperor [[Decius]], who ruled the empire following a long period of instability, ordered all residents of the empire (except Jews) to perform a [[Sacrifice in ancient Roman religion|sacrifice]] to the [[Roman mythology|Roman gods]].{{rp|76}} Jews had long been excused on the basis of ancestral custom in ways that Christians, lacking any such established tradition, were not.{{rp|65}} The [[Diocletianic Persecution]] beginning in 303 was particularly severe; Christians were accused of attracting demons that disrupted traditional cult practices and threatened public order, and were subjected to confiscations, destruction of buildings, expulsions, imprisonment, and demands for sacrifice.{{rp|79–81}} The situation changed under [[Constantine the Great|Constantine]] (r. 306–337), who granted imperial support to Christianity, though under his rule and that of his successors, forms deemed heretical were suppressed.{{rp|202–204}} === Spread in the Roman Empire === {{further|Christianity in late antiquity}} {{see also|Historiography of the Christianization of the Roman Empire}} [[File:Mor-mattai.png|thumb|The [[Mar Mattai Monastery|Monastery of St. Matthew]], located atop [[Mount Alfaf]] in northern [[Iraq]], is recognized as one of the oldest Christian monasteries in existence.{{cite web|url=https://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140303004713/https://cso-france.voila.net/Monastere_Saint_Mattai.htm|title=Monastère de Mor Mattai – Mossul – Irak|archive-date=3 March 2014}}]] Christianity spread to [[Aramaic]]-speaking peoples along the [[Mediterranean coast]] and also to the inland parts of the [[Roman Empire]] and beyond that into the [[Parthian Empire]] and the later [[Sasanian Empire]], including [[Mesopotamia]], which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires.Michael Whitby, et al. eds. ''Christian Persecution, Martyrdom and Orthodoxy'' (2006) [https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy online edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110624034855/https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy|date=24 June 2011}} The presence of Christianity in Africa began in the middle of the 1st century in Egypt and by the end of the 2nd century in the region around [[Carthage]]. [[Mark the Evangelist]] is claimed to have started the [[Church of Alexandria]] in about 43 AD; various later churches claim this as their own legacy, including the [[Coptic Orthodox Church]].[[Eusebius of Caesarea]], the author of ''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' in the 4th century, states that St. Mark came to Egypt in the first or third year of the reign of Emperor Claudius, i.e. 41 or 43 AD. "Two Thousand years of Coptic Christianity" Otto F.A. Meinardus p. 28.{{cite web |url=https://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |title=A History of the Christian Church in Western North Africa |first=Neil |last=Lettinga |website=African Christianity|publisher=Bethel University|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010730174045/https://www.bethel.edu/~letnie/AfricanChristianity/WesternNorthAfricaHomepage.html |archive-date=30 July 2001 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web|url=https://www.allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |title=Allaboutreligion.org |publisher=Allaboutreligion.org |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101116113632/https://allaboutreligion.org/history-of-christianity-in-africa-faq.htm |archive-date=16 November 2010}} Important Africans who influenced the early development of Christianity include [[Tertullian]], [[Clement of Alexandria]], [[Origen of Alexandria]], [[Cyprian]], [[Athanasius]], and [[Augustine of Hippo]]. [[File:Khor Virap Monastery and Mount Ararat, Armenia.jpg|thumb|The 7th-century [[Khor Virap]] monastery in the shadow of [[Mount Ararat]]; [[Armenia]] was the first state to adopt Christianity as the state religion in the early 4th century AD.]] [[Tiridates III of Armenia|King Tiridates III]] made Christianity the [[state religion]] in [[Armenia]] in the early 4th century, making Armenia the first officially Christian state.{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Armenia|access-date=8 October 2011}}{{cite book |last=Brunner |first=Borgna |title=Time Almanac with Information Please 2007|page=[https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2007w00brun/page/685 685] |isbn=978-1-933405-49-0 |year=2006 |publisher=Time Home Entertainment |location=New York|url=https://archive.org/details/timealmanac2007w00brun/page/685}} It was not an entirely new religion in Armenia, having penetrated into the country from at least the third century, but it may have been present even earlier.{{cite journal|last=van Lint|first=Theo Maarten |title=The Formation of Armenian Identity in the First Millennium |journal=Church History and Religious Culture|year=2009 |volume=89 |issue=1/3 |page=269}} [[Constantine the Great|Constantine I]] was exposed to Christianity in his youth, and throughout his life his support for the religion grew, culminating in baptism on his deathbed.{{cite book |title= Constantinople: Capital of Byzantium |last=Harris |first=Jonathan |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |edition=2nd |year=2017 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=b-ECDgAAQBAJ |page=38 |isbn= 978-1-4742-5467-0}} During his reign, state-sanctioned persecution of Christians was ended with the [[Edict of Serdica|Edict of Toleration]] in 311 and the [[Edict of Milan]] in 313. At that point, Christianity was still a minority belief, comprising perhaps only 5% of the Roman population.{{Cite book|title=Christianity: A Global History|last=Chidester|first=David|publisher=HarperOne|year=2000|page=91}} Influenced by his adviser [[Mardonius (philosopher)|Mardonius]], Constantine's nephew [[Julian (emperor)|Julian]] unsuccessfully tried to suppress Christianity.{{harvnb|Ricciotti|1999}} On 27 February 380, [[Theodosius I]], [[Gratian]], and [[Valentinian II]] issued the [[Edict of Thessalonica]] establishing [[Nicene Christianity]] as the [[State church of the Roman Empire]].[https://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html Theodosian Code XVI.i.2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814182634/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/source/theodcodeXVI.html |date=14 August 2014 }}, in: Bettenson. ''Documents of the Christian Church''. p. 31. As soon as it became connected to the state, Christianity grew wealthy; the Church solicited donations from the rich and could now own land.{{Cite book |title=Empires in World History: Power and the Politics of Difference |last1=Burbank |first1=Jane |last2=Copper |first2=Frederick|publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2010 |page=64}} Constantine was also instrumental in the convocation of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] in 325, which sought to address [[Arianism]] and formulated the Nicene Creed, which is still used by in [[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]], and many other [[Protestant]] churches.{{cite book |last1=McTavish |first1=T. J. |title=A Theological Miscellany: 160 Pages of Odd, Merry, Essentially Inessential Facts, Figures, and Tidbits about Christianity |year=2010 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-1-4185-5281-7 |quote=The Nicene Creed, as used in the churches of the West (Anglican, Catholic, Lutheran, and others), contains the statement, "We believe [''or'' I believe] in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the giver of life, who proceeds from the Father and the Son."}} Nicaea was the first of a series of [[ecumenical council]]s, which formally defined critical elements of the theology of the Church, notably concerning [[Christology]].McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 37ff. The [[Church of the East]] did not accept the third and following ecumenical councils and is still separate today by its successors ([[Assyrian Church of the East]]).{{cite web |last1=Gao |first1=Ronnie Chuang-Rang |last2=Sawatsky |first2=Kevin |date=7 February 2023 |title=Motivations in Faith-Based Organizations |url=https://hc.edu/center-for-christianity-in-business/2023/02/07/motivations-in-faith-based-organizations/ |access-date=29 August 2024 |publisher=[[Houston Christian University]] |quote=For example, Christianity comprises six major groups: Church of the East, Oriental Orthodoxy, Eastern Orthodoxy, Roman Catholicism, Protestantism, and Restorationism. |archive-date=22 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231122190615/https://hc.edu/center-for-christianity-in-business/2023/02/07/motivations-in-faith-based-organizations/ |url-status=live }} Gao and Sawatsky refer to [[Robert S. Ellwood|Ellwood, Robert S.]], ''The Encyclopedia of World Religions'', New York: Infobase Publishing (2008) as their source for this taxonomy. In terms of prosperity and cultural life, the [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and [[Christian civilization]],{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=42}}. and [[Constantinople]] remained the leading city of the [[Christian world]] in size, wealth, and culture.{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|p=47}}. [[Greek scholars in the Renaissance|There was a renewed interest in classical Greek philosophy]], as well as an increase in literary output in vernacular Greek.{{harvnb|Browning|1992|pp=198–208}}. Byzantine art and literature held a preeminent place in Europe, and the cultural impact of [[Byzantine art]] on the West during this period was enormous and of long-lasting significance.{{harvnb|Browning|1992|p=218}}. The later rise of [[Islam]] in North Africa reduced the size and numbers of Christian congregations, leaving in large numbers only the [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Church]] in Egypt, the [[Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church]] in the Horn of Africa and the [[Christianity in Sudan|Nubian Church]] in the Sudan (Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia). === Middle Ages === {{Main|Christianity in the Middle Ages}} ==== Early Middle Ages ==== With the decline and [[Fall of the Western Roman Empire|fall of the Roman Empire in the West]], the [[papacy]] became a political player, first visible in [[Pope Leo I|Pope Leo]]'s diplomatic dealings with [[Attila the Hun|Huns]] and [[Vandals]]. The church also entered into a long period of missionary activity and expansion among the various tribes. While [[Arianism|Arianists]] instituted the death penalty for practicing pagans (see the [[Massacre of Verden]], for example), [[Catholicism]] also spread among the [[Hungarians]], the [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]],{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=238–242}} the [[Celts|Celtic]], the [[Baltic peoples|Baltic]] and some [[Slavic peoples]].{{harvnb|Chadwick|1995|pp=60, 130}} Around 500, Christianity was thoroughly integrated into Byzantine and [[Ostrogothic Kingdom|Kingdom of Italy]] culture{{Cite book |last=Harari |first=Yuval Noah |title=Sapiens: A Brief History of Humankind |publisher=Penguin Random House |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-09-959008-8 |location=London |pages=243, 247 |translator-last=Harari |translator-first=Yuval Noah |author-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-last2=Purcell |translator-first2=John |translator-last3=Watzman |translator-first3=Haim |translator-link=Yuval Noah Harari |translator-link3=Haim Watzman}} and [[Benedict of Nursia]] set out [[Rule of Saint Benedict|his Monastic Rule]], establishing a system of regulations for the foundation and running of [[monasteries]]. [[Monasticism]] became a powerful force throughout Europe, and gave rise to many early centers of learning, most famously in [[Ireland]], [[Scotland]], and [[Gaul]], contributing to the [[Carolingian Renaissance]] of the 9th century. [[File:Krist spred 3.jpg|thumb|[[Christendom]] by AD 600 after its [[Spread of Christianity|spread to Africa and Europe]] from the Middle East]] In the 7th century, [[Muslim conquest of Syria|Muslims conquered Syria]] (including [[Jerusalem]]), North Africa, and Spain, converting some of the Christian population to [[Islam]], including some of the [[Christianity in pre-Islamic Arabia|Christian populations in pre-Islamic Arabia]], and placing the rest under a separate [[Dhimmi|legal status]].{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W0EbKFRxrT4C |title=The Jews of Islam |date=1984 |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |isbn=978-0-691-00807-3 |pages=10, 20}}Cl. Cahen in [[Encyclopedia of Islam]] – Jizya Part of the Muslims' success was due to the exhaustion of the Byzantine Empire in its decades long conflict with [[Persia]].{{sfn|Mullin|2008|p=88}} Beginning in the 8th century, with the rise of [[Carolingian]] leaders, the Papacy sought greater political support in the [[Frankish Kingdom]].{{sfn|Mullin|2008|pp=93–94}} The Middle Ages brought about major changes within the church.''Religions in Global Society''. p. 146, Peter Beyer, 2006Cambridge University Historical Series, ''An Essay on Western Civilization in Its Economic Aspects'', p. 40: Hebraism, like Hellenism, has been an all-important factor in the development of Western Civilization; Judaism, as the precursor of Christianity, has indirectly had had much to do with shaping the ideals and morality of western nations since the christian era.Caltron J.H Hayas, ''Christianity and Western Civilization'' (1953), Stanford University Press, p. 2: "That certain distinctive features of our Western civilization—the civilization of western Europe and of America—have been shaped chiefly by Judaeo – Graeco – Christianity, Catholic and Protestant."Fred Reinhard Dallmayr, ''Dialogue Among Civilizations: Some Exemplary Voices'' (2004), p. 22: Western civilization is also sometimes described as "Christian" or "Judaeo- Christian" civilization. [[Pope Gregory the Great]] dramatically reformed the [[Ecclesiastical polity|ecclesiastical structure]] and administration.{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=244–47}} In the early 8th century, [[iconoclasm]] became a divisive issue, when it was sponsored by the [[Byzantium|Byzantine]] emperors. The [[Second Council of Nicaea|Second Ecumenical Council of Nicaea]] (787) finally pronounced in favor of icons.{{harvnb|González|1984|p=260}} In the early 10th century, Western Christian monasticism was further rejuvenated through the leadership of the great Benedictine monastery of [[Cluny Abbey|Cluny]].{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=278–281}} ==== High and Late Middle Ages ==== [[File:Jesus-Christ-from-Hagia-Sophia.jpg|thumb|upright|An example of Byzantine pictorial art, the [[Deësis]] mosaic at the [[Hagia Sophia#Deësis mosaic|Hagia Sophia]] in [[Constantinople]]]] [[File:Passages d'outremer Fr5594, fol. 19r, Concile de Clermont.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pope Urban II]] at the [[Council of Clermont]], where he preached the [[First Crusade]]. Illustration by [[Jean Colombe]] from the ''[[Passages d'outremer]]'', {{c.|1490|lk=no}}.]] In the West, from the 11th century onward, some older cathedral schools [[Medieval university|became universities]] (see, for example, [[University of Oxford]], [[University of Paris]] and [[University of Bologna]]). Previously, higher education had been the domain of Christian [[cathedral school]]s or [[monastic school]]s (''Scholae monasticae''), led by [[monk]]s and [[nun]]s. Evidence of such schools dates back to the 6th century AD.Riché, Pierre (1978): "Education and Culture in the Barbarian West: From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, {{ISBN|0872493768}}, pp. 126–127, 282–298 These new universities expanded the curriculum to include academic programs for clerics, lawyers, civil servants, and physicians.Rudy, ''The Universities of Europe, 1100–1914'', p. 40 The university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting.{{cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |year=1999 |author-link=:fr:Jacques Verger |title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |edition=1st |language=fr |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |access-date=17 June 2014 |archive-date=13 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200313042832/https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W/Culture_enseignement_et_soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_en_Occident_aux_XIIe_et_XIIIe_si%C3%A8cles |url-status=live }}Verger, Jacques. "The Universities and Scholasticism", in The New Cambridge Medieval History: Volume V c. 1198–c. 1300. Cambridge University Press, 2007, 257.Rüegg, Walter: "Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: ''A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages'', Cambridge University Press, 1992, {{ISBN|0521361052}}, pp. xix–xx Accompanying the rise of the "new towns" throughout Europe, [[mendicant order]]s were founded, bringing the [[Consecrated life (Catholic Church)|consecrated religious life]] out of the monastery and into the new urban setting. The two principal mendicant movements were the [[Franciscans]]{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=303–307, 310ff., 384–386}} and the [[Dominican Order|Dominicans]],{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=305, 310ff., 316ff}} founded by [[Francis of Assisi]] and [[Saint Dominic|Dominic]], respectively. Both orders made significant contributions to the development of the great universities of Europe. Another new order was the [[Cistercians]], whose large, isolated monasteries spearheaded the settlement of former wilderness areas. In this period, church building and ecclesiastical architecture reached new heights, culminating in the orders of [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] and [[Gothic architecture]] and the building of the great European cathedrals.{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=321–323, 365ff}} [[Christian nationalism]] emerged during this era in which Christians felt the desire to recover lands in which Christianity had historically flourished.{{cite book |title=Parole de l'Orient |volume=30 |year=2005 |publisher=Université Saint-Esprit |page=488}} From 1095 under the pontificate of [[Urban II]], the [[First Crusade]] was launched.{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=292–300}} These were a series of military campaigns in the [[Holy Land]] and elsewhere, initiated in response to pleas from the Byzantine Emperor [[Alexios I]] for aid against [[Turkish people|Turkish]] expansion. The Crusades ultimately failed to stifle Islamic aggression and even contributed to Christian enmity with the sacking of [[Constantinople]] during the [[Fourth Crusade]].Riley-Smith. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. The Christian Church experienced internal conflict between the 7th and 13th centuries that resulted in a [[East-West Schism|schism]] between the [[Latin Church]] of [[Western Christianity]] branch, the now-Catholic Church, and an [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]], largely Greek, branch (the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]]). The two sides disagreed on a number of administrative, liturgical and doctrinal issues, most prominently [[Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy]].{{cite web|url=https://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx|title = The Great Schism: The Estrangement of Eastern and Western Christendom|publisher=Orthodox Information Centre|access-date = 26 May 2007|archive-date = 29 June 2007|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070629153450/http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/greatschism.aspx|url-status = dead}}Duffy, ''Saints and Sinners'' (1997), p. 91 The [[Second Council of Lyon]] (1274) and the [[Council of Florence]] (1439) attempted to reunite the churches, but in both cases, the Eastern Orthodox refused to implement the decisions, and the two principal churches remain in schism to the present day. However, the Catholic Church has achieved union with various [[Eastern Catholic Churches|smaller eastern churches]]. In the thirteenth century, a new emphasis on Jesus' suffering, exemplified by the Franciscans' preaching, had the consequence of turning worshippers' attention towards Jews, on whom [[Jewish deicide|Christians had placed the blame for Jesus' death]]. Christianity's limited tolerance of Jews was not new—Augustine of Hippo said that Jews should not be allowed to enjoy the citizenship that Christians took for granted—but the growing antipathy towards Jews was a factor that led to [[Edict of Expulsion|the expulsion of Jews from England in 1290]], the first of many such expulsions in Europe.{{cite book |last=MacCulloch |first=Diarmaid |title=Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years |publisher=Penguin |year=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7x4m20TRYzQC |isbn=978-1-101-18999-3}}{{cite book |last=Telushkin |first=Joseph |title=Jewish Literacy |publisher=HarperCollins |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishliteracy00telu/page/192 192–193] |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-688-08506-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishliteracy00telu/page/192}} Beginning around 1184, following the crusade against [[Cathars|Cathar]] heresy,{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=300, 304–305}} various institutions, broadly referred to as the [[Inquisition]], were established with the aim of suppressing [[heresy]] and securing religious and doctrinal unity within Christianity through [[religious conversion|conversion]] and prosecution.{{harvnb|González|1984|pp=310, 383, 385, 391}} === Modern era === {{Main|Christianity in the modern era}} ==== Reformation and response ==== {{Main|Reformation|Counter-Reformation}} {{See also|European wars of religion|Renaissance Papacy}} [[File:Luther 95 Thesen.png|thumb|upright|[[Martin Luther]] initiated the [[Reformation]] with his ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' in 1517.]] The 15th-century [[Renaissance]] brought about a renewed interest in ancient and classical learning. During the [[Reformation]], [[Martin Luther]] posted the ''[[Ninety-five Theses]]'' 1517 against the sale of [[indulgences]].Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 39, 55–61. Printed copies soon spread throughout Europe. In 1521 the [[Edict of Worms]] condemned and excommunicated Luther and his followers, resulting in the schism of the [[Western Christianity|Western Christendom]] into several branches.Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. p. 7. Other reformers like [[Huldrych Zwingli|Zwingli]], [[Johannes Oecolampadius|Oecolampadius]], [[John Calvin|Calvin]], [[John Knox|Knox]], and [[Jacobus Arminius|Arminius]] further criticized Catholic teaching and worship. These challenges developed into the movement called [[Protestantism]], which repudiated the [[papal primacy|primacy of the pope]], the role of tradition, the [[Catholic sacraments|seven sacraments]], and other doctrines and practices. The [[English Reformation|Reformation in England]] began in 1534, when King [[Henry VIII]] had himself [[Act of Supremacy|declared head]] of the [[Church of England]]. Beginning in 1536, the monasteries throughout England, Wales and Ireland were [[Dissolution of the monasteries|dissolved]].Schama. ''A History of Britain''. pp. 306–310. [[Thomas Müntzer]], [[Andreas Karlstadt]] and other theologians perceived both the Catholic Church and the confessions of the [[Magisterial Reformation]] as corrupted. Their activity brought about the [[Radical Reformation]], which gave birth to various [[Anabaptism|Anabaptist]] denominations. [[File:Michelangelo's Pieta 5450 cropncleaned edit.jpg|thumb|[[Michelangelo]]'s 1498–99 ''[[Michelangelo's Pietà|Pietà]]'' in [[St. Peter's Basilica]]; the Catholic Church was among the patronages of the [[Renaissance]].National Geographic, 254.Jensen, De Lamar (1992), ''Renaissance Europe'', {{ISBN|0395889472}}{{Cite book|last=Levey|first=Michael|title=Early Renaissance|publisher=Penguin |year=1967}}]] Partly in response to the Protestant Reformation, the Catholic Church engaged in a substantial process of reform and renewal, known as the [[Counter-Reformation]] or Catholic Reform.{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|pp=242–244}} The [[Council of Trent]] clarified and reasserted Catholic doctrine. During the following centuries, competition between Catholicism and Protestantism became deeply entangled with political struggles among European states.Simon. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. pp. 109–120. Meanwhile, the discovery of America by [[Christopher Columbus]] in 1492 brought about a new wave of missionary activity. Partly from missionary zeal, but under the impetus of [[Colonialism|colonial expansion]] by the European powers, Christianity spread to the Americas, Oceania, East Asia and sub-Saharan Africa. Throughout Europe, the division caused by the Reformation led to outbreaks of [[religious violence]] and the establishment of separate state churches in Europe. [[Lutheranism]] spread into the northern, central, and eastern parts of present-day Germany, [[Livonia]], and Scandinavia. [[Anglicanism]] was established in England in 1534. [[Calvinism]] and its varieties, such as [[Presbyterianism]], were introduced in Scotland, the Netherlands, Hungary, Switzerland, and France. [[Arminianism]] gained followers in the Netherlands and [[Frisia]]. Ultimately, these differences led to the outbreak of [[religious war|conflicts]] in which religion played a key factor. The [[Thirty Years' War]], the [[English Civil War]], and the [[French Wars of Religion]] are prominent examples. These events intensified the [[Christian debate on persecution and toleration]].A general overview about the English discussion is given in Coffey, ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''. In the revival of neoplatonism [[Renaissance humanism|Renaissance humanists]] did not reject Christianity; quite the contrary, many of the greatest works of the [[Renaissance]] were devoted to it, and the Catholic Church patronized many works of [[Renaissance art]].Open University, ''[https://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm Looking at the Renaissance: Religious Context in the Renaissance] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171031153119/http://www.open.ac.uk/Arts/renaissance2/religion.htm |date=31 October 2017 }}'' (Retrieved 10 May 2007) Much, if not most, of the new art was commissioned by or in dedication to the Church. Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].Some scholars and historians attribute Christianity to having contributed to the rise of the Scientific Revolution: * {{cite web |last1=Harrison |first1=Peter |date=8 May 2012 |title=Christianity and the rise of western science |url=https://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208161915/https://www.abc.net.au/religion/articles/2012/05/08/3498202.htm |archive-date=2014-02-08 |access-date=28 August 2014 |website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}} * {{citation |last=Noll |first=Mark |title=Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the "Warfare Between Science and Theology" |page=4 |url=https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf |access-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150322013257/https://biologos.org/uploads/projects/noll_scholarly_essay2.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2015 |url-status=dead |publisher=The Biologos Foundation |author-link=Mark Noll}} * {{Citation |last1=Lindberg |first1=David C. |title=God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science |pages=5, 12 |year=1986 |chapter=Introduction |place=Berkeley and Los Angeles |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-05538-4 |last2=Numbers |first2=Ronald L. |author-link=David C. Lindberg |author2-link=Ronald L. Numbers}} * {{cite book |last=Gilley |first=Sheridan |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities c. 1815 – c. 1914 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |others=Brian Stanley |year=2006 |isbn=0-521-81456-1 |page=164}} * Lindberg, David. (1992). ''The Beginnings of Western Science''. University of Chicago Press. p. 204. Many well-known historical figures who influenced [[Western science]] considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]],''Pro forma'' candidate to Prince-Bishop of Warmia, cf. Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], 1969, p. 11. [[Galileo Galilei]],{{cite book |last=Sharratt |first=Michael |year=1994 |title=Galileo: Decisive Innovator |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-56671-1|pages=17, 213}} [[Johannes Kepler]],"Because he would not accept the Formula of Concord without some reservations, he was excommunicated from the Lutheran communion. Because he remained faithful to his Lutheranism throughout his life, he experienced constant suspicion from Catholics." John L. Treloar, "Biography of Kepler shows man of rare integrity. Astronomer saw science and spirituality as one." ''National Catholic Reporter'', 8 October 2004, p. 2a. A review of James A. Connor ''Kepler's Witch: An Astronomer's Discovery of Cosmic Order amid Religious War, Political Intrigue and Heresy Trial of His Mother'', Harper San Francisco. [[Isaac Newton]][[Richard S. Westfall]] – [[Indiana University]] {{cite book |url=https://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html |title=The Galileo Project |publisher=[[Rice University]] |access-date=5 July 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140818061206/https://galileo.rice.edu/Catalog/NewFiles/newton.html |archive-date=2014-08-18}} and [[Robert Boyle]].{{cite web |url=https://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture |title=The Boyle Lecture |work=St. Marylebow Church |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=22 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222051144/http://www.stmarylebow.co.uk/?Boyle_Lecture |url-status=dead}} ==== Post-Enlightenment ==== [[File:Madonna and Child, Kakure Kirishitan.jpg|thumb|A depiction of [[Madonna and Child]] in a 19th-century [[Kakure Kirishitan]] [[Ukiyo-e|Japanese woodcut]]]] In the era known as the [[Great Divergence]], when in the West, the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and the [[Scientific Revolution]] brought about great societal changes, Christianity was confronted with various forms of [[skepticism]] and with certain modern [[Ideology|political ideologies]], such as versions of [[socialism]] and [[liberalism]].{{cite book|last=Novak|first=Michael|title=Catholic social thought and liberal institutions: Freedom with justice|year=1988|publisher=Transaction|isbn=978-0-88738-763-0|page=63|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7pb1GDmxA1UC&pg=PA63}} Events ranged from mere [[anti-clericalism]] to violent outbursts against Christianity, such as the [[dechristianisation of France during the French Revolution|dechristianization of France during the French Revolution]],Mortimer Chambers, ''The Western Experience'' (vol. 2) chapter 21. the [[Spanish Civil War]], and certain [[Marxism|Marxist]] movements, especially [[Russian Revolution (1917)|the Russian Revolution]] and the [[persecution of Christians in the Soviet Union]] under [[state atheism]].''Religion and the State in Russia and China: Suppression, Survival, and Revival'', by Christopher Marsh, p. 47. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2011.''Inside Central Asia: A Political and Cultural History'', by Dilip Hiro. Penguin, 2009.{{cite book|last=Adappur|first=Abraham|title=Religion and the Cultural Crisis in India and the West|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=44DYAAAAMAAJ|year=2000|publisher=Intercultural Publications|isbn=978-8185574479|quote=Forced Conversion under Atheistic Regimes: It might be added that the most modern example of forced "conversions" came not from any theocratic state, but from a professedly atheist government—that of the Soviet Union under the Communists.}}Geoffrey Blainey 2011). ''A Short History of Christianity''; Viking; p. 494 Especially pressing in Europe was the formation of [[nation states]] after the [[Napoleonic era]]. In all European countries, different Christian denominations found themselves in competition to greater or lesser extents with each other and with the state. Variables were the relative sizes of the denominations and the religious, political, and ideological orientation of the states. Urs Altermatt of the [[University of Fribourg]], looking specifically at Catholicism in Europe, identifies four models for the European nations. In traditionally Catholic-majority countries such as Belgium, Spain, and Austria, to some extent, religious and national communities are more or less identical. Cultural symbiosis and separation are found in Poland, the Republic of Ireland, and Switzerland, all countries with competing denominations. Competition is found in Germany, the Netherlands, and again Switzerland, all countries with minority Catholic populations, which to a greater or lesser extent identified with the nation. Finally, separation between religion (again, specifically Catholicism) and the state is found to a great degree in France and Italy, countries where the state actively opposed itself to the authority of the Catholic Church.{{cite book|last=Altermatt|first=Urs|title=Religion und Nation: Katholizismen im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhundert|year=2007|publisher=[[Kohlhammer Verlag]]|isbn=978-3-17-019977-4|pages=15–34|editor-first=Urs |editor-last=Altermatt |editor-first2=Franziska |editor-last2=Metzger|language=de|chapter=Katholizismus und Nation: Vier Modelle in europäisch-vergleichender Perspektive}} The combined factors of the formation of nation states and [[ultramontanism]], especially in Germany and the Netherlands, but also in England to a much lesser extent,{{cite book |last=Heimann |first=Mary |title=Catholic Devotion in Victorian England |year=1995 |publisher=Clarendon |isbn=978-0-19-820597-5 |pages=165–173}} often forced Catholic churches, organizations, and believers to choose between the national demands of the state and the authority of the Church, specifically the papacy. This conflict came to a head in the [[First Vatican Council]], and in Germany would lead directly to the ''[[Kulturkampf]]''.''The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History'' Helmut Walser Smith, p. 360, OUP Oxford, 2011 [[File:Consecration of new pastors.jpg|thumb|[[Ordination]] of new pastors in [[Cameroon]], 2014]] Christian commitment in Europe dropped as modernity and secularism came into their own,{{cite news | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | work=BBC News | title=Religion may become extinct in nine nations, study says | date=22 March 2011 | archive-date=22 April 2018 | access-date=20 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422050308/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12811197 | url-status=live }} particularly in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Estonia]],{{cite web |url=https://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |script-title=ja:図録▽世界各国の宗教 |publisher=.ttcn.ne.jp |language=ja |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=18 August 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818064540/http://www2.ttcn.ne.jp/~honkawa/9460.html |url-status=dead}} while religious commitments in America have been generally high in comparison to Europe. Changes in worldwide Christianity over the last century have been significant, since 1900, Christianity has spread rapidly in the [[Global South]] and Third World countries.{{cite book |last=Jenkins |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Jenkins |year=2011 |title=The Next Christendom: The Coming of Global Christianity |chapter=The Rise of the New Christianity |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rPBoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=101–133 |isbn=978-0-19-976746-5}} The late 20th century has shown the shift of Christian adherence to the [[Third World]] and the Southern Hemisphere in general,{{cite book |page=2 |title=Christianity as a World Religion |author-last1=Kim |author-first1=Sebastian |author-last2=Kim|author-link=Sebastian Kim |author-first2=Kirsteen |author-link2=Kirsteen Kim |publisher=Continuum|location=London |year=2008}}{{cite book |first=Jehu |last=Hanciles |title=Beyond Christendom: Globalization, African Migration, and the Transformation of the West |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmCDAwAAQBAJ |year=2008 |publisher=Orbis |isbn=978-1-60833-103-1}} with the West no longer the chief standard bearer of Christianity. Approximately 7 to 10% of [[Arabs]] are [[Arab Christians and Arabic-speaking Christians|Christians]],{{cite book |last=Fargues|first=Philippe |title=Christian Communities in the Middle East |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |chapter=A Demographic Perspective |editor1-last=Pacini |editor1-first=Andrea}} most prevalent in Egypt, [[Syria]] and [[Lebanon]].{{cite web |last1=Johnson |first1=Todd |title=Christianity in the Middle East |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/christianity-in-the-middle-east/ |website=[[Gordon–Conwell Theological Seminary]] |access-date=13 December 2024 |date=26 February 2020 |archive-date=13 December 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20241213144541/https://www.gordonconwell.edu/blog/christianity-in-the-middle-east/ |url-status=live }} == Beliefs == While Christians worldwide share basic convictions, there are differences of interpretations and opinions of the [[Bible]] and [[sacred tradition]]s on which Christianity is based.Olson, ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''. Christianity encompasses various movements of [[Christian theology]], the main ones being conservative [[Christian fundamentalism|fundamentalist]] or [[Moderate Christianity|moderate]], [[Liberal Christianity|liberal]] and [[Progressive Christianity|progressive]].Jennifer McBride, ''The Church for the World: A Theology of Public Witness'', Oxford University Press USA, USA, 2014, p. 49 === Creeds === {{Main|Christian creed|List of Christian creeds}} {{stack|{{Wikisource|Apostles' Creed}} {{Wikisource|Nicene Creed}}}} [[File:Nicaea icon.jpg|thumb|An [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern Christian]] icon depicting [[Constantine the Great|Emperor Constantine]] and the Fathers of the [[First Council of Nicaea]] (325) as holding the Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381]] Concise doctrinal statements or confessions of religious beliefs are known as [[creeds]]. They began as baptismal formulae and were later expanded during the [[Christology|Christological]] controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries to become statements of faith. "[[Jesus is Lord]]" is the earliest creed of Christianity and continues to be used, as with the [[World Council of Churches]].{{Cite book |last=Tayviah |first=Frederick K. D. |title=Why Do Bad Things Keep on Happening? |year=1995 |publisher=CSS Publishing |isbn=978-1-55673-979-8 |page=29}} The [[Apostles' Creed]] is the most widely accepted statement of the articles of Christian faith. It is used by a number of [[List of Christian denominations|Christian denominations]] for both [[liturgy|liturgical]] and [[catechesis|catechetical]] purposes, most visibly by liturgical churches of [[Western Christian]] tradition, including the [[Latin Church]] of the [[Catholic Church]], [[Lutheranism]], [[Anglicanism]], and [[Western Rite Orthodoxy]]. It is also used by [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]], [[Methodism|Methodists]], and [[Congregational church|Congregationalists]]. This particular creed was developed between the 2nd and 9th centuries. Its central doctrines are those of the [[Trinity]] and [[God in Christianity|God]] the [[Creator deity|Creator]]. Each of the doctrines found in this creed can be traced to statements current in the [[Apostolic Age|apostolic period]]. The creed was apparently used as a summary of Christian doctrine for baptismal candidates in the churches of Rome.Pelikan/Hotchkiss, ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''. Its points include: * Belief in [[God the Father]], [[Jesus Christ]] as the [[God the Son|Son of God]],{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Christianity | Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, Symbols, Types, & Facts | Britannica |entry=Christianity |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity |last=Jan Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |date=13 August 2022 |quote=...there is a core of ideas that all New Testament scholars and believers would agree are central to ancient Christian beliefs. One British scholar, James G. Dunn, for example, says they would all agree that “the Risen Jesus is the Ascended Lord.” That is to say, there would have been no faith tradition and no scriptures had not the early believers thought that Jesus was “Risen,” raised from the dead, and, “Ascended,” somehow above the ordinary plane of mortal and temporal experience. |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101193717/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Young |first=Frances M. |author-link=Frances Young |title=The Cambridge History of Christianity |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-139-05483-6 |editor1-last=Mitchell |editor1-first=M. |volume=1 |pages=1–34 |chapter=Prelude: Jesus Christ, foundation of Christianity |doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.002 |quote=The death of Jesus Christ by crucifixion, together with his resurrection from the dead, lies at the heart of Christianity. |editor2-last=Young |editor2-first=F.}}{{Cite web |year=2005 |title=Christianity - The Oxford Dictionary of Phrase and Fable |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095610483 |access-date=6 August 2024 |website=Oxford Reference |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |quote=The religion based on the person and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, or its beliefs and practices. |archive-date=7 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240907073910/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095610483 |url-status=live }}{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"}} and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] * The [[crucifixion of Jesus|death]], [[Harrowing of Hell|descent into hell]], [[resurrection of Jesus|resurrection]] and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] of Christ * The holiness of the [[Christian Church|Church]] and the [[communion of saints]] * Christ's [[second coming]], the [[Last Judgment|Day of Judgement]] and [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] of the faithful The [[Nicene Creed]] was formulated, largely in response to [[Arianism]], at the Councils of [[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]] and [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]] in 325 and 381 respectively,{{Cite web |date=February 2005 |title="We Believe in One God....": The Nicene Creed and Mass |url=https://www.cuf.org/2005/02/we-believe-in-one-god-the-nicene-creed-at-mass/ |url-access=registration |access-date=16 June 2014 |publisher=Catholics United for the Fath |archive-date=19 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140819224429/https://www.cuf.org/2005/02/we-believe-in-one-god-the-nicene-creed-at-mass/ |url-status=dead }}''Encyclopedia of Religion'', "Arianism". and ratified as the universal creed of [[Christendom]] by the [[First Council of Ephesus]] in 431.''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', [https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm "Council of Ephesus"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220718154429/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/05491a.htm |date=18 July 2022 }}. The [[Chalcedonian Definition]], or Creed of Chalcedon, developed at the [[Council of Chalcedon]] in 451,Christian History Institute, {{usurped|1={{Deprecated archive|url=https://archive.today/20080106201425/https://chi.gospelcom.net/DAILYF/2003/10/daily-10-08-2003.shtml|title=''First Meeting of the Council of Chalcedon''}}}}. though rejected by the [[Oriental Orthodox]],{{Cite journal |last=Peter Theodore Farrington |date=February 2006 |title=The Oriental Orthodox Rejection of Chalcedon |url=https://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |journal=Glastonbury Review |issue=113 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080619122112/https://www.britishorthodox.org/113e.php |archive-date=19 June 2008}} taught Christ "to be acknowledged in two natures, inconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably": one divine and one human, and that both natures, while perfect in themselves, are nevertheless also [[Hypostatic union|perfectly united into one person]].Pope Leo I, [https://www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen2.htm ''Letter to Flavian''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220620231801/http://www.dailycatholic.org/history/4ecumen2.htm |date=20 June 2022 }} The [[Athanasian Creed]], received in the Western Church as having the same status as the Nicene and Chalcedonian, says: "We worship one God in Trinity, and Trinity in Unity; neither confounding the Persons nor dividing the [[Consubstantiality|Substance]]".''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02033b.htm Athanasian Creed] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02033b.htm |date=18 February 2022 }}". Most Christians ([[Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], and [[Protestant]] alike) accept the use of creeds and subscribe to at least one of the creeds mentioned above.{{Cite web |title=Our Common Heritage as Christians |url=https://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060114032325/https://archives.umc.org/interior.asp?mid=1806 |archive-date=14 January 2006 |access-date=31 December 2007 |publisher=The United Methodist Church}} Certain [[Evangelical Protestants]], though not all of them, reject creeds as definitive statements of faith, even while agreeing with some or all of the substance of the creeds. Also rejecting creeds are groups with roots in the [[Restoration Movement]], such as the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], the [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]], and the [[Churches of Christ]].White, Howard A. ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20171130221959/http://www.appiusforum.net/restoration.html The History of the Church]}}''.{{Cite book |last=Cummins |first=Duane D. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbookfortoday0000cumm |title=A handbook for Today's Disciples in the Christian Church (Disciples of Christ) |publisher=Chalice |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-8272-1425-5 |edition=Revised |location=St Louis, MO |url-access=registration}}{{rp|14–15}}Ron Rhodes, ''The Complete Guide to Christian Denominations'', Harvest House Publishers, 2005, {{ISBN|0736912894}}{{rp|123}} === Jesus === {{Main|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)}} {{See also|Incarnation (Christianity)|Jesus in comparative mythology}} [[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|Various [[Depiction of Jesus|depictions of Jesus]]]] The central tenet of Christianity is the belief in [[Jesus]] as the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]]{{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"}} and the [[Messiah]] (Christ).{{harvnb|Woodhead|2004|p=45}}{{harvnb|Woodhead|2004|p=n.p.}} Christians believe that Jesus, as the Messiah, was [[anointing|anointed]] by God as savior of humanity and hold that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of [[Christian messianic prophecies|messianic prophecies]] of the [[Old Testament]]. The Christian concept of messiah differs significantly from [[Messiah in Judaism|the contemporary Jewish concept]]. The core Christian belief is that through belief in and acceptance of [[Death and Resurrection of Jesus|the death and resurrection of Jesus]], [[original sin|sinful]] humans can be reconciled to God, and thereby are offered salvation and the promise of [[Immortality|eternal life]].Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible'', pp. 513, 649. While there have been many [[Christian theology|theological]] disputes over the [[Christology|nature of Jesus]] over the earliest centuries of Christian history, generally, Christians believe that Jesus is [[Incarnation (Christianity)|God incarnate]] and "[[Hypostatic union|true God and true man]]" (or both fully divine and fully human). Jesus, having become [[Incarnation (Christianity)|fully human]], suffered the pains and temptations of a mortal man, but did not [[Christian views on sin|sin]]. As fully God, he rose to life again. According to the [[New Testament]], he [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose]] from the dead,{{Bibleverse|Acts|2:24}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|2:31–32}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:15}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|3:26}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|4:10}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|5:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|10:40–41}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:30}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:34}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|13:37}}, {{Bibleref2-nb|Acts|17:30–31}}, {{Bibleverse|Romans|10:9}}, {{bibleverse|1Cor|15:15 || 1 Cor. 15:15}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Cor|6:14}}, {{bibleverse|2Cor|4:14 || 2 Cor. 4:14}}, {{Bibleverse|Gal|1:1}}, {{Bibleverse|Eph|1:20}}, {{Bibleverse|Col|2:12}}, {{bibleverse|1Thess|1:10 || 1 Thess. 11:10}}, {{Bibleverse|Heb.|13:20}}, {{bibleverse|1Pet|1:3 || 1 Pet. 1:3}}, {{bibleref2-nb|1Pet|1:21}} [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] to heaven, is seated at the right hand of the Father,[[s:Nicene Creed]] and will ultimately [[Second Coming|return]]{{bibleverse|Acts|1:9–11}} to fulfill the rest of the [[Messianic prophecy]], including the [[resurrection of the dead]], the [[Last Judgment]], and the final establishment of the [[Kingdom of God (Christianity)|Kingdom of God]]. According to the [[canonical gospels]] of [[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]] and [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], Jesus was [[Incarnation (Christianity)|conceived]] by the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]] and [[Nativity of Jesus|born]] from [[Mary, mother of Jesus|the Virgin Mary]]. Little of Jesus' childhood is recorded in the canonical gospels, although [[infancy gospels]] were popular in antiquity.{{Cite book |last=Gambero |first=Luigi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero%2C+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church |title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought |publisher=Ignatius |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-89870-686-4 |via=Google Books}} In comparison, his adulthood, especially the week before his death, is well documented in the gospels contained within the [[New Testament]], because that part of his life is believed to be most important. The biblical accounts of [[Ministry of Jesus|Jesus' ministry]] include: [[Baptism of Jesus|his baptism]], [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], preaching, teaching, and deeds. ==== Death and resurrection ==== {{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Resurrection of Jesus}} [[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Christ Crucified (Velázquez)|Crucifixion]]'', representing the death of [[Jesus]] on the [[Christian Cross|Cross]], painting by [[Diego Velázquez]], {{c.|1632|lk=no}}]] Christians consider the resurrection of Jesus to be the cornerstone of their faith (see [[1 Corinthians 15]]).{{Cite book |last=Hanegraaff |first=Hank |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bZfZYMt8Tx4C |title=Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity |year=2002 |publisher=Thomas Nelson |isbn=978-1-4185-1723-6}} Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two core events on which much of Christian doctrine and theology is based.{{Cite web |title=The Significance of the Death and Resurrection of Jesus for the Christian |url=https://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070901153606/https://dlibrary.acu.edu.au/research/theology/Walsh.htm |archive-date=1 September 2007 |access-date=16 May 2007 |publisher=Australian Catholic University National}} According to the New Testament, Jesus was [[Crucifixion|crucified]], died a physical death, was buried within a tomb, and rose from the dead three days later.{{bibleverse|Jn.|19:30–31}} {{bibleverse|Mk.|16:1}} {{bibleref2-nb|Mark|16:6}} The [[Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul|New Testament mentions]] several [[Resurrection of Jesus#Biblical accounts|post-resurrection appearances of Jesus]] on different occasions to his [[twelve apostles]] and [[disciple (Christianity)|disciples]], including "more than five hundred brethren at once",{{bibleverse|1Cor|15:6}} before Jesus' [[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]] to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are commemorated by Christians in all worship services, with special emphasis during [[Holy Week]], which includes [[Good Friday]] and [[Easter]] Sunday. The death and resurrection of Jesus are usually considered the most important events in [[Christian theology]], partly because they demonstrate that Jesus has power over life and death and therefore has the authority and power to give people [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].{{bibleverse || John|3:16}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|5:24}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:39–40}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|6:47}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|10:10}}, {{bibleref2-nb|John|11:25–26}}, and {{bibleref2-nb|John|17:3}} Christian churches accept and teach the [[New Testament]] account of the resurrection of Jesus with very few exceptions.This is drawn from a number of sources, especially the early Creeds, the ''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', certain theological works, and various Confessions drafted during the Reformation including the ''Thirty Nine Articles of the Church of England'', works contained in the ''Book of Concord''. Some modern scholars use the belief of Jesus' followers in the resurrection as a point of departure for establishing the continuity of the [[historical Jesus]] and the proclamation of the [[early church]].Fuller, ''The Foundations of New Testament Christology'', p. 11. Some [[Liberal Christianity|liberal Christians]] do not accept a literal bodily resurrection,A [[Jesus Seminar]] conclusion held that "in the view of the Seminar, he did not rise bodily from the dead; the resurrection is based instead on [[vision hypothesis|visionary experiences]] of [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]], and [[Mary Magdalene|Mary]]."Funk. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''. seeing the story as richly symbolic and spiritually nourishing [[mythology|myth]]. Arguments over death and resurrection claims occur at many religious [[debate]]s and [[interfaith dialogue]]s.Lorenzen. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today'', p. 13. [[Paul the Apostle]], an early Christian convert and missionary, wrote, "If Christ was not raised, then all our preaching is useless, and your trust in God is useless".{{bibleverse|1Cor|15:14}}Ball/Johnsson (ed.). ''The Essential Jesus''. === Salvation === {{Main|Salvation in Christianity}} {{quote box | width = 30% | align = right | quote="For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life". | source = — John 3:16, NIV{{cite web |title=John 3:16 New International Version |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+3%3A16&version=NIV |website=Bible Gateway |access-date=21 October 2022 |archive-date=3 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003110729/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=John+3%253A16&version=NIV |url-status=live }} }} [[File:Lucas Cranach (I) - The Law and the Gospel.jpg|thumb|''[[Law and Gospel (Cranach)|The Law and the Gospel]]'' by Lucas Cranach the Elder (1529); Moses and Elijah point the sinner to Jesus for salvation.]] [[Paul the Apostle]], like Jews and Roman [[pagan]]s of his time, believed that sacrifice can bring about new kinship ties, purity, and eternal life.{{cite journal |last=Eisenbaum |first=Pamela |date=Winter 2004 |title=A Remedy for Having Been Born of Woman: Jesus, Gentiles, and Genealogy in Romans |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=123 |issue=4 |pages=671–702 |doi=10.2307/3268465 |url=https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.sbl-site.org/assets/pdfs/JBL1234.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=3 April 2009 |jstor=3268465 |url-access=subscription |issn=0021-9231}} For Paul, the necessary sacrifice was the death of Jesus: Gentiles who are "Christ's" are, like Israel, descendants of Abraham and "heirs according to the promise"{{bibleverse|Gal.|3:29}}Wright, N.T. ''What Saint Paul Really Said: Was Paul of Tarsus the Real Founder of Christianity?'' (Oxford, 1997), p. 121. The God who raised Jesus from the dead would also give new life to the "mortal bodies" of Gentile Christians, who had become with Israel, the "children of God", and were therefore no longer "in the flesh".{{bibleverse|Rom.|8:9,11,16}} Modern Christian churches tend to be much more concerned with how humanity can be [[eternal salvation|saved]] from a universal condition of sin and death than the question of how both Jews and Gentiles can be in God's family. According to [[Eastern Orthodox]] theology, based upon their understanding of the atonement as put forward by Irenaeus' [[Recapitulation (Irenaeus)|recapitulation theory]], Jesus' death is a [[Ransom theory of atonement|ransom]]. This restores the relation with God, who is loving and reaches out to humanity, and offers the possibility of ''[[Theosis (Eastern Orthodox theology)|theosis]]'' c.q. [[Divinization (Christian)|divinization]], becoming the kind of humans God wants humanity to be. The Catholic church also holds to a form of ransom theory{{cite ccc|2.1|601}} but also teaches that Jesus' death [[Satisfaction theory of atonement|satisfies]] the debt to the Father incurred by the sins of humanity.{{cite ccc|2.1|616}} The Catholic Church further affirms that salvation does not occur without faithfulness on the part of Christians; converts must live in accordance with principles of love and ordinarily must be baptized.{{Cite CCC|2.1|846}} In Protestant theology, Jesus' death is regarded as a [[Penal substitution|substitutionary penalty]] carried by Jesus, for the debt that has to be paid by humankind when it broke God's moral law.[[L. W. Grensted]], ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=PUW8AAAAIAAJ A Short History of the Doctrine of the Atonement]'' (Manchester: [[Manchester University Press]], 1920), p. 191: 'Before the Reformation only a few hints of a Penal theory can be found.' Christians differ in their views on the extent to which individuals' salvation is pre-ordained by God. Reformed theology places distinctive emphasis on grace by teaching that individuals are [[total depravity|completely incapable of self-redemption]], but that [[irresistible grace|sanctifying grace is irresistible]].Westminster Confession, [https://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 Chapter X] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140528062341/https://www.spurgeon.org/~phil/creeds/wcf.htm#chap10 |date=28 May 2014 }};
Spurgeon, ''[https://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm A Defense of Calvinism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/https://www.spurgeon.org/calvinis.htm |date=10 April 2008 }}''. In contrast [[Catholics]], Orthodox Christians, and [[Arminianism|Arminian]] Protestants believe that the exercise of [[free will]] is necessary to have faith in Jesus.{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Grace and Justification|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815001751/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p3s1c3a2.htm|archive-date=15 August 2010}} === Trinity === {{Main|Trinity}} [[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|The [[Trinity]] is the belief that [[God in Christianity|God]] is one God in three persons: the [[God the Father|Father]], the [[God the Son|Son]] ([[Jesus]]), and the [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|Holy Spirit]].Definition of the [[Fourth Lateran Council]] quoted in {{Cite CCC|2.1|253}}.]] ''Trinity'' refers to the teaching that the one GodChristianity's status as monotheistic is affirmed in, among other sources, the ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'' (article "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm Monotheism] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200410210210/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/10499a.htm |date=10 April 2020 }}"); [[William F. Albright]], ''From the Stone Age to Christianity''; [[H. Richard Niebuhr]]; Kirsch, ''God Against the Gods''; Woodhead, ''An Introduction to Christianity''; [[Columbia Encyclopedia|The Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia]] [https://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html ''Monotheism''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121001051959/http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/society/A0833762.html |date=1 October 2012 }}; The New Dictionary of [[Cultural Literacy]], {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071212011435/https://www.bartleby.com/59/5/monotheism.html ''monotheism'']}}; New Dictionary of Theology, [https://www.ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm ''Paul''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160720034723/http://ntwrightpage.com/Wright_NDCT_Paul.htm |date=20 July 2016 }}, pp. 496–499; Meconi. "Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity". pp. 111ff. comprises three distinct, eternally co-existing persons: the ''[[God the Father|Father]]'', the ''Son'' (incarnate in Jesus Christ) and the ''[[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]]''. Together, these three persons are sometimes called the [[Godhead (Christianity)|Godhead]],Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 87–90.Alexander. ''New Dictionary of Biblical Theology''. pp. 514ff.McGrath. ''Historical Theology''. p. 61. although there is no single term in use in Scripture to denote the unified Godhead.Metzger/Coogan. ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 782. In the words of the [[Athanasian Creed]], an early statement of Christian belief, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God".Kelly. ''The Athanasian Creed''. They are distinct from another: the Father has no source, the Son is begotten of the Father, and the Spirit proceeds from the Father. Though distinct, the three persons cannot be divided from one another in being or in operation. While some Christians also believe that God appeared as the Father in the [[Old Testament]], it is agreed that he appeared as the Son in the [[New Testament]] and will still continue to manifest as the Holy Spirit in the present. But still, God still existed as three persons in each of these times.{{Cite book|last=Bowden |first=John Stephen |url=https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofch0000unse_u1l4/page/1206/mode/2up |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=1207|others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-19-522393-4}} However, traditionally there is a belief that it was the Son who appeared in the Old Testament because, for example, when the [[Trinity#Art|Trinity is depicted in art]], the Son typically has the distinctive appearance, a [[cruciform halo]] identifying Christ, and in depictions of the [[Garden of Eden]], this looks forward to an Incarnation yet to occur. In some [[Early Christian art|Early Christian]] [[sarcophagi]], the Logos is distinguished with a beard, "which allows him to appear ancient, even pre-existent".Heidi J. Hornik and Mikeal Carl Parsons, ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=BmWpMKaDBVUC&pg=PA34 Interpreting Christian Art: Reflections on Christian art]'', Mercer University Press, 2003, {{ISBN|0865548501}}, pp. 32–35. The [[Trinity]] is an essential doctrine of mainstream Christianity. From earlier than the times of the Nicene Creed (325) Christianity advocated''Examples of ante-Nicene statements'':{{blockquote|Hence all the power of magic became dissolved; and every bond of wickedness was destroyed, men's ignorance was taken away, and the old kingdom abolished God Himself appearing in the form of a man, for the renewal of eternal life.|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.4, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}}{{blockquote|We have also as a Physician the Lord our God Jesus the Christ the only-begotten Son and Word, before time began, but who afterwards became also man, of Mary the virgin. For 'the Word was made flesh.' Being incorporeal, He was in the body; being impassible, He was in a passable body; being immortal, He was in a mortal body; being life, He became subject to corruption, that He might free our souls from death and corruption, and heal them, and might restore them to health, when they were diseased with ungodliness and wicked lusts|St. Ignatius of Antioch in ''Letter to the Ephesians'', ch.7, shorter version, Roberts-Donaldson translation}} {{blockquote|The Church, though dispersed throughout the whole world, even to the ends of the earth, has received from the apostles and their disciples this faith: ...one God, the Father Almighty, Maker of heaven, and earth, and the sea, and all things that are in them; and in one Christ Jesus, the Son of God, who became incarnate for our salvation; and in the Holy Spirit, who proclaimed through the prophets the dispensations of God, and the advents, and the birth from a virgin, and the passion, and the resurrection from the dead, and the ascension into heaven in the flesh of the beloved Christ Jesus, our Lord, and His manifestation from heaven in the glory of the Father 'to gather all things in one,' and to raise up anew all flesh of the whole human race, in order that to Christ Jesus, our Lord, and God, and Savior, and King, according to the will of the invisible Father, 'every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in earth, and things under the earth, and that every tongue should confess; to him, and that He should execute just judgment towards all...|St. Irenaeus in ''Against Heresies'', ch.X, v.I, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first = James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher =William B. Eerdmans | orig-year = 1950|year=1988| isbn = 978-0-8028-8087-1}}}} {{blockquote|For, in the name of God, the Father and Lord of the universe, and of our Savior Jesus Christ, and of the Holy Spirit, they then receive the washing with water|Justin Martyr in ''First Apology'', ch. LXI, {{Citation | last = Donaldson| first =James|title = Ante Nicene Fathers, Volume 1: Apostolic Fathers, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus | publisher = Wm. B. Eerdmans| orig-year = 1950|year=1988| isbn = 978-0-8028-8087-1}}}} the triune [[Holy Mystery|mystery]]-nature of [[God in Christianity|God]] as a normative profession of faith. According to [[Roger E. Olson]] and Christopher Hall, through prayer, meditation, study and practice, the Christian community concluded "that God must exist as both a unity and trinity", codifying this in ecumenical council at the end of the 4th century.{{cite book|last1=Olson|first1=Roger E.|title=The Trinity|year=2002|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |page=15|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SUAidAp8AgEC|isbn=978-0-8028-4827-7}}Fowler. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students''. p. 58. According to this doctrine, God is not divided in the sense that each person has a third of the whole; rather, each person is considered to be fully God (see [[Perichoresis]]). The distinction lies in their relations, the Father being unbegotten; the Son being begotten of the Father; and the Holy Spirit proceeding from the Father and (in [[Western Christian]] theology) [[Filioque|from the Son]]. Regardless of this apparent difference, the three "persons" are each [[eternity|eternal]] and [[omnipotent]]. Other Christian religions including [[Unitarian Universalism]], [[Jehovah's Witnesses]], and [[Mormonism]], do not share those views on the Trinity. The Greek word ''trias''{{LSJ|tria/s1|τριάς|ref}}.{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas|The Latin equivalent, from which English ''trinity'' is derived,{{OEtymD|trinity}}{{better source needed|date=August 2020}} is ''trinitas'' though Latin also borrowed Greek ''trias'' verbatim.{{L&S|trias|ref}}}} is first seen in this sense in the works of [[Theophilus of Antioch]]; his text reads: "of the Trinity, of God, and of His Word, and of His Wisdom".{{cite book|series=[[Patrologiae Graecae]] Cursus Completus|volume=6|author=Theophilus of Antioch|title=Apologia ad Autolycum|chapter=Book II.15|chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/PatrologiaGraeca/Patrologia%20Graeca%20Vol.%20006#page/n569|language=el, la|quote=Ὡσαύτως καὶ αἱ τρεῖς ἡμέραι τῶν φωστήρων γεγονυῖαι τύποι εἰσὶν τῆς Τριάδος, τοῦ Θεοῦ, καὶ τοῦ Λόγου αὐτοῦ, καὶ τῆς Σοφίας αὐτοῦ.}} The term may have been in use before this time; its Latin equivalent,{{refn|group=note|name=Trias-Trinitas}} ''trinitas'',{{L&S|trinitas|ref}} appears afterwards with an explicit reference to the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit, in [[Tertullian]].McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. p. 50.{{citation|author=Tertullian|title=De Pudicitia|chapter=21|chapter-url=https://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_pudicitia.htm|language=la|quote=Nam et ipsa ecclesia proprie et principaliter ipse est spiritus, in quo est trinitas unius diuinitatis, Pater et Filius et Spiritus sanctus.|access-date=18 February 2022|archive-date=18 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.tertullian.org/latin/de_pudicitia.htm|url-status=live}}. In the following century, the word was in general use. It is found in many passages of [[Origen]].McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 53. ==== Trinitarianism ==== {{Main|Trinitarianism}} ''Trinitarianism'' denotes Christians who believe in the concept of the [[Trinity]]. Almost all Christian denominations and churches hold Trinitarian beliefs. Although the words "Trinity" and "Triune" do not appear in the Bible, beginning in the 3rd century theologians developed the term and concept to facilitate [[apprehension (understanding)|apprehension]] of the New Testament teachings of God as being Father, Son, and Holy Spirit. Since that time, Christian theologians have been careful to emphasize that Trinity does not imply that there are three gods (the antitrinitarian heresy of [[Tritheism]]), nor that each hypostasis of the Trinity is one-third of an infinite God (partialism), nor that the Son and the Holy Spirit are beings created by and subordinate to the Father ([[Arianism]]). Rather, the Trinity is defined as one God in three persons.[[Jürgen Moltmann|Moltmann, Jürgen]]. ''The Trinity and the Kingdom: The Doctrine of God.'' Tr. from German. Fortress Press, 1993. {{ISBN|080062825X}} ==== Nontrinitarianism ==== {{Main|Nontrinitarianism}} ''Nontrinitarianism'' (or ''antitrinitarianism'') refers to theology that rejects the doctrine of the Trinity. Various nontrinitarian views, such as [[adoptionism]] or [[modalism]], existed in early Christianity, leading to disputes about [[Christology]].Harnack, ''[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181120100311/http://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html |date=20 November 2018 }}''. Nontrinitarianism reappeared in the [[Gnosticism]] of the [[Cathars]] between the 11th and 13th centuries, among groups with [[Unitarianism|Unitarian]] theology in the [[Protestant Reformation]] of the 16th century,''Pocket Dictionary of Church History'' Nathan P. Feldmeth p. 135 "Unitarianism. Unitarians emerged from Protestant Christian beginnings in the sixteenth century with a central focus on the unity of God and subsequent denial of the doctrine of the Trinity" in the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], among [[Restorationism|Restorationist]] groups arising during the [[Second Great Awakening]] of the 19th century, and most recently, in [[Oneness Pentecostalism|Oneness Pentecostal]] churches. === Eschatology === {{Main|Christian eschatology}} The end of things, whether the end of an individual life, the end of the age, or the end of the world, broadly speaking, is Christian eschatology; the study of the destiny of humans as it is revealed in the Bible. The major issues in Christian eschatology are the [[Great Tribulation|Tribulation]], death and the afterlife, (mainly for [[Evangelical Christianity|Evangelical]] groups) [[Millennialism|the Millennium]] and the following [[Rapture]], the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus, [[Resurrection of the Dead]], Heaven, (for [[Christian liturgy|liturgical]] branches) [[Purgatory]], and Hell, the [[Last Judgment]], the end of the world, and the [[New Heavens and New Earth]]. Christians believe that the second coming of Christ will occur at the [[eschatology|end of time]], after a period of severe persecution (the Great Tribulation). All who have died will be [[Resurrection of the dead|resurrected bodily from the dead]] for the Last Judgment. Jesus will fully establish the [[Kingdom of God]] in fulfillment of [[Bible prophecy|scriptural prophecies]].[[Thomas Aquinas]], [https://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm ''Summa Theologicum, Supplementum Tertiae Partis''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134857/https://www.newadvent.org/summa/5.htm |date=18 February 2022 }} questions 69 through 99{{cite web | last =Calvin | first =John | title =Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book Three, Ch. 25 | publisher =reformed.org | url =https://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | access-date =1 January 2008 | archive-date =10 December 2007 | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20071210215923/http://www.reformed.org/books/institutes/books/book3/bk3ch25.html | url-status =dead }} ==== Death and afterlife ==== Most Christians believe that human beings experience divine judgment and are rewarded either with eternal life or [[hell|eternal damnation]]. This includes the [[Last Judgment|general judgement]] at the [[resurrection of the dead]] as well as the belief (held by Catholics,''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm Particular Judgment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134854/https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08550a.htm |date=18 February 2022 }}".Ott, ''Grundriß der Dogmatik'', p. 566. OrthodoxDavid Moser, ''[https://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-prayer-for-the-dead.html What the Orthodox believe concerning prayer for the dead] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134857/https://www.orthodox.net/articles/about-prayer-for-the-dead.html |date=18 February 2022 }}''.Ken Collins, ''[https://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm What Happens to Me When I Die?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080928055816/https://www.kencollins.com/question-45.htm |date=28 September 2008 }}''. and most Protestants) in a [[particular judgment|judgment particular to the individual soul]] after physical death. In the Catholic branch of Christianity, those who die in a state of grace, i.e., without any mortal sin separating them from God, but are still imperfectly purified from the effects of sin, undergo purification through the intermediate state of [[purgatory]] to achieve the holiness necessary for entrance into God's presence.{{cite web |url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_04081999_en.html |title=Audience of 4 August 1999 |publisher=Vatican.va |date=4 August 1999 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=31 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531082150/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1999/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_04081999_en.html |url-status=live }} Those who have attained this goal are called ''saints'' (Latin ''sanctus'', "holy").''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'', "[https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04171a.htm The Communion of Saints]". Some Christian groups, such as Seventh-day Adventists, hold to [[Christian mortalism|mortalism]], the belief that the human soul is not naturally immortal, and is unconscious during the intermediate state between bodily death and resurrection. These Christians also hold to [[Annihilationism]], the belief that subsequent to the final judgement, the wicked will cease to exist rather than suffer everlasting torment. Jehovah's Witnesses hold to a similar view."The death that Adam brought into the world is spiritual as well as physical, and only those who gain entrance into the Kingdom of God will exist eternally. However, this division will not occur until Armageddon, when all people will be resurrected and given a chance to gain eternal life. In the meantime, "the dead are conscious of nothing." What is God's Purpose for the Earth?" Official Site of Jehovah's Witnesses. ''Watchtower'', 15 July 2002. == Practices == {{Main|Christian worship|Church service}} {{See also|Mass (liturgy)|Reformed worship|Contemporary worship}} [[File:Complete-church-midnight-mass (3135957575).jpg|thumb|Christmas Eve [[Midnight Mass]] at a Catholic parish church in [[Woodside, Queens|Woodside]], New York City, U.S.]] [[File:Old Order River Brethren women.jpg|thumb|[[Old Order Anabaptist]] and [[Conservative Anabaptist]] women, for modesty, wear [[cape dress]]es and [[Christian head covering|head coverings]], the latter of which is taught as a [[Ordinance (Christianity)|church ordinance]].{{cite book |last1=Hartzler |first1=Rachel Nafziger |title=No Strings Attached: Boundary Lines in Pleasant Places: A History of Warren Street / Pleasant Oaks Mennonite Church |year= 2013 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-62189-635-7}}]] Depending on the specific [[Christian denomination|denomination of Christianity]], practices may include [[baptism]], the [[Eucharist]] (Holy Communion or the Lord's Supper), [[Christian prayer|prayer]] (including the [[Lord's Prayer]]), [[Confession (religion)|confession]], [[confirmation]], [[Christian burial|burial rites]], [[Christian views on marriage|marriage]] rites and the religious education of children. Most denominations have [[Ordination#Christianity|ordained]] [[Clergy#Christianity|clergy]] who lead regular [[wikt:communal|communal]] worship services. [[Rite (Christianity)|Christian rites]], rituals, and ceremonies are not celebrated in one single sacred language. Many ritualistic Christian churches make a distinction between sacred language, liturgical language and vernacular language. The three important languages in the [[Early Christianity|early Christian era]] were: [[Latin language|Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]].{{cite book |title=Paradise and Paradigm: Key Symbols in Persian Christianity and the Baha'i Faith |first=Christopher |last=Buck |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7914-4062-9 |page=6 |publisher=State University of New York Press}}{{cite book |title=Saving Paradise: How Christianity Traded Love of this World for Crucifixion and Empire |first=Rita |last=Nakashima Brock |year=2008 | isbn=978-0-8070-6750-5 |page=446 |publisher=Beacon |quote= the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}}{{cite book|title=The Rowman & Littlefield Handbook of Christianity in the Middle East |first=Mark |last=A. Lamport |year=2020 | isbn=978-0-8070-6750-5 |page=135 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |quote=the ancient church had three important languages: Greek, Latin, and Syriac.}} === Communal worship === [[Church service|Services]] of worship typically follow a pattern or form known as [[Christian liturgy|liturgy]].{{refn|group=note|Frequently a distinction is made between "liturgical" and "non-liturgical" churches based on how elaborate or antiquated the worship; in this usage, churches whose services are unscripted or improvised are described as "non-liturgical".{{cite book |last1=Russell |first1=Thomas Arthur |title=Comparative Christianity: A Student's Guide to a Religion and Its Diverse Traditions |year=2010 |publisher=Universal-Publishers |isbn=978-1-59942-877-2 |page=21 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FmMarHDbglgC&pg=PT21}}}} [[Justin Martyr]] described 2nd-century Christian liturgy in his ''[[First Apology]]'' ({{circa|150|lk=no}}) to Emperor [[Antoninus Pius]], and his description remains relevant to the basic structure of Christian liturgical worship: {{blockquote|And Sundays, all who live in cities or in the country gather together to one place, and the memoirs of the apostles or the writings of the prophets are read, as long as time permits; then, when the reader has ceased, the [[Presbyter|president]] verbally instructs, and exhorts to the imitation of these good things. Then we all rise together and pray, and, as we before said, when our prayer is ended, bread and wine and water are brought, and the president in like manner offers prayers and thanksgivings, according to his ability, and the people assent, saying [[Amen]]; and there is a distribution to each, and a participation of that over which thanks have been given, and to those who are absent a portion is sent by the deacons. And they who are well to do, and willing, give what each thinks fit; and what is collected is deposited with the president, who succours the orphans and widows and those who, through sickness or any other cause, are in want, and those who are in bonds and the strangers sojourning among us, and in a word takes care of all who are in need.Justin Martyr, [https://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html ''First Apology''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220206032601/http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/justinmartyr-firstapology.html |date=6 February 2022 }} §LXVII}} Thus, as Justin described, Christians assemble for communal worship typically on Sunday, the [[Lord's Day]], though other liturgical practices often occur outside this setting. Scripture readings are drawn from the Old and New Testaments, but especially the gospels.{{refn|group=note|Often these are arranged on an [[annual cycle]], using a book called a [[lectionary]].}}{{harvnb|White|2010|p=36}} Instruction is given based on these readings, in the form of a [[sermon]] or [[homily]]. There are a variety of [[Church (congregation)|congregational]] prayers, including thanksgiving, confession, and [[intercession]], which occur throughout the service and take a variety of forms including recited, responsive, silent, or sung.{{harvnb|White|2010|pp=71–82}} [[Psalms]], [[Hymn#Christian hymnody|hymns]], [[Contemporary worship music|worship songs]], and other [[church music]] may be sung.{{cite book |last1=Witvliet |first1=John D. |title=The Biblical Psalms in Christian Worship: A Brief Introduction and Guide to Resources |year=2007 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-0767-0 |page=11 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s7cyEGLwHicC |access-date=24 June 2020}}{{cite web |last1=Wallwork |first1=Norman |title=The Purpose of a Hymn Book |url=https://jlg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Hymns-Purpose.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://jlg.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/Hymns-Purpose.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=Joint Liturgical Group of Great Britain |access-date=24 June 2020 |year=2019}} Services can be varied for special events like significant [[Calendar of saints|feast days]].For example, {{citation |title=The Calendar |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |publisher=Church of England |access-date=25 June 2020 |archive-date=10 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200710092401/https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/common-worship/churchs-year/calendar |url-status=live }} [[File:The Last Supper - Leonardo Da Vinci - High Resolution 32x16.jpg|thumb|[[The Last Supper (Leonardo)|''The Last Supper'']] in the [[Santa Maria delle Grazie, Milan|Santa Maria delle Grazie Church]] in [[Milan]], [[Italy]], a late 1490s mural painting by [[Leonardo da Vinci]], depicting the [[Last Supper]] of Jesus and his [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve apostles]], depicts the [[Last Supper|final meal]] of [[Jesus]] before [[Crucifixion of Jesus|his crucifixion and death]].]] Nearly all forms of worship incorporate the Eucharist, which consists of bread and wine (or a substitute). It is reenacted in accordance with Jesus' instruction at the [[Last Supper]] that his followers do in remembrance of him as when he gave his disciples [[Sacramental bread|bread]], saying, "This is my body", and gave them [[sacramental wine|wine]] saying, "This is my blood".Ignazio Silone, ''Bread and Wine'' (1937). In the [[Early Christianity|early church]], Christians and those yet to complete initiation would separate for the Eucharistic part of the service.{{cite book |last1=Benz |first1=Ernst |title=The Eastern Orthodox Church: Its Thought and Life |year=2008 |publisher=Transaction Publishers |isbn=978-0-202-36575-6 |page=35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q5Z_evECb1UC&pg=PA35}} Some denominations such as [[Confessional Lutheranism|Confessional Lutheran]] churches continue to practice '[[closed communion]]'.{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20060812151753/https://www.lordlife.org/site/dbpage.asp?page_id=140000871&sec_id=140000527 Understanding Closed Communion]}}, stating "''Therefore, our Congregation and our Denomination practices what is called 'close or closed Communion', meaning that before you take Communion at our Churches, we ask you to take a Communion Class first to properly learn what Communion is all about.''", by [[Archive.org]] They offer communion to those who are already united in that denomination or sometimes individual church. Catholics further restrict participation to their members who are not in a state of [[mortal sin]].{{Cite CCC|2.1|1415}} Many other churches, such as the [[Anglican Communion]] and the [[Methodism|Methodist Churches]] (such as the [[Free Methodist Church]] and [[United Methodist Church]]), practice '[[open communion]]' since they view communion as a means to unity, rather than an end, and invite all believing Christians to participate.{{cite web|title=An open table: How United Methodists understand communion – The United Methodist Church|url=https://www.umc.org/what-we-believe/an-open-table-how-united-methodists-understand-communion|publisher=[[United Methodist Church]]|access-date=24 June 2020|archive-date=28 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191128120807/http://www.umc.org/what-we-believe/an-open-table-how-united-methodists-understand-communion|url-status=live}}{{cite web |title=Order of Worship |url=https://wilmorefmc.org/worship/current-order-of-worship/ |publisher=Wilmore Free Methodist Church |access-date=21 June 2023}}{{cite web|url = https://www.churchofengland.org/more/policy-and-thinking/canons-church-england/section-b#b28|title = Canon B28 of the Church of England|access-date = 24 June 2020|archive-date = 25 June 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200625074933/https://www.churchofengland.org/more/policy-and-thinking/canons-church-england/section-b#b28|url-status = live}} === Sacraments or ordinances === {{Main|Sacrament}} {{See also|Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Lutheran sacraments|Anglican sacraments|Ordinance (Christianity)}} {{further|Rite (Christianity)|Pre-Tridentine Mass}} {{quote box | title = 2nd-century description of the [[Eucharist]] | quote = And this food is called among us ''Eukharistia'' [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. For not as common bread and common drink do we receive these; but in like manner as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the Word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise have we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. | source = [[Justin Martyr]] | align = right | width = 30% | bgcolor = #BCF5A9 }} In Christian belief and practice, a ''sacrament'' is a [[Ritual|rite]], instituted by Christ, that confers [[divine grace|grace]], constituting a [[Sacred Mysteries|sacred mystery]]. The term is derived from the [[Latin]] word ''sacramentum'', which was used to translate the Greek word for ''mystery''. Views concerning both which rites are sacramental, and what it means for an act to be a sacrament, vary among Christian denominations and traditions.Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. pp. 1435ff. The most conventional functional definition of a sacrament is that it is an outward sign, instituted by Christ, that conveys an inward, spiritual grace through Christ. The two most widely accepted sacraments are [[Baptism]] and the Eucharist; however, the majority of Christians also recognize five additional sacraments: [[Confirmation (Christian sacrament)|Confirmation]] ([[Chrismation]] in the Eastern tradition), [[Holy Orders]] (or [[ordination]]), [[Penance]] (or [[Confession (religion)|Confession]]), [[Anointing of the Sick]], and [[Matrimony]] (see [[Christian views on marriage]]). Taken together, these are the [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Seven Sacraments]] as recognized by churches in the [[High Church]] tradition—notably [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|Catholic]], [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Independent Catholic Churches|Independent Catholic]], [[Old Catholic]], some [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] and [[Anglican sacraments|Anglicans]]. Most other denominations and traditions typically affirm only Baptism and Eucharist as sacraments, while some Protestant groups, such as the Quakers, reject sacramental theology. Certain denominations of Christianity, such as Anabaptists, use the term "[[ordinance (Christianity)|ordinances]]" to refer to rites instituted by Jesus for Christians to observe.{{cite book |last1=Krahn |first1=Cornelius |last2=Rempel |first2=John D. |title=Ordinances |year=1989 |publisher=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia |url=https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Ordinances |quote=The term "ordinance" emphasizes the aspect of institution by Christ and the symbolic meaning. |archive-date=11 May 2022 |access-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511072310/https://gameo.org/index.php?title=Ordinances |url-status=live }} Seven ordinances have been taught in many [[Conservative Mennonite]] Anabaptist churches, which include "baptism, communion, footwashing, marriage, anointing with oil, the holy kiss, and the prayer covering". In addition to this, the [[Church of the East]] has two additional sacraments in place of the traditional sacraments of Matrimony and the Anointing of the Sick. These include [[Holy Leaven]] (Melka) and the [[sign of the cross]].''Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East, Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon.'' The [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] Anabaptist churches, such as the [[Dunkard Brethren Church]], observe the [[agape feast]] (lovefeast), a [[Rite (Christianity)|rite]] also observed by [[Moravian Church]] and [[Methodist Church]]es.{{cite news |title=Love Feast of the Dunkards; Peculiar Ceremonies of a Peculiar Sect of Christians |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1891/04/26/archives/love-feast-of-the-dunkards-peculiar-ceremonies-of-a-peculiar-sect.html |work=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=25 December 2023 |date=26 April 1891 |archive-date=25 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231225012542/https://www.nytimes.com/1891/04/26/archives/love-feast-of-the-dunkards-peculiar-ceremonies-of-a-peculiar-sect.html |url-status=live }} === Liturgical calendar === {{Main|Liturgical year}} {{See also|Calendar of saints}} Catholics, Eastern Christians, Lutherans, Anglicans and other traditional Protestant communities frame worship around the [[liturgical year]].{{cite book |last1=Senn |first1=Frank C. |title=Introduction to Christian Liturgy |year=2012 |publisher=Fortress |isbn=978-1-4514-2433-1 |page=103 |quote=For example, days of Mary, Joseph, and John the Baptist (e.g., August 15, March 19, June 24, respectively) are ranked as solemnities in the Roman Catholic calendar; in the Anglican and Lutheran calendars they are holy days or lesser festivals respectively.}} The liturgical cycle divides the year into a series of [[season]]s, each with their theological emphases, and modes of prayer, which can be signified by different ways of decorating churches, colors of [[parament]]s and [[vestment]]s for clergy,{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Fortescue |first1=Adrian |title=CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Christian Calendar |entry=Christian Calendar |url=https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03158a.htm |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Robert Appleton |access-date=18 July 2014 |year=1912 |archive-date=1 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701004113/http://newadvent.org/cathen/03158a.htm |url-status=live }} scriptural readings, themes for preaching and even different traditions and practices often observed personally or in the home. Western Christian liturgical calendars are based on the cycle of the [[Roman Rite]] of the Catholic Church, and Eastern Christians use analogous calendars based on the cycle of their respective [[Christian rite|rites]]. Calendars set aside holy days, such as [[Solemnity|solemnities]] which commemorate an event in the life of Jesus, Mary, or the [[saint]]s, and periods of [[fasting]], such as [[Lent]] and other pious events such as [[memoria]], or lesser festivals commemorating saints. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often retain certain celebrations, such as [[Christmas]], [[Easter]], and [[Pentecost]]: these are the celebrations of Christ's birth, resurrection, and the descent of the Holy Spirit upon the Church, respectively. A few denominations such as [[Quakers|Quaker Christians]] make no use of a liturgical calendar.Hickman. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''. === Symbols === {{Main|Christian symbolism}} [[File:Ephesus IchthysCrop.jpg|thumb|upright=1.05|right|An early circular [[ichthys]] symbol, created by combining the Greek letters [[ΙΧΘΥΣ]] into a wheel, [[Ephesus]], Asia Minor]] Most Christian denominations have not generally practiced [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconism]],{{cite journal |last1=Kitzinger |first1=Ernst |author1-link=Ernst Kitzinger |title=The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm |journal=Dumbarton Oaks Papers |year=1954 |volume=8 |pages=83–150 |doi=10.2307/1291064 |jstor=1291064 |issn=0070-7546}} the avoidance or prohibition of devotional images, even if early [[Jewish Christian]]s, invoking the [[Ten Commandments|Decalogue's]] prohibition of [[idolatry]], avoided figures in their symbols.{{cite book |editor1-last=Bryer |editor1-first=Anthony |editor2-last=Herrin |editor2-first=Judith |last=Freedberg |first=David |author-link=David Freedberg |chapter=The Structure of Byzantine and European Iconoclasm |title=Iconoclasm |year=1977 |page=176 |publisher=Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham |isbn=0-7044-0226-2}} The [[Christian cross|cross]], today one of the most widely recognized symbols, was used by Christians from the earliest times.{{cite web|url=https://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm |title=ANF04. Fathers of the Third Century: Tertullian, Part Fourth; Minucius Felix; Commodian; Origen, Parts First and Second | Christian Classics Ethereal Library |publisher=Ccel.org |date=1 June 2005 |access-date=5 May 2009}}Minucius Felix speaks of the cross of Jesus in its familiar form, likening it to objects with a crossbeam or to a man with arms outstretched in prayer ([https://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729 Octavius of Minucius Felix] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080518093915/http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-04/anf04-34.htm#P5713_906729 |date=18 May 2008 }}, chapter XXIX). Tertullian, in his book ''De Corona'', tells how it was already a tradition for Christians to trace the sign of the cross on their foreheads."At every forward step and movement, at every going in and out, when we put on our clothes and shoes, when we bathe, when we sit at table, when we light the lamps, on couch, on seat, in all the ordinary actions of daily life, we trace upon the forehead the sign." (Tertullian, [https://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.iv.vi.iii.html ''De Corona'', chapter 3]) Although the cross was known to the early Christians, the [[crucifix]] did not appear in use until the 5th century.Dilasser. ''The Symbols of the Church''. Among the earliest Christian symbols, that of the fish or [[Ichthys]] seems to have ranked first in importance, as seen on monumental sources such as tombs from the first decades of the 2nd century.{{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Symbolism of the Fish |first=Maurice M.|last=Hassett}} Its popularity seemingly arose from the Greek word ''ichthys'' (fish) forming an [[acrostic]] for the Greek phrase ''Iesous Christos Theou Yios Soter'' (Ἰησοῦς Χριστός, Θεοῦ Υἱός, Σωτήρ),{{refn|group=note|''Iesous Christos Theou '''H'''yios Soter'' may be a more complete transliteration; in [[Koine Greek phonology#Loss of aspiration|Koine Greek]], the daseia or [[spiritus asper]] had largely ceased being pronounced and was not—commonly—marked in the [[majuscule]] script of the time.}} (Jesus Christ, Son of God, Savior), a concise summary of Christian faith. Other major Christian symbols include the [[Chi-Rho|chi-rho monogram]], the [[Dove of peace|dove and olive branch]] (symbolic of the Holy Spirit), the sacrificial lamb (representing Christ's sacrifice), the [[vine]] (symbolizing the connection of the Christian with Christ) and many others. These all derive from passages of the New Testament. === Baptism === {{Main|Baptism}} {{multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | image1 = Christening celebration - Celebración de bautizo.JPG | caption1 = [[Infant baptism]] by effusion in a [[Catholic Church in Venezuela]] | image2 = Baptism at Northolt Park Baptist Church (cropped).jpg | caption2 = [[Believer's baptism]] of adult by immersion, [[Northolt]] Park Baptist Church, in [[Greater London]], [[Baptist Union of Great Britain]] }} Baptism is the ritual act, with the use of water, by which a person is admitted to membership of the [[Christian Church|Church]]. Beliefs on baptism vary among denominations. Differences occur firstly on whether the act has any spiritual significance. Some, such as the Catholic and [[Eastern Orthodox churches]], as well as Lutherans and Anglicans, hold to the doctrine of [[baptismal regeneration]], which affirms that baptism creates or strengthens a person's faith, and is intimately linked to salvation. [[Baptists]] and [[Plymouth Brethren]] view baptism as a purely symbolic act, an external public declaration of the inward change which has taken place in the person, but not as spiritually efficacious. Secondly, there are differences of opinion on the methodology (or mode) of the act. These modes are: by [[Immersion baptism|''immersion'']]; if immersion is total, by ''submersion''; by [[affusion]] (pouring); and by [[aspersion]] (sprinkling). Those who hold the first view may also adhere to the tradition of [[infant baptism]];{{Cite CCC|2.1|1213|quote=Through Baptism we are freed from sin and reborn as sons of God; we become members of Christ, are incorporated into the Church and made sharers in her mission.}}"Holy Baptism is the sacrament by which God adopts us as his children and makes us members of Christ's Body, the Church, and inheritors of the kingdom of God" ([https://anglicansonline.org/basics/catechism.html#Holy%20Baptism Book of Common Prayer, 1979, Episcopal)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219062846/http://anglicansonline.org/basics/catechism.html#Holy%20Baptism |date=19 February 2022 }}"Baptism is the sacrament of initiation and incorporation into the body of Christ" ([https://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf By Water and The Spirit – The Official United Methodist Understanding of Baptism (PDF)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160313053601/https://www.backriverumc.com/userFiles/1257/by_water_and_the_spirit.pdf |date=13 March 2016 }}"As an initiatory rite into membership of the Family of God, baptismal candidates are symbolically purified or washed as their sins have been forgiven and washed away" ([[William H. Brackney]], [https://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm Doing Baptism Baptist Style{{snd}}Believer's Baptism] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100107183031/https://www.baptisthistory.org/pamphlets/baptism.htm|date=7 January 2010}}) the Orthodox Churches all practice infant baptism and always baptize by total immersion repeated three times in the name of the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit."After the proclamation of faith, the baptismal water is prayed over and blessed as the sign of the goodness of God's creation. The person to be baptized is also prayed over and blessed with sanctified oil as the sign that his creation by God is holy and good. And then, after the solemn proclamation of "Alleluia" (God be praised), the person is immersed three times in the water in the name of the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit" ([https://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=51 Orthodox Church in America: Baptism).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101012021946/https://www.oca.org/OCchapter.asp?SID=2&ID=51 |date=12 October 2010}}"In the Orthodox Church we totally immerse, because such total immersion symbolizes death. What death? The death of the "old, sinful man". After Baptism we are freed from the dominion of sin, even though after Baptism we retain an inclination and tendency toward evil.", Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of Australia, article "[https://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism Baptism] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140930002357/https://www.greekorthodox.org.au/general/faq/faqbaptism |date=30 September 2014 }}". The Lutheran Church and the Catholic Church also practice infant baptism,{{cite web |last1=Olson |first1=Karen Bates |title=Why infant baptism? |url=https://www.livinglutheran.org/2017/01/why-infant-baptism/ |publisher=[[Living Lutheran]] |access-date=11 May 2022 |date=12 January 2017 |archive-date=2 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702081123/https://www.livinglutheran.org/2017/01/why-infant-baptism/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite CCC|2.1|403}}{{Cite CCC|2.1|1231,1233,1250,1252}} usually by affusion, and using the [[Trinitarian formula]].{{Cite CCC|2.1|1240}} [[Anabaptist Christian]]s practice [[believer's baptism]], in which an adult chooses to receive the ordinance after making a decision to follow Jesus.{{cite web |last1=Eby |first1=Edwin R. |title=Early Anabaptist Positions on Believer's Baptism and a Challenge for Today |url=https://www.pilgrimministry.org/literature/early-anabaptist-positions-on-believer%E2%80%99s-baptism-and-a-challenge-for-today |publisher=Pilgrim Mennonite Conference |access-date=11 May 2022 |quote=They concluded according to the Scriptures that baptism must always follow a conscious decision to take up "following Christ." They believed that a regenerated life becomes the experience of an adult who counts the cost of following Christ, exercises obedience to Christ, and is therefore baptized as a sign of such commitment and life. |archive-date=11 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220511071751/https://www.pilgrimministry.org/literature/early-anabaptist-positions-on-believer%E2%80%99s-baptism-and-a-challenge-for-today |url-status=dead }} Anabaptist denominations such as the [[Mennonites]], [[Amish]] and [[Hutterites]] use [[affusion|pouring]] as the mode to administer believer's baptism, whereas Anabaptists of the [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] and [[River Brethren]] traditions baptize by [[immersion baptism|immersion]].{{cite book |last1=Kurian |first1=George Thomas |last2=Day |first2=Sarah Claudine |title=The Essential Handbook of Denominations and Ministries |date=14 March 2017 |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-1-4934-0640-1 |quote=The Conservative Mennonite Conference practices believer's baptism, seen as an external symbol of internal spiritual purity and performed by immersion or pouring of water on the head; Communion; washing the feet of the saints, following Jesus' example and reminding believers of the need to be washed of pride, rivalry, and selfish motives; anointing the sick with oil – a symbol of the Holy Spirit and of the healing power of God—offered with the prayer of faith; and laying on of hands for ordination, symbolizing the imparting of responsibility and of God's power to fulfill that responsibility.}}{{cite book |last1=Kraybill |first1=Donald B. |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Amish, Brethren, Hutterites, and Mennonites |year=2010 |publisher=JHU Press |isbn=978-0-8018-9911-9 |page=23 |quote=All Amish, Hutterites, and most Mennonites baptized by pouring or sprinkling.}}{{cite book |last1=Nolt |first1=Steven M. |last2=Loewen |first2=Harry |title=Through Fire and Water: An Overview of Mennonite History |year=2010 |publisher=MennoMedia |isbn=978-0-8316-9701-3 |quote=...both groups practiced believers baptism (the River Brethren did so by immersion in a stream or river) and stressed simplicity in life and nonresistance to violence.}}{{cite book |last1=Brackney |first1=William H. |title=Historical Dictionary of Radical Christianity |date=3 May 2012 |publisher=Scarecrow |isbn=978-0-8108-7365-0 |page=279 |quote=The birthdate in 1708 marked the baptism by immersion of the group in the River Eder, thus believer's baptism became one of the primary tenets of The Brethren.}} === Prayer === {{Main|Christian prayer}} {{See also|Christian meditation|Canonical hours}} {{quote box | width = 30% | align = right | quote = "... 'Our Father in heaven, hallowed be your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done on earth as it is in heaven. Give us today our daily bread. Forgive us our debts, as we also forgive our debtors. Lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil'". | source = — The [[Lord's Prayer]], Matthew 6:9–13, [[Evangelical Heritage Version|EHV]]{{cite web |title=Matthew 6:9–13 Evangelical Heritage Version (EHV) |url=https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+6%3A9-13&version=EHV |access-date=10 March 2020 |archive-date=19 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200519040904/https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Matthew+6%3A9-13&version=EHV |url-status=live }} }} In the [[Gospel of Saint Matthew]], Jesus taught the [[Lord's Prayer]], which has been seen as a model for Christian prayer.{{cite book |last1=Jordan |first1=Anne |title=Christianity |year=2000 |publisher=Nelson Thornes |isbn=978-0-7487-5320-8 |quote=When he was standing on a hillside, Jesus explained to his followers how they were to behave as God would wish. The talk has become known as the Sermon on the Mount, and is found in the Gospel of Matthew, chapter 5, 6 and 7. During the talk Jesus taught his followers how to pray and he gave them an example of suitable prayer. Christians call the prayer the Lord's Prayer, because it was taught by the Lord, Jesus Christ. It is also known as the Pattern Prayer as it provides a pattern for Christians to follow in prayer, to ensure that they pray in the way God and Jesus would want.}} The injunction for Christians to pray the Lord's prayer thrice daily was given in the ''[[Didache]]'' and came to be recited by Christians at 9 am, 12 pm, and 3 pm.{{cite book |last1=Milavec |first1=Aaron |title=The Didache: Faith, Hope, & Life of the Earliest Christian Communities, 50–70 C.E. |year=2003 |publisher=Paulist |isbn=978-0-8091-0537-3 |quote=Given the placement of the Lord's Prayer in the Didache, it was to be expected that the new member of the community would come to learn and to pray the Lord's Prayer at the appointed hours three times each day only after baptism (8:2f.).}}{{cite book |last1=Beckwith |first1=Roger T.|author-link1=Roger T. Beckwith |title=Calendar, Chronology And Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism And Early Christianity |year=2005 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-14603-7 |quote=So three minor hours of prayer were developed, at the third, sixth and ninth hours, which, as Dugmore points out, were ordinary divisions of the day for worldly affairs, and the Lord's Prayer was transferred to those hours.}} In the second century ''[[Apostolic Tradition]]'', [[Hippolytus of Rome|Hippolytus]] instructed Christians to pray at [[fixed prayer times|seven fixed prayer times]]: "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion".{{cite book |first1=Henry |last1=Chadwick |author1-link=Henry Chadwick (theologian) |title=The Early Church |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-1-101-16042-8 |quote=Hippolytus in the ''Apostolic Tradition'' directed that Christians should pray seven times a day – on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight, and also, if at home, at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion. Prayers at the third, sixth, and ninth hours are similarly mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and must have been very widely practised. These prayers were commonly associated with private Bible reading in the family.}} Prayer positions, including kneeling, standing, and [[prostration]]s have been used for these seven fixed prayer times since the days of the early Church.{{cite book |last1=Lössl |first1=Josef |title=The Early Church: History and Memory |year=2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-0-567-16561-9 |page=135 |quote=Not only the content of early Christian prayer was rooted in Jewish tradition; its daily structure too initially followed a Jewish pattern, with prayer times in the early morning, at noon and in the evening. Later (in the course of the second century), this pattern combined with another one; namely prayer times in the evening, at midnight and in the morning. As a result seven 'hours of prayer' emerged, which later became the monastic 'hours' and are still treated as 'standard' prayer times in many churches today. They are roughly equivalent to midnight, 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, 3 p.m., 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Prayer positions included prostration, kneeling and standing. ... Crosses made of wood or stone, or painted on walls or laid out as mosaics, were also in use, at first not directly as objections of veneration but in order to 'orientate' the direction of prayer (i.e. towards the east, Latin ''oriens'').}} [[Breviary|Breviaries]] such as the [[Shehimo]] and [[Agpeya]] are used by [[Oriental Orthodox Christians]] to pray these [[canonical hours]] while facing in the [[direction of prayer|eastward direction of prayer]].{{cite web |last1=Kurian |first1=Jake |title="Seven Times a Day I Praise You" – The Shehimo Prayers |url=https://www.ds-wa.org/seven-times-a-day-i-praise-you-the-sheema-prayers.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171219211748/https://ds-wa.org/seven-times-a-day-i-praise-you-the-sheema-prayers.html |archive-date=2017-12-19 |access-date=2 August 2020 |publisher=[[Malankara Orthodox Diocese of Southwest America|Diocese of South-West America of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]]}}{{cite book |author1=[[Mary Cecil, 2nd Baroness Amherst of Hackney]] |title=A Sketch of Egyptian History from the Earliest Times to the Present Day |year=1906 |publisher=Methuen |page=399 |quote=Prayers 7 times a day are enjoined, and the most strict among the Copts recite one or more of the Psalms of David each time they pray. They always wash their hands and faces before devotions, and turn to the East.}} The ''Apostolic Tradition'' directed that the [[sign of the cross]] be used by Christians during the [[Minor exorcism in Christianity|minor exorcism]] of [[baptism]], during [[ablution in Christianity|ablutions]] before praying at fixed prayer times, and in times of temptation.{{cite web |author1=Hippolytus |author1-link=Hippolytus of Rome |title=Apostolic Tradition |url=https://www.stjohnsarlingtonva.org/Customer-Content/saintjohnsarlington/CMS/files/EFM/Apostolic_Tradition_by_Hippolytus.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.stjohnsarlingtonva.org/Customer-Content/saintjohnsarlington/CMS/files/EFM/Apostolic_Tradition_by_Hippolytus.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |publisher=St. John's Episcopal Church |access-date=5 September 2020 |pages=8, 16, 17}} ''Intercessory prayer'' is prayer offered for the benefit of other people. There are many intercessory prayers recorded in the Bible, including prayers of the [[Apostle Peter]] on behalf of sick persons{{bibleverse|Acts|9:40}} and by [[prophet]]s of the Old Testament in favor of other people.{{bibleverse|1Kings|17:19–22}} In the [[Epistle of James]], no distinction is made between the intercessory prayer offered by ordinary believers and the prominent Old Testament prophet [[Elijah]].{{bibleverse|James|5:16–18}} The effectiveness of prayer in Christianity derives from the power of God rather than the status of the one praying.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Alexander |editor-first=T. D. |editor-last2=Rosner |editor-first2=B. S. |year=2001 |title=Prayer |encyclopedia=New Dictionary of Biblical Theology|publisher=Intervarsity |location=Downers Grove, IL}} The ancient church, in both [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity]], developed a tradition of asking for the [[intercession of saints|intercession of (deceased) saints]], and this remains the practice of most [[Eastern Orthodox]], [[Oriental Orthodox]], [[Catholic Church|Catholic]], and some [[Lutheranism|Lutheran]] and [[Anglican]] churches.{{cite web |title=What We Believe |url=http://www.orgsites.com/pa/rac/index.html |publisher=[[Evangelical Community Church-Lutheran]] |access-date=12 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518100544/http://www.orgsites.com/pa/rac/index.html |archive-date=18 May 2007}} Apart from certain sectors within the latter two denominations, other Churches of the Protestant Reformation, however, rejected prayer to the saints, largely on the basis of the sole mediatorship of Christ.{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Ferguson |first1=S. B. |last2=Packer |first2=J. |name-list-style=amp |year=1988 |title=Saints |encyclopedia= New Dictionary of Theology |publisher=Intervarsity |location=Downers Grove, IL}} The reformer [[Huldrych Zwingli]] admitted that he had offered prayers to the saints until his reading of the Bible convinced him that this was [[idolatry in Christianity|idolatrous]].Madeleine Gray, ''The Protestant Reformation'', (Sussex Academic Press, 2003), p. 140. According to the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]'': "Prayer is the raising of one's mind and heart to God or the requesting of good things from God".{{Cite CCC|2.1|2559}} The ''[[Book of Common Prayer]]'' in the Anglican tradition is a guide which provides a set order for services, containing set prayers, scripture readings, and hymns or sung Psalms.{{cite web |title=The Book of Common Prayer |url=https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer |publisher=[[Church of England]] |access-date=24 June 2020 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620175342/https://www.churchofengland.org/prayer-and-worship/worship-texts-and-resources/book-common-prayer |url-status=live }} Frequently in Western Christianity, when praying, the hands are placed palms together and forward as in the feudal [[commendation ceremony]]. At other times the older [[orans]] posture may be used, with palms up and elbows in. === Marriage === {{Main|Christian views on marriage}} Most Christian churches in the world only support [[marriage]] between a man and a woman.Stephen Hunt, ''Contemporary Christianity and LGBT Sexualities'', Routledge, Abingdon-on-Thames, 2016, p. 40-41 Some Christian churches allow local churches to decide about [[blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches|blessings of same-sex marriage]].Jeffrey S. Siker, ''Homosexuality and Religion: An Encyclopedia'', Greenwood Publishing Group, USA, 2007, p. 147 Some international networks of [[Affirming church]]es support [[blessing of same-sex unions in Christian churches|blessings of same-sex marriage]], such the [[Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists]],Association of Welcoming and Affirming Baptists, [https://awab.org/find-a-church/ Our Church Members] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250911073634/https://awab.org/find-a-church/ |date=11 September 2025 }}, awab.org, USA, accessed August 16, 2025 [[Ecumenical Catholic Church]],Ecumenical Catholic Church, [https://ecumenicalcatholicchurch.org/en/doctrinas/ Doctrines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20251210195455/https://ecumenicalcatholicchurch.org/en/doctrinas/ |date=10 December 2025 }}, ecumenicalcatholicchurch.org, Mexico, accessed August 16, 2025 [[Metropolitan Community Church]],Metropolitan Community Church, [https://visitmccchurch.com/our-churches/ Our churches] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250912090428/https://visitmccchurch.com/our-churches/ |date=12 September 2025 }}, visitmccchurch.com, USA, accessed August 16, 2025 Reconciling Ministries Network ([[Methodist]]),Reconciling Ministries Network, [https://rmnetwork.org/find-a-reconciling-ministry/ Find a Reconciling Ministry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250921002004/https://rmnetwork.org/find-a-reconciling-ministry/ |date=21 September 2025 }}, rmnetwork.org, USA, accessed August 16, 2025 The Covenant Network ([[Pentecostal]]).Covenant Network, [https://www.thecovenantnetwork.com/locations Our churches] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250916123942/https://www.thecovenantnetwork.com/locations |date=16 September 2025 }}, thecovenantnetwork.com, USA, accessed August 16, 2025 == Scriptures == {{Main|Bible|Biblical canon|Development of the Christian biblical canon|Religious text}} [[File:Gutenberg Bible, Lenox Copy, New York Public Library, 2009. Pic 01.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Bible]] is the sacred book in Christianity.]] Christianity, like other religions, has adherents whose beliefs and biblical interpretations vary. Christianity regards the [[biblical canon]], the [[Old Testament]] and the [[New Testament]], as the [[Biblical inspiration|inspired]] word of God. The traditional view of inspiration is that God worked through human authors so that what they produced was what God wished to communicate. The Greek word referring to inspiration in {{bibleverse|2Timothy|3:16||2 Timothy 3:16}} is ''theopneustos'', which literally means "God-breathed".{{cite book |title=Hermeneutics: Principles and Processes of Biblical Interpretation |edition=2nd |last=Virkler |first=Henry A. |editor-last=Ayayo |editor-first=Karelynne Gerber |year=2007 |publisher=Baker |location=Grand Rapids, MI |isbn=978-0-8010-3138-0 |page=21}} Some believe that divine inspiration makes present Bibles [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]], while others claim inerrancy for the Bible in its original manuscripts, although none of those are extant.{{cite web|website=[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]|title=Inspiration and Truth of Sacred Scripture|url=https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100909213651/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm|archive-date=9 September 2010}}(§ 105–108)Second Helvetic Confession, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20071203120450/https://www.creeds.net/reformed/helvetic/c01.htm ''Of the Holy Scripture Being the True Word of God'']}}[[Chicago Statement on Biblical Inerrancy]], [https://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html ''online text''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980129093951/https://www.reformed.org/documents/icbi.html |date=29 January 1998}} Another closely related view is [[biblical infallibility]] or limited inerrancy, which affirms that the Bible is free of error as a guide to salvation, but may include errors on matters such as history, geography, or science.{{citation needed|date=March 2026}} The canon of the Old Testament accepted by Protestant churches, which is only the [[Tanakh]] (the canon of the [[Hebrew Bible]]), is shorter than that accepted by the Orthodox and Catholic churches which also include the [[deuterocanonical books]] which appear in the [[Septuagint]], the Orthodox canon being slightly larger than the Catholic;{{cite book| first=S. T. |last=Kimbrough |title=Orthodox And Wesleyan Scriptural Understanding And Practice |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&pg=PA23 |year=2005 | publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |isbn=978-0-88141-301-4 |page=23}} Protestants regard the latter as [[Biblical apocrypha|apocryphal]], important historical documents which help to inform the understanding of words, grammar, and syntax used in the historical period of their conception. Some versions of the Bible include a separate Apocrypha section between the Old Testament and the New Testament.Metzger/Coogan, ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. p. 39. The New Testament, originally written in [[Koine Greek]], contains 27 books which are agreed upon by all major churches. Some denominations have [[List of religious texts#Additional and alternative scriptures|additional canonical holy scriptures]] beyond the Bible, including the [[standard works]] of the [[Latter Day Saints movement]] and ''[[Divine Principle]]'' in the [[Unification Church]].{{Cite book|author-link=John Bowker (theologian)|first1=John |last1=Bowker|year= 2011|title=The Message and the Book|location=UK|publisher=[[Atlantic Books]]|pages= 13–14}} === Catholic interpretation === {{Main|Catholic theology of Scripture}} [[File:PonteSantAngeloRom.jpg|thumb|[[St. Peter's Basilica]] viewed from the [[Tiber]]; the [[Vatican Hill]] in the back and [[Castel Sant'Angelo]] in [[Rome]] to the right. Both the basilica and the hill are part of the [[United Nations General Assembly observers|sovereign state]] of [[Vatican City]], the [[Holy See]] of the [[Catholic Church]].]] In antiquity, two schools of exegesis developed in [[School of Alexandria|Alexandria]] and [[School of Antioch|Antioch]]. The Alexandrian interpretation, exemplified by [[Origen]], tended to read Scripture [[allegory|allegorically]], while the Antiochene interpretation adhered to the literal sense, holding that other meanings (called ''[[theoria]]'') could only be accepted if based on the literal meaning.Kelly. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. pp. 69–78. [[Catholic theology]] distinguishes two senses of scripture: the literal and the spiritual.Catechism of the Catholic Church, [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III, ''The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture'' § 115–118]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325191945/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=25 March 2015}} The ''literal'' sense of understanding scripture is the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture. The ''spiritual'' sense is further subdivided into: * The ''allegorical'' sense, which includes [[Typology (theology)|typology]]. An example would be the [[Passage of the Red Sea|parting of the Red Sea]] being understood as a "type" (sign) of baptism.{{bibleverse|1Cor|10:2}} * The ''[[moral]]'' sense, which understands the scripture to contain some ethical teaching. * The ''[[anagoge|anagogical]]'' sense, which applies to [[eschatology]], eternity and the [[Apocalypse|consummation of the world]]. Regarding [[exegesis]], following the rules of sound interpretation, Catholic theology holds: * The injunction that all other senses of sacred scripture are based on the ''literal''Thomas Aquinas, [https://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm "Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060906114843/https://www.newadvent.org/summa/100110.htm |date=6 September 2006}} * That the historicity of the Gospels must be absolutely and constantly held[[Second Vatican Council]], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html ''Dei Verbum'' (V.19)] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html |date=31 May 2014 }}. * That scripture must be read within the "living Tradition of the whole Church"''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III "The Holy Spirit, Interpreter of Scripture"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609220852/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a3.htm#III |date=9 June 2010 }} and * That "the task of interpretation has been entrusted to the bishops in communion with the successor of Peter, the [[Bishop]] of [[diocese of Rome|Rome]]".''Catechism of the Catholic Church'', [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III "The Interpretation of the Heritage of Faith" § 85]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403212113/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p1s1c2a2.htm#III |date=3 April 2015}} === Protestant interpretation === ==== Qualities of Scripture ==== Many Protestant Christians, such as Lutherans{{cite web |url=https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=39&cuItem_itemID=12132 |title=Sola Scriptura? |author= |date=15 May 2006 |website=WELS Topical Q&A |publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod |access-date=26 May 2024 |quote=[M]any passages...state sola scriptura, such as Revelation 22:18-19. If we cannot add anything to the words of Scripture and we cannot take anything away from them, that is Scripture alone. |archive-date=27 September 2009 |archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20090927214527/https://www.wels.net/cgi-bin/site.pl?1518&cuTopic_topicID=39&cuItem_itemID=12132 |url-status=dead }} and the Reformed, believe in the doctrine of ''[[sola scriptura]]''—that the Bible is a self-sufficient revelation, the final authority on all Christian doctrine, and [[Revelation|revealed all truth]] necessary for salvation;{{cite book |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=w_PHAGr2TfgC&pg=PA15|title=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |first=Keith A. |last=Mathison |publisher=[[Canon Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-885767-74-5|chapter=Introduction |page=15|title-link=The Shape of Sola Scriptura |author-link=Keith A. Mathison}} other Protestant Christians, such as Methodists and Anglicans, affirm the doctrine of ''[[prima scriptura]]'' which teaches that Scripture is the primary source for Christian doctrine, but that "tradition, experience, and reason" can nurture the Christian religion as long as they are in harmony with the Bible.{{cite web|url=https://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|title=Methodist Beliefs: In what ways are Lutherans different from United Methodists?|year=2014|publisher=Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran Synod|access-date=22 May 2014|quote=The United Methodists see Scripture as the primary source and criterion for Christian doctrine. They emphasize the importance of tradition, experience, and reason for Christian doctrine. Lutherans teach that the Bible is the sole source for Christian doctrine. The truths of Scripture do not need to be authenticated by tradition, human experience, or reason. Scripture is self authenticating and is true in and of itself.|archive-date=22 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522105449/https://www.wels.net/what-we-believe/questions-answers/christian/methodist-beliefs|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Humphrey|first=Edith M.|title=Scripture and Tradition |date=15 April 2013|publisher=Baker|isbn=978-1-4412-4048-4|page=16|quote=historically Anglicans have adopted what could be called a prima Scriptura position.}} Protestants characteristically believe that ordinary believers may reach an adequate understanding of Scripture because Scripture itself is clear in its meaning (or "perspicuous"). Martin Luther believed that without God's help, Scripture would be "enveloped in darkness". He advocated for "one definite and simple understanding of Scripture".{{cite web |last=Foutz |first=Scott David |url=https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 April 2000 |title=Martin Luther and Scripture |publisher=Quodlibet Journal |access-date=16 June 2014}} [[John Calvin]] wrote, "all who refuse not to follow the Holy Spirit as their guide, find in the Scripture a clear light".John Calvin,[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html '' Commentaries on the Catholic Epistles'' 2 Peter 3:14–18] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/calcom45.vii.iv.iv.html |date=18 February 2022 }} Related to this is "efficacy", that Scripture is able to lead people to faith; and "sufficiency", that the Scriptures contain everything that one needs to know to obtain salvation and to live a Christian life.{{cite book|last=Engelder |first=Theodore E. W. |url=https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1 |title=Popular Symbolics: The Doctrines of the Churches of Christendom and of Other Religious Bodies Examined in the Light of Scripture |page=[https://archive.org/details/MN41551ucmf_1/page/n57 28] |location=Saint Louis, MO |publisher=Concordia Publishing House |year=1934}} ==== Original intended meaning of Scripture ==== Protestants stress the meaning conveyed by the words of Scripture, the [[historical-grammatical method]].Sproul. ''Knowing Scripture'', pp. 45–61; Bahnsen, ''[https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091801/https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm |date=4 December 2014 }}.'' The historical-grammatical method or grammatico-historical method is an effort in [[Biblical hermeneutics]] to find the intended original meaning in the text.{{Cite book |publisher=Baker |isbn=978-0-8010-3413-8 |last=Elwell |first=Walter A. |title=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=1984 |page=[https://archive.org/details/evangelicaldicti00elwe/page/565 565] |title-link=Evangelical Dictionary of Theology}} This original intended meaning of the text is drawn out through examination of the passage in light of the grammatical and syntactical aspects, the historical background, the literary genre, as well as theological (canonical) considerations.{{Cite book |last=Johnson |first=Elliott |url=https://archive.org/details/expositoryhermen0000john |title=Expository hermeneutics : an introduction |publisher=Academie Books |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-310-34160-4 |location=Grand Rapids, MI |url-access=registration}} The historical-grammatical method distinguishes between the one original meaning and the significance of the text. The significance of the text includes the ensuing use of the text or application. The original passage is seen as having only a single meaning or sense. As [[Milton S. Terry]] said: "A fundamental principle in grammatico-historical exposition is that the words and sentences can have but one significance in one and the same connection. The moment we neglect this principle we drift out upon a sea of uncertainty and conjecture".{{Cite book |publisher=Zondervan |last=Terry |first=Milton |author-link=Milton Terry|title=Biblical hermeneutics: a treatise on the interpretation of the Old and New Testaments |location=Grand Rapids, MI |year=1974 |page=205}} (1890 edition page 103, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22fundamental+principle%22 view1], [https://books.google.com/books?id=Fy9VAAAAMAAJ&q=%22neglect+this+principle%22 view2]) Technically speaking, the grammatical-historical method of interpretation is distinct from the determination of the passage's significance in light of that interpretation. Taken together, both define the term (Biblical) hermeneutics. Some Protestant interpreters make use of [[Typology (theology)|typology]].e.g., in his [https://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm commentary on Matthew 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://biblehub.com/commentaries/mhcw/matthew/1.htm |date=18 February 2022 }} (§III.1). [[Matthew Henry]] interprets the twin sons of Judah, Phares and Zara, as an allegory of the Gentile and [[Jewish Christians]]. For a contemporary treatment, see Glenny, ''[https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html Typology: A Summary Of The Present Evangelical Discussion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220218134856/https://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/article_typology_glenny.html |date=18 February 2022 }}''. == Demographics == {{Main|Christianity by country|Christian population growth}} {{See also|Christendom|Christian state}} [[File:2020+ Proportion of people in world religions.svg |thumb|Global percentage of adherents by religion. Christians are the world's largest religious group, with about 2.3 billion adherents in 2020, with about 28.8% of the world's population.{{cite web |last1=Hackett |first1=Conrad |last2=Stonawski |first2=Marcin |last3=Tong |first3=Yunping |last4=Kramer |first4=Stephanie |last5=Shi |first5=Anne |last6=Fahmy |first6=Dalia |title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020 |url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |publisher=Pew Research Center |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260222070137/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/ |archive-date=22 February 2026 |date=9 June 2025 |url-status=live |quote=Source: Pew Research Center estimates based on more than 2,700 censuses and surveys. "How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020"}}]] With around 2.3 billion adherents according to a 2020 estimation by [[Pew Research Center]],{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/how-the-global-religious-landscape-changed-from-2010-to-2020/#:~:text=The%20world%E2%80%99s%20population%20expanded%20from%202010%20to%202020%2C,surveys.%20Christians%20remained%20the%20world%E2%80%99s%20biggest%20religious%20group.|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020. Muslims grew fastest; Christians lagged behind global population increase|publisher=[[Pew Research Center]]|date=9 June 2025|access-date=28 June 2025}} *{{cite web|author-last6=Fahmy|author-first1=Conrad|author-last1=Hackett|author-first2=Marcin|author-last2=Stonawski|author-first3=Yunping|author-last3=Tong|author-first4=Stephanie|author-last4=Kramer|author-first5=Anne|author-last5=Shi|author-first6=Dalia|date=2025-06-09|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|access-date=2025-06-10|publisher=Pew Research Center|archive-date=9 June 2025|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250609194548/https://www.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/20/2025/06/PR_2025.06.09_global-religious-change_report.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia |last=Jan Pelikan |first=Jaroslav |title=Christianity | Definition, Origin, History, Beliefs, Symbols, Types, & Facts | Britannica |date=13 August 2022 |entry=Christianity |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |quote=It has become the largest of the world's religions and, geographically, the most widely diffused of all faiths. |access-date=4 December 2022 |archive-date=1 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141101193717/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education |url-status=live }} split into three main branches of Catholic, Protestant, and Eastern Orthodox, Christianity is the [[major religious groups|world's largest religion]].{{cite web |author=Analysis |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180323215026/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2014/01/global-religion-full.pdf |archive-date=2018-03-23 |url-status=live |title=Global religious landscape: Christians |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012}} High birth rates and [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]] in the [[global South]] were cited as the reasons for the Christian population growth.{{cite book|title=A History of Christian Conversion |first=David |last=W. Kling |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-19-532092-3 |pages=586–587 |publisher=Oxford University Press}}{{cite book|title=Christianity in Sub-Saharan Africa: Edinburgh Companions to Global Christianity |first=Kenneth |last=R. Ross |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-4744-1204-9 |page=17 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}} For the last hundred years, the Christian share has stood at around 33% of the world population. This masks a major shift in the demographics of Christianity; large increases in the developing world have been accompanied by substantial declines in the developed world, mainly in Western Europe and North America.Werner Ustorf. "A missiological postscript", in McLeod and Ustorf (eds), ''The Decline of Christendom in (Western) Europe, 1750–2000'', ([[Cambridge University Press]], 2003) pp. 219–20. Based on the 2020 population estimate, Christians comprise 28.8% of the [[world's population]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/christian-population-change/|title=How the Global Religious Landscape Changed From 2010 to 2020: 2. Christian population change|date=9 June 2025|access-date=15 February 2026|website=[[Pew Research Center]]|archive-date=13 February 2026|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20260213055536/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2025/06/09/christian-population-change/|url-status=live}} 46.8% of the Christian population is concentrated in 10 countries: [[United States]] (over 210 million), [[Brazil]] (over 160 million), [[Mexico]] (over 110 million), [[Philippines]] and [[Russia]] (each one over 100 million), [[Nigeria]] and [[DRC|Congo]] (each one over 90 million), [[Ethiopia]] (over 70 million), [[South Africa]] (over 50 million) and [[Italy]] (over 40 million). [[File:Reabertura Museu de Arte Sacra (18626301050).jpg|thumb|A Christian procession in [[Brazil]], the country with the largest Catholic population in the world]] [[File:День Святой Троицы. Престольный праздник.jpg|thumb|[[Trinity Sunday]] in [[Russia]]; the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] has experienced a great revival since the [[dissolution of the Soviet Union]], a country that had a policy of [[state atheism]].|alt=]] [[File:Auto de Páscoa - IgrejaDaCidade (crop).jpg|thumb|right|Show on the life of [[Jesus]] at [[City Church (Brazil)|City Church]] in [[São José dos Campos]], affiliated with the [[Brazilian Baptist Convention]]]] Based on a 2015 [[Pew Research Center]] study, within the next four decades, Christianity will remain the largest religion; and by 2050, the Christian population is expected to exceed 3 billion.{{cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|title=The Future of World Religions: Population Growth Projections, 2010–2050|access-date=24 June 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150506113049/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2015/03/PF_15.04.02_ProjectionsFullReport.pdf|archive-date=6 May 2015|url-status=dead}}{{rp|60}} According to some scholars, Christianity ranks at first place in net gains through [[religious conversion]].{{cite book |year=2014 |editor-first1=Lewis Ray |editor-last1=Rambo |editor-first2=Charles E. |editor-last2=Farhadian |title=The Oxford Handbook of Religious Conversio|pages=58–61|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-533852-2}}{{cite book |year=2010 |author-first1=Carla Gardina |author-last1=Pestana |title=Evangelicalism and Conversion: Oxford Bibliographies Online Research Guide|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-980834-2}} As a percentage of Christians, the [[Catholic Church]] and [[Orthodoxy]] (both [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern]] and [[Oriental Orthodoxy|Oriental]]) are declining in some parts of the world (though Catholicism is growing in Asia, in Africa, vibrant in Eastern Europe, etc.), while [[Protestants]] and other Christians are on the rise in the developing world.{{cite book|last=Johnstone|first=Patrick|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AVzFAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA109|title=The Future of the Global Church: History, Trends and Possibilities|year=2011|publisher=InterVarsity|via=[[Google Books]]|page=100|isbn=978-0-8308-5695-4 }}Hillerbrand, Hans J., [https://books.google.com/books?id=4tbFBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT3311 "Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set"], p. 1815, "Observers carefully comparing all these figures in the total context will have observed the even more startling finding that for the first time ever in the history of Protestantism, ''Wider Protestants'' will by 2050 have become almost exactly as numerous as Catholics – each with just over 1.5 billion followers, or 17 percent of the world, with Protestants growing considerably faster than Catholics each year."{{cite web |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |access-date=23 May 2024 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |quote=Protestants: 625,606,000; Independents: 421,689,000; Unaffiliated Christians: 123,508,000 |archive-date=6 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240406231727/https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last1=Kim |first1=Hyun-Sook |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=muV0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 |title=The Future of Protestant Religious Education in an Age of Globalization |last2=Osmer |first2=Richard R. |last3=Schweitzer |first3=Friedrich |publisher=Waxmann Verlag |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-8309-8876-2 |page=8}}{{cite book |last1=Walsham |first1=Alexandra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2XrpDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT18 |title=Remembering the Reformation |last2=Cummings |first2=Brian |last3=Law |first3=Ceri |last4=Riley |first4=Karis |date=4 June 2020 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-0-429-61992-2 |page=18}} The so-called ''popular Protestantism''A flexible term, defined as all forms of Protestantism with the notable exception of the historical denominations deriving directly from the Protestant Reformation. is one of the fastest growing religious categories in the world.Some scholars suggest that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religion in the world: * {{cite book|url=https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199920570.001.0001/acprof-9780199920570|title=Spirit and Power: The Growth and Global Impact of Pentecostalism|year=2013|publisher=Oxford University Press|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199920570.001.0001|isbn=978-0-19-934563-2|quote=Pentecostalism is the fastest-growing religious movement in the world|editor1-last=Miller|editor1-first=Donald E.|editor2-first=Kimon H.|editor2-last=Sargeant|editor3-first=Richard|editor3-last=Flory|archive-date=2 June 2021|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602212919/https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199920570.001.0001/acprof-9780199920570|url-status=live}} * {{cite book|url=https://california.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1525/california/9780520266612.001.0001/upso-9780520266612|publisher=University of California Press Scholarship|doi=10.1525/california/9780520266612.001.0001|quote=With its remarkable ability to adapt to different cultures, Pentecostalism has become the world's fastest growing religious movement.|last1=Anderson|first1=Allan|last2=Bergunder|first2=Michael|last3=Droogers|first3=Andre|title=Studying Global PentecostalismTheories and Methods|year=2010|isbn=978-0-520-26661-2|archive-date=19 July 2021|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719115608/https://california.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1525/california/9780520266612.001.0001/upso-9780520266612|url-status=live}} * {{cite podcast|url=https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/rearvision/pentecostal/13360182|title=Pentecostalism—the fastest growing religion on earth|date=30 May 2021|publisher=ABC Radio National|first1=Annabelle|last1=Quince|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-date=19 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210719115558/https://www.abc.net.au/radionational/programs/rearvision/pentecostal/13360182|url-status=live}} * {{cite web|url=https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/pentecostalism-massive-global-growth-under-radar|title=Pentecostalism: Massive Global Growth Under the Radar|date=9 March 2015|publisher=Pulitzer Center|quote=Today, one quarter of the two billion Christians in the world are Pentecostal or Charismatic. Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religion in the world.|author-first1=Richard|author-last1=Vijgen|author-first2=Bregtje|author-last2=van der Haak|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-date=20 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210720232316/https://pulitzercenter.org/stories/pentecostalism-massive-global-growth-under-radar|url-status=live}} * {{cite thesis|author-first1=Keith|author-last1=Smith|url=https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=1067&context=political_science_theses|title=Max Weber and Pentecostals in Latin America: The Protestant Ethic, Social Capital and Spiritual Capital Ethic, Social Capital and Spiritual Capital|date=9 May 2016|publisher=Georgia State University|quote=Many scholars claim that Pentecostalism is the fastest growing religious phenomenon in human history.|access-date=7 October 2022|archive-date=21 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721004302/https://scholarworks.gsu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F&httpsredir=1&article=1067&context=political_science_theses|url-status=dead}}{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ic5pyiIkTxAC&pg=PA16|title=Religion in Global Civil Society|first=Mark|last=Juergensmeyer|year=2005|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=16|isbn=978-0-19-804069-9}}{{cite web|url=https://www.allacademic.com//meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|title=Engendering Charismatic Economies: Pentecostalism, Global Political Economy, and the Crisis of Social Reproduction|last=Barker|first=Isabelle V.|year=2005|publisher=[[American Political Science Association]]|pages=2, 8 and footnote 14 on page 8|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131217004703/https://citation.allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/0/3/9/8/7/pages39879/p39879-1.php|archive-date=17 December 2013|access-date=25 March 2010}} Nevertheless, Catholicism will also continue to grow to 1.63 billion by 2050, according to Todd Johnson of the Center for the Study of Global Christianity.{{Cite journal|first1=Todd M. |last1=Johnson|first2=Gina A |last2=Zurlo|first3=Albert W. |last3=Hickman|first4=Peter F. |last4=Grossing|title=Christianity 2016: Latin America and Projecting Religions to 2050|journal=International Bulletin of Mission Research|year=2016|volume=40|number=1|pages=22–29 |doi=10.1177/2396939315625968 }} Africa alone, by 2015, will be home to 230 million African Catholics.Barrett, 29.{{Clarify|reason=There are two sources attributed to a person named Barrett.|date=October 2025}} According to Pew Research Center, Africa is expected to be home to 1.1 billion [[Christianity in Africa|African Christians]] by 2050. In 2010, 87% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the majority, while 13% of the world's Christian population lived in countries where Christians are in the minority.{{Cite web |title=Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World's Christian Population |url=https://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190801204254/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=2019-08-01 |publisher=Pew Research Center}} Christianity is the predominant religion in Europe, the Americas, Oceania, and Sub-Saharan Africa. There are also large Christian communities in other parts of the world, such as [[Central Asia]], the [[Middle East and North Africa]], [[East Asia]], [[Southeast Asia]], and the [[Indian subcontinent]]. In Asia, it is the dominant religion in Armenia, Cyprus, Georgia, East Timor, and the Philippines.[https://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 Encyclopædia Britannica] table of religions, by region. Retrieved November 2007. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080218163337/https://www.britannica.com/eb/table?tocId=9394911 |date=18 February 2008}} However, it is declining in some areas including the northern and western United States,{{cite web|author=ARIS 2008 Report: Part IA – Belonging |url=https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |title=American Religious Identification Survey 2008 |publisher=B27.cc.trincoll.edu |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110518163841/https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/p1a_belong.html |archive-date=18 May 2011}} some areas in Oceania (Australia{{Cite web |date=2022-04-07 |title=Religious affiliation in Australia |url=https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/religious-affiliation-australia |access-date=2026-03-29 |website=Australian Bureau of Statistics |language=en}} and New Zealand{{Cite web|url= https://explore.data.stats.govt.nz/vis?tm=occupation%2C%202023%20census&pg=0&hc[Society]=2023%20Census&hc[Census%20year]=2023&snb=4&vw=tb&df[ds]=ds-nsiws-disseminate&df[id]=CEN23_TBT_004&df[ag]=STATSNZ&df[vs]=1.0&dq=raTotal%2Bra00000%2Bra10100%2Bra10101%2Bra10102%2Bra10103%2Bra10104%2Bra10105%2Bra10199%2Bra20000%2Bra20100%2Bra20102%2Bra20103%2Bra20199%2Bra20201%2Bra20301%2Bra20302%2Bra20400%2Bra20401%2Bra20402%2Bra20403%2Bra20499%2Bra20500%2Bra20502%2Bra20503%2Bra20599%2Bra20600%2Bra20601%2Bra20602%2Bra20603%2Bra20604%2Bra20605%2Bra20606%2Bra20699%2Bra20700%2Bra20701%2Bra20799%2Bra20801%2Bra20802%2Bra20803%2Bra20804%2Bra20901%2Bra21001%2Bra21101%2Bra21200%2Bra21201%2Bra21202%2Bra21203%2Bra21299%2Bra21300%2Bra21301%2Bra21302%2Bra21303%2Bra21304%2Bra21305%2Bra21399%2Bra21400%2Bra21401%2Bra21402%2Bra21403%2Bra21404%2Bra21405%2Bra21406%2Bra21407%2Bra21408%2Bra21409%2Bra21410%2Bra21411%2Bra21412%2Bra21413%2Bra21414%2Bra21415%2Bra21416%2Bra21417%2Bra21499%2Bra21501%2Bra21502%2Bra21503%2Bra21504%2Bra21505%2Bra21506%2Bra21507%2Bra21600%2Bra21701%2Bra21801%2Bra21802%2Bra29901%2Bra29902%2Bra29903%2Bra29905%2Bra29906%2Bra29908%2Bra29909%2Bra29910%2Bra29911%2Bra29999%2Bra30100%2Bra30101%2Bra30102%2Bra30103%2Bra30199%2Bra40100%2Bra40101%2Bra40102%2Bra40103%2Bra40104%2Bra40199%2Bra50100%2Bra50101%2Bra50102%2Bra50103%2Bra60000%2Bra60101%2Bra60201%2Bra60901%2Bra60999%2Bra70000%2Bra70101%2Bra70200%2Bra70201%2Bra70202%2Bra70203%2Bra70204%2Bra70205%2Bra70299%2Bra70301%2Bra70401%2Bra70901%2Bra70999%2Bra80000%2Bra80101%2Bra80200%2Bra80201%2Bra80202%2Bra80299%2Bra80301%2Bra80400%2Bra80401%2Bra80402%2Bra80403%2Bra80499%2Bra80601%2Bra80701%2Bra80702%2Bra80801%2Bra80901%2Bra81001%2Bra81101%2Bra81102%2Bra81103%2Bra81104%2Bra81105%2Bra81106%2Bra81107%2Bra81108%2Bra81109%2Bra81110%2Bra81111%2Bra81199%2Bra95555%2BraTS%2Bra94444%2Bra97777%2Bra98888%2Bra99999.2018%2B2023&ly[rw]=CEN23_TBT_IND_001&ly[cl]=CEN23_YEAR_001&to[TIME]=false |title= Totals by topic for individuals, (NZ total), 2013, 2018, and 2023 Censuses|publisher= [[Statistics New Zealand]]| access-date= 29 March 2026}}), northern Europe (including Great Britain,{{cite web|url=https://www.ekklesia.co.uk/news/uk/061223/christendom |title=New UK opinion poll shows continuing collapse of 'Christendom' |publisher=Ekklesia.co.uk |date=23 December 2006|access-date=19 November 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100714013820/https://www.ekklesia.co.uk/news/uk/061223/christendom|archive-date=14 July 2010|url-status=dead}} Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, Canada,{{cite web |title=The Canadian census: A rich portrait of the country's religious and ethnocultural diversity |url=https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm |website=Statistics Canada |date=26 October 2022 |publisher=Government of Canada |access-date=2023-11-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231117175209/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/221026/dq221026b-eng.htm |archive-date=2023-11-17}} and some parts of Asia (especially the Middle East, due to the [[Christian emigration]],Barrett/Kurian.''World Christian Encyclopedia'', p. 139 (Britain), 281 (France), 299 (Germany).{{cite news|url=https://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4499668.stm |title=Christians in the Middle East |work=BBC News |date=15 December 2005 |access-date=19 November 2010}}{{cite web|last=Katz |first=Gregory |url=https://www.chron.com/disp/story.mpl/world/4425100.html |title=Is Christianity dying in the birthplace of Jesus? |publisher=Chron.com |date=25 December 2006 |access-date=19 November 2010}} and Macau{{cite news|last=Greenlees |first=Donald |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/26/world/asia/26macao.html |title=A Gambling-Fueled Boom Adds to a Church's Bane |location=Macao |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=26 December 2007 |access-date=30 June 2011}}). The total Christian population is not decreasing in [[Brazil]] and the [[southern United States]],{{cite web|url=https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |title=American Religious Identification Survey (ARIS) 2008 |first1=Barry A. |last1=Kosmin |first2=Ariela |last2=Keysar |year=2009 |publisher=Trinity College |location=Hartford, CN|access-date=1 April 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090407053149/https://b27.cc.trincoll.edu/weblogs/AmericanReligionSurvey-ARIS/reports/ARIS_Report_2008.pdf |archive-date=7 April 2009}} however, the percentage of the population identifying as Christian is in decline. Since the fall of communism, the proportion of Christians has been largely stable in [[Central Europe]], except in the [[Czech Republic]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2018/10/29/eastern-and-western-europeans-differ-on-importance-of-religion-views-of-minorities-and-key-social-issues/|title=Eastern and Western Europeans Differ on Importance of Religion, Views of Minorities, and Key Social Issues|work=Pew Research Center|date=29 October 2018}} On the other hand, Christianity is growing rapidly in both numbers and percentages in Eastern Europe,{{cite web|title=Religious Belief and National Belonging in Central and Eastern Europe|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/05/10/religious-belief-and-national-belonging-in-central-and-eastern-europe/|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project|date=10 May 2017}} China,{{cite journal|title=Chinese Conversion to Evangelical Christianity: The Importance of Social and Cultural Contexts|date=20 January 2017|publisher=Oxford University Press|jstor=3711910|last1=Yang|first1=Fenggang|journal=Sociology of Religion|volume=59|issue=3|pages=237–257|doi=10.2307/3711910 }} other [[Asian countries]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]],The Next Christendom: The Rise of Global Christianity. New York: Oxford University Press. 2002. 270 pp. [[Latin America]], [[North Africa]] ([[Maghreb]]), [[Gulf Cooperation Council]] countries, [[Muslim world]],{{cite journal|last1=Johnstone|first1=Patrick|last2=Miller|first2=Duane Alexander|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=IJRR|date=2015|volume=11|issue=10|pages=1–19|url=https://www.academia.edu/16338087|access-date=30 October 2015}}{{cite book|title=A Short History of Christianity| first=Geoffrey |last=Blainey|year= 2011| isbn= 978-1-74253-416-9|publisher=Penguin Random House Australia|quote=Since the 1960s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of Muslims who have converted to Christianity}} and [[Oceania]]. Despite a decline in adherence in the [[Western world|West]], Christianity remains the dominant religion in the region, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian.{{Cite book |last1=Henderso |first1=Errol A |title=Scriptures, Shrines, Scapegoats, and World Politics: Religious Sources of Conflict and Cooperation in the Modern Era |last2=Maoz |first2=Zeev |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=2020 |isbn=978-0-472-13174-7 |pages=129–130}} Christianity remains the largest religion in [[Western Europe]], where 71% of Western Europeans identified themselves as Christian in 2018.{{Cite web|date=29 May 2018|title=Being Christian in Western Europe|url=https://www.pewforum.org/2018/05/29/being-christian-in-western-europe/|access-date=21 January 2021|website=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project}} A 2011 [[Pew Research Center]] survey found that 76% of Europeans, 73% in Oceania and about 86% in the Americas (90% in Latin America and 77% in North America) identified themselves as Christians. By 2020, 120 countries and territories in the world had [[Christianity by country|Christian majorities]]. There are many [[charismatic movements]] that have become well established over large parts of the world, especially Africa, Latin America, and Asia.{{Cite book|first1=David |last1=Stoll|title=Is Latin America Turning Protestant?|location=Berkeley|publisher=University of California Press|year=1990}}{{cite web|url=https://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html|title=Pentecostalism|first=Jeff|last=Hadden|year=1997|access-date=24 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427204250/https://religiousmovements.lib.virginia.edu/nrms/penta.html |archive-date=27 April 2006}}{{cite web|url= https://pewforum.org/events/?EventID=109|title=Moved by the Spirit: Pentecostal Power and Politics after 100 Years|author1=Pew Forum on Religion |author2=Public Life |date=24 April 2006|access-date=24 September 2008}}{{cite encyclopedia|title=Pentecostalism |encyclopedia=Britannica Concise Encyclopedia |year=2007 |url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |access-date=21 December 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090112143456/https://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1B1-374862.html |archive-date=12 January 2009}}{{cite web|url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2000/november13/36.107.html|title=The CT Review: Pie-in-the-Sky Now|author-first1=Ed |author-last1=Gitre|website= Christianity Today Magazine|date=13 November 2000}} Since 1900, primarily due to conversion, Protestantism has spread rapidly in Africa, Asia, Oceania, and Latin America.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bW3sXBjnokkC&pg=PR11|title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism|first=J. Gordon|last=Melton|year=2005|publisher=Infobase |isbn=978-0-8160-6983-5|page=11}} From 1960 to 2000, the global growth of the number of reported [[Evangelical Protestants]] grew three times the world's population rate, and twice that of [[Islam]].{{Cite book| title=Know the Truth: A Handbook of Christian Belief | last=Milne | first=Bruce | year=2010 | publisher=InterVarsity | page=332 |isbn=978-0-8308-2576-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W_ttliPuhjQC}} According to the historian [[Geoffrey Blainey]] from the [[University of Melbourne]], since the 1960s there has been a substantial increase in the number of conversions from Islam to Christianity, mostly to the [[Evangelical]] and [[Pentecostal]] forms.{{cite book|title=A Short History of Christianity| first=Geoffrey |last=Blainey |year=2011| isbn= 978-1-74253-416-9|publisher=Penguin Random House |quote=Since the 1960s, there has been a substantial increase in the number of Muslims who have converted to Christianity}}{{cite book|title=Living among the Breakage: Contextual Theology-Making and Ex-Muslim Christians |first=Duane Alexander |last=Miller |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4982-8417-2 |pages=435–481 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press}} Significant numbers of Muslim converts to Christianity can be found in Afghanistan,{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Duane Alexander|last2=Koepping|first2=Elizabeth|title=Believers in Christ from a Muslim Background: A Global Census|journal=University of Edinburgh School of Divinity|year=2014|pages=88–89|url=https://era.ed.ac.uk/handle/1842/9513?show=full}} Azerbaijan, Central Asia (including Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, and other countries), Indonesia, Malaysia, the Middle East (including Iran, Saudi Arabia, Turkey,{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6gajAgAAQBAJ&q=turkish+protestant+muslim&pg=PA93|title=Muslim Nationalism and the New Turks|access-date=18 March 2015|isbn=978-1-4008-5125-6|last1=White|first1=Jenny|year=2014|publisher=Princeton University Press }} and other countries), North Africa (including Algeria, Morocco,{{Cite web|url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2013/may/christian-converts-in-morocco-fear-fatwa-calling-for-their.html|title=Christian Converts in Morocco Fear Fatwa Calling for Their Execution|work=Morning Star News|date=9 May 2013 |via=[[Christianity Today]]}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/house-churches-and-silent-masses-the-converted-christians-of-morocco-are-praying-in-secret/|title='House-Churches' and Silent Masses —The Converted Christians of Morocco Are Praying in Secret|website=Vice|author-first1=Rik|author-last1=Goverde|date=23 March 2015 }} and Tunisia{{source-attribution|[https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2007/90222.htm International Religious Freedom Report 2007: Tunisia]. United States [[Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights and Labor]] (14 September 2007).}}), Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Western World (including Albania, Belgium, France, Germany, Kosovo, the Netherlands, Russia, Scandinavia, United Kingdom, the United States, and other western countries). It is also reported that Christianity is popular among people of different backgrounds in Africa and Asia; according to a report by the [[Singapore Management University]], more people in Southeast Asia are converting to Christianity, many of them young and having a [[university degree]].{{cite web|url=https://cmp.smu.edu.sg/perspectives/2012/06/26/understanding-rapid-rise-charismatic-christianity-southeast-asia|title=Understanding the rapid rise of Charismatic Christianity in Southeast Asia|date=27 October 2017|publisher=Singapore Management University}} According to scholar Juliette Koning and Heidi Dahles of {{lang|nl|[[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]]|italic=no}} there is a "rapid expansion" of [[Christianity in Singapore]], China, Hong Kong, Taiwan, [[Christianity in Indonesia|Indonesia]], [[Christianity in Malaysia|Malaysia]], and South Korea. According to scholar Terence Chong from the Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, since the 1980s Christianity is expanding in China, Singapore,{{cite web |url=https://newnation.sg/2011/01/christianity-non-religious-register-biggest-growth-census-2010/ |title=Christianity, non-religious register biggest growth: Census 2010 |author-first1=Terence|author-last1=Lee|publisher=Newnation.sg |date=13 January 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012 |archive-date=24 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120124010232/http://newnation.sg/2011/01/christianity-non-religious-register-biggest-growth-census-2010/ |url-status=dead }} Indonesia, [[Christianity in Japan|Japan]],{{cite web|url=https://www.christianpost.com/news/more-people-claim-christian-faith-in-japan-1549/|title=More People Claim Christian Faith in Japan|date=19 March 2006|author-first1=Audrey|author-last1=Barrick|website=The Christian Post}}{{cite book|title=International Handbook of Protestant Education| first=David |last= W. Robinson|year= 2012| isbn=978-9400723870| page =521 |publisher=Springer |quote=A 2006 Gallup survey, however, is the largest to date and puts the number at 6%, which is much higher than its previous surveys. It notes a major increase among Japanese youth professing Christ.}} Malaysia, Taiwan, South Korea, and Vietnam.{{cite web|url=https://www.eurasiareview.com/28092015-the-state-of-pentecostalism-in-southeast-asia-ethnicity-class-and-leadership-analysis/ |title=The State Of Pentecostalism In Southeast Asia: Ethnicity, Class And Leadership – Analysis|work=Eurasia Review |date=28 September 2015}} In most countries in the developed world, [[church attendance]] among people who continue to identify themselves as Christians has been falling over the last few decades.Putnam, ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society'', p. 408. Some sources view this as part of a drift away from traditional membership institutions,{{Cite book|last1=McGrath|title=Christianity: An Introduction|page= xvi}} while others link it to signs of a decline in belief in the importance of religion in general.{{Cite book|first1=Peter |last1=Marber|title=Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles|page=99}} Europe's Christian population, though in decline, still constitutes the largest geographical component of the religion.{{Cite book|first1=Philip |last1=Jenkins |title=God's Continent|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|page=56}} According to data from the 2012 European Social Survey, around a third of [[Christianity in Europe|European Christians]] say they attend services once a month or more.{{cite news|url=https://www.economist.com/news/international/21684679-march-christianity-future-worlds-most-popular-religion-african|title=The future of the world's most popular religion is African|date=25 December 2015|newspaper=The Economist}} Conversely, according to the [[World Values Survey]], about more than two-thirds of Latin American Christians, and about 90% of [[Christianity in Africa|African Christians]] (in Ghana, Nigeria, Rwanda, South Africa and Zimbabwe) said they attended church regularly. According to a 2018 study by the [[Pew Research Center]], Christians in Africa and Latin America and the United States have high levels of commitment to their faith.{{cite web|url=https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2018/08/22/the-worlds-most-committed-christians-live-in-africa-latin-america-and-the-u-s/|title=The world's most committed Christians live in Africa, Latin America – and the U.S.|author-first1=Joey|author-last1=Marshall|date =22 August 2018|publisher=Pew Research Center}} [[Christian state|Christianity]], in one form or another, is the sole [[state religion]] of the following nations: [[Argentina]] (Catholic),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33657/Argentina| title = Argentina|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} [[Costa Rica]] (Catholic),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/139528/Costa-Rica| title = Costa Rica|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} the [[Kingdom of Denmark]] (Lutheran),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157748/Denmark| title = Denmark|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} [[England]] (Anglican),{{cite web|url=https://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |title=Church and State in Britain: The Church of privilege |publisher=Centre for Citizenship |access-date=11 May 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080511204430/https://www.centreforcitizenship.org/church1.html |archive-date=11 May 2008}} [[Greece]] (Greek Orthodox),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/181798/El-Salvador| title = El Salvador|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} [[Iceland]] (Lutheran),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/281235/Iceland|title = Iceland|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} Liechtenstein (Catholic),{{cite web|url =https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/24418.htm|title = Liechtenstein|publisher = U.S. Department of State|access-date = 11 May 2008}} [[Malta]] (Catholic),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/360532/Malta|title = Malta|encyclopedia = Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} Monaco (Catholic),{{cite encyclopedia|url =https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/388747/Monaco|title = Monaco |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date = 11 May 2008}} [[Norway]] (Lutheran),[https://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke Løsere bånd, men fortsatt statskirke] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140108043939/https://www.abcnyheter.no/nyheter/080410/losere-band-men-fortsatt-statskirke|date=8 January 2014}}, ABC Nyheter [[Samoa]],{{cite news|last1=Feagaimaali'i-Luamanu|first1=Joyetter|title=Constitutional Amendment Passes; Samoa Officially Becomes 'Christian State'|url=http://www.pireport.org/articles/2017/06/08/constitutional-amendment-passes-samoa-officially-becomes-christian-state|publisher=Pacific Islands Report|date=8 June 2017|access-date=15 November 2022|archive-date=11 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111223748/http://www.pireport.org/articles/2017/06/08/constitutional-amendment-passes-samoa-officially-becomes-christian-state|url-status=dead}} [[Tonga]] (Methodist), [[Tuvalu]] (Reformed), and [[Vatican City]] (Catholic).{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/623972/Vatican-City |title=Vatican |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=11 May 2008}} There are numerous other countries, such as Cyprus, which although do not have an [[established church]], still give official recognition and support to a specific [[Christian denomination]].{{cite web|url =https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2003/27433.htm|title = Cyprus|publisher = U.S. Department of State|access-date = 11 May 2008}}
[[File:Christianity percent population in each nation World Map Christian data by Pew Research.svg|upright=3|thumb|center|The global distribution of Christians: Countries colored a darker shade have a higher proportion of Christians.{{cite web|author=Analysis |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2012/12/18/table-religious-composition-by-country-in-percentages/ |title=Table: Religious Composition by Country, in Percentages |publisher=Pewforum.org |date=19 December 2011 |access-date=17 August 2012}}]]

File:Christian World—Pew Research Center 2010.svg|Countries with 50% or more Christians are colored purple; countries with 10% to 50% Christians are colored pink. File:State Religions.svg|Nations with Christianity as their [[state religion]] are in blue. File:Percent of Catholics by Country–Pew Research 2011.svg|Distribution of Catholics File:Countries by percentage of Protestants (2010).svg|Distribution of Protestants File:Percent of Eastern Orthodox Christians by country.svg|Distribution of Eastern Orthodox File:Percent of Oriental Orthodox Christians by country.svg|Distribution of Oriental Orthodox File:Percent of Other Christians by Country–Pew Research 2011.svg|Distribution of other Christians == Churches and denominations == {{Further|List of Christian denominations|List of Christian denominations by number of members|Schism in Christianity}} {{See also|Ecclesiology}} {{pie chart|thumb = right |caption = World Christianity by tradition in 2024 as per World Christian Database{{cite web |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2024, in the Context of 1900–2050 |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity, Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary |quote=Christian total 2,631,941,000, Catholic total 1,278,009,000 (48.6%), Wider Protestant total including Independents 1,047,295,000 (39.8%), Orthodox total including Eastern and Oriental 293,158,000 (11.1%) |access-date=23 May 2024}} |label1 = [[Catholic Church by country|Catholic]] |value1 = 48.6 |label2 = [[Protestantism by country|Protestant]] |value2 = 39.8 |label3 = Orthodox |value3 = 11.1 |label4 = Other |value4 = 0.5}} Christianity can be taxonomically divided into three main groups: [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], [[Protestantism]], [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Eastern Orthodoxy]] while other groups include [[Oriental Orthodox Churches|Oriental Orthodoxy]], [[Restorationism]] and [[Church of the East]].{{Cite book |last=Riswold |first=Caryn D. |title=Feminism and Christianity: Questions and Answers in the Third Wave |date=1 October 2009 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-62189-053-9}}{{cite web |last1=Mitchell |first1=Lynn |title=Christian Denominations by Dr. Lynn Mitchell |url=http://www.dialoguesociety.org/leeds-outreach-participation/417-christian-denominations-by-dr-lynn-mitchell.html |publisher=Dialogue Society |access-date=23 January 2021 |date=8 December 2010}} A broader distinction that is sometimes drawn is between [[Eastern Christianity]] and [[Western Christianity]], which has its origins in the [[East–West Schism]] (Great Schism) of the 11th century. Recently, neither Western nor Eastern [[World Christianity]] has also stood out, for example, in [[African-initiated church]]es. However, there are other present{{cite web|url = https://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm|archive-url = https://archive.today/20120910194517/http://www.religioustolerance.org/ldswho.htm|url-status = usurped|archive-date = 10 September 2012| title = The LDS Restorationist movement, including Mormon denominations |publisher = Religious Tolerance|access-date = 31 December 2007}} and historical{{cite book|first=Bart D.|last=Ehrman|author-link=Bart D. Ehrman|title=Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0-19-514183-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/lostchristianiti00ehrm/page/1 1]|url=https://archive.org/details/lostchristianiti00ehrm/page/1}} Christian groups that do not fit neatly into one of these primary categories. There is a diversity of [[doctrine]]s and [[Liturgy|liturgical]] practices among groups calling themselves Christian. These groups may vary [[ecclesiology|ecclesiologically]] in their views on a classification of [[Christian denomination]]s.[[Sydney E. Ahlstrom]], characterized [[denominationalism]] in America as "a virtual ecclesiology" that "first of all repudiates the insistences of the Catholic Church, the churches of the 'magisterial' Reformation, and of most sects that they alone are the true Church." ({{cite book |last1=Ahlstrom |first1=Sydney E. |last2=Hall |first2=David D. |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5kFF6a1viGcC&pg=PA381 |title=A Religious History of the American People |edition=Revised |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-10012-9 |page=381 }}); * {{cite book |last=Nash |first=Donald A. |url=https://www.thecra.org/files/WhyNotDenom.pdf |title=Why the Churches of Christ are Not a Denomination |access-date=17 June 2014 |pages=1–3 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5n7kJH3Yf?url=https://www.crownhillchurch.com/Why_the_Churches_of_Christ_Are_Not_A_Denomination.pdf |archive-date=28 January 2010 |url-status=dead |ref=none }}; * Wendell Winkler, [https://www.thebible.net/introchurch/ch4.html Christ's Church is not a Denomination] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122063058/http://www.thebible.net/introchurch/ch4.html |date=22 November 2021 }}; * {{cite web |url=https://www.biblestudylessons.com/jesuslord/jeslord8-lesson.php |title=Jesus Is Lord Free Online Bible Study Course Lesson 8, II. How Did Modern Denominations Begin? |first=David E. |last=Pratte |year=1999 |website=biblestudylessons.com |access-date=17 June 2014 }} The Nicene Creed (325), however, is typically accepted as authoritative by most Christians, including the Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Oriental Orthodox, and major Protestant, such as Lutheran and Anglican denominations.{{cite encyclopedia | entry=Nicene Creed |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2007 | url=https://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9055702 |access-date =31 December 2007 |ref=none |title=Nicene Creed -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia }} {{Christian denomination tree}} === Catholic Church === {{Main|Catholic Church}} [[File:Pope Leo XIV 3 (3x4 cropped).png|thumb|upright|[[Pope Leo XIV]], the leader of the Catholic Church since 2025]] The Catholic Church consists of those [[particular Church]]es, headed by bishops, in communion with the [[pope]], the bishop of Rome, as its highest authority in matters of faith, morality, and church governance.[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}''.{{Cite book|last1=Duffy|title=Saints and Sinners|page= 1}} Like [[Eastern Orthodox]]y, the Catholic Church, through [[apostolic succession]], traces its origins to the Christian community founded by Jesus Christ.{{Cite book|last1=Hitchcock|title=Geography of Religion|page= 281}}{{Cite book|last1=Norman|title=The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History|pages=11, 14}} Catholics maintain that the "[[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church]]" founded by Jesus [[Subsistit in|subsists fully]] in the Catholic Church, but also acknowledges other Christian churches and communities[[Second Vatican Council]], ''[https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html Lumen Gentium]'' {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140906031754/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html |date=6 September 2014 }}, chapter 2, paragraph 15.[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]], [https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV paragraph 865]. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150812051820/https://www.vatican.va/archive/catechism/p123a9p3.htm#IV |date=12 August 2015}} and works towards [[ecumenism|reconciliation]] among all Christians. The Catholic faith is detailed in the ''[[Catechism of the Catholic Church]]''.{{Cite book|last1=Marthaler|title=Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues|year=1994|chapter=preface}}{{cite web |author1=John Paul II |language=la |title=Laetamur Magnopere | publisher=Vatican |year=1997 |url=https://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080211121910/https://www.usccb.org/catechism/text/laetamurmagnopere.htm |archive-date=11 February 2008 |access-date =9 March 2008}} Of its [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|seven sacraments]], the [[Eucharist in the Catholic Church|Eucharist]] is the principal one, celebrated [[Catholic liturgy|liturgically]] in the [[Mass in the Catholic Church|Mass]].{{Cite CCC|2.1|1322–1327|quote=[T]he Eucharist is the sum and summary of our faith}} The church teaches that through [[Consecration#Eucharist|consecration]] by a [[Priesthood (Catholic Church)|priest]], the sacrificial [[Sacramental bread|bread]] and [[Sacramental wine|wine]] [[Transubstantiation|become the body and blood of Christ]]. The [[Virgin Mary]] is [[Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church|venerated]] in the Catholic Church as [[Mother of God]] and [[Queen of Heaven]], honoured in [[Mariology of the Catholic Church#Dogmatic teachings|dogmas]] and [[Marian devotions|devotions]].{{refn|name=marian_dogmas|{{cite web |url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resource/55423/the-four-marian-dogmas |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426125118/https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/resource/55423/the-four-marian-dogmas |url-status=dead |archive-date=26 April 2021 |publisher=Catholic News Agency |title=The Four Marian Dogmas |access-date=25 March 2017}} }} Its teaching includes [[Divine Mercy]], [[sanctification]] through faith and [[evangelization]] of [[the Gospel]] as well as [[Catholic social teaching]], which emphasizes voluntary support for the sick, the poor, and the afflicted through the [[Works of mercy|corporal and spiritual works of mercy]]. The Catholic Church operates thousands of [[Catholic schools]], [[Catholic higher education|universities]], [[Catholic Church and health care|hospitals]], and orphanages around the world, and is the largest non-government provider of [[Catholic school|education]] and [[Healthcare and the Catholic Church|health care]] in the world.{{cite journal |last=Agnew |first=John |title=Deus Vult: The Geopolitics of Catholic Church |journal=Geopolitics |date=12 February 2010 |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=39–61 |doi=10.1080/14650040903420388|s2cid=144793259}} Among its other social services are numerous charitable and humanitarian organizations. [[Canon law of the Catholic Church|Canon law]] ({{Langx|la|jus canonicum}})Black's Law Dictionary, 5th Edition, pg. 771: "Jus canonicum" is the [[legal system|system]] of [[law]]s and [[canon law|legal principles]] made and enforced by the [[Hierarchy of the Catholic Church|hierarchical authorities]] of the Catholic Church to regulate its external organisation and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the church.Della Rocca, ''Manual of Canon Law'', p. 3. The canon law of the Latin Church was the first modern Western [[legal system]],{{Cite book|last1=Berman|first1= Harold J. |title=Law and Revolution|pages= 86, 115}} and is the oldest continuously functioning legal system in the West.[[Edward N. Peters]], [https://canonlaw.info/ CanonLaw.info Home Page], accessed 11 June 2013.{{Cite book|first1=Raymond |last1=Wacks|title=Law: A Very Short Introduction|edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press|year= 2015|page= 13}} while the distinctive traditions of [[Eastern Catholic canon law]] govern the 23 Eastern Catholic [[particular church]]es ''[[sui iuris]].'' As the world's oldest and largest continuously functioning international institution,Mark A. Noll. ''The New Shape of World Christianity'' (Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2009), 191. it has played a prominent role in the history and development of [[Western culture|Western civilization]].[[Gerald O'Collins|O'Collins]], p. v (preface).{{cite book |last=Perry |first=Marvin |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U2pnv0Aoh2EC&pg=PA33 |title=Western Civilization: A Brief History, Volume I: To 1789 |publisher=Cengage |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-111-83720-4 |page=33}}{{sfn|Bokenkotter|2004|loc=Preface}}{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Carlton J. H. |title=Christianity and Western Civilization |publisher=[[Stanford University Press]] |orig-year=1954 |year=2006|isbn=978-0-7581-3510-0 |page=2}} The 2,834 [[Episcopal see|sees]]''[[Annuario Pontificio]]'' (2012), p. 1142. are grouped into [[Sui iuris#Catholic ecclesiastical use|24 particular autonomous Churches]] (the largest of which being the [[Latin Church]]), each with its own distinct traditions regarding the [[liturgy]] and the administering of [[Sacraments of the Catholic Church|sacraments]].Barry, ''One Faith, One Lord'' (2001), p. 71 With more than 1.1 billion baptized members, the Catholic Church is the largest Christian [[Christian Church|church]] and represents 50.1% of all Christians as well as 16.7% of the [[world population|world's population]].[[Central Intelligence Agency]], ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20260116020830/https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/world CIA World Factbook]'' (2007).Adherents.com, {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20000816004118/https://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html ''Religions by Adherents'']}}''Zenit.org'', "[https://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english Number of Catholics and Priests Rises] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225194908/https://www.zenit.org/article-18894?l=english |date=25 February 2008 }}", 12 February 2007. Catholics live all over the world through [[Catholic missions|missions]], [[diaspora]], and [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]]. === Eastern Orthodox Church === {{Main|Eastern Orthodox Church}} [[File:Church of St. George, Istanbul (August 2010).jpg|thumb|[[St. George's Cathedral, Istanbul|St. George's Cathedral]] in [[Istanbul]]: It has been the seat of the [[Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople]] whose leader is regarded as the ''[[primus inter pares]]'' in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].{{cite book|title=Eastern Churches Journal: A Journal of Eastern Christendom |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MOAkAQAAIAAJ |year=2004 |publisher=Society of Saint John Chrysostom| page=181 |quote=His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew is the 270th successor to the Apostle Andrew and spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide.}}|218x218px]] The Eastern Orthodox Church consists of those churches in communion with the [[patriarch]]al sees of the East, such as the [[Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople]].Cross/Livingstone. ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church'', p. 1199. Like the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church also traces its heritage to the foundation of Christianity through [[apostolic succession]] and has an [[Episcopal polity|episcopal]] structure, though the [[autocephaly|autonomy]] of its component parts is emphasized, and most of them are national churches. [[Eastern Orthodox theology]] is based on [[holy tradition]] which incorporates the dogmatic decrees of the [[First seven ecumenical councils|seven Ecumenical Councils]], the Scriptures, and the teaching of the [[Church Fathers]]. The church teaches that it is the [[Four Marks of the Church|one, holy, catholic and apostolic]] [[One true church|church]] established by [[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus Christ]] in his [[Great Commission]],{{Cite web|title=The Orthodox Faith – Volume I – Doctrine and Scripture – The Symbol of Faith – Church|url=https://www.oca.org/orthodoxy/the-orthodox-faith/doctrine-scripture/the-symbol-of-faith/church|access-date=27 July 2020|website=www.oca.org}} and that its bishops are the successors of Christ's apostles.{{Cite book|last=Meyendorff|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wo9MwwEACAAJ|title=Byzantine Theology: Historical Trends and Doctrinal Themes |year=1983|publisher=Fordham University Press}} It maintains that it practises the original Christian faith, as passed down by holy tradition. Its [[patriarchates]], reminiscent of the [[pentarchy]], and other [[autocephalous]] and [[autonomous]] churches reflect a variety of [[hierarchical]] [[Eastern Orthodox Church organization|organisation]]. It recognizes seven major sacraments, of which the [[Eucharist]] is the principal one, celebrated [[Divine Liturgy|liturgically]] in [[synaxis]]. The church teaches that through [[Consecration#Eucharist|consecration]] [[epiclesis|invoked]] by a [[Priesthood (Orthodox Church)|priest]], the sacrificial bread and wine become the body and blood of Christ. The [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin Mary]] is [[veneration|venerated]] in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the ''[[Theotokos]]'', meaning God-bearer, and is honoured in [[Marian devotions#Eastern Orthodoxy|devotions]]. Eastern Orthodoxy is the second largest single denomination in Christianity, with an estimated 300 million adherents,{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/findingglobalbal0000mars |title=Finding Global Balance |publisher=World Bank Publications |year=2005 |page=[https://archive.org/details/findingglobalbal0000mars/page/119 119] |quote="His All Holiness Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew is the spiritual leader of 300 million Orthodox Christians worldwide." |access-date=8 December 2023 |url-access=registration}} although [[Protestantism|Protestants]] collectively outnumber them, substantially.{{Cite web |title=Status of Global Christianity, 2019, in the Context of 1900–2050 |url=https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2019/04/StatusofGlobalChristianity20191.pdf?__cf_chl_jschl_tk__=dbc877fea75b25fc6737b0fd6bd1d6bd5d4e0119-1589502882-0-AWKZpJ8Cde9iLLQo_A-22M_6Yx_NzYkoJXkWheGxqt79XJKGAsGe9toy2d0WPGwhF-35Z5iB65LQsTW3m1PdGbFd6Pz1FN8-LTUPA-7p3VA9qU1sUJgKAyskRYjdAd0nnbE1K-Hekmpb1HvqRyiyTVMvdoiAQgbQ-x1tFESeE7IEPbEr0ePTUaTOq_G4kXbl8tty1gBEzw8IXz3nc987229mqJBKaNGFMSVFhwIzaLKjTkv5qbwuKBmYwZgAVO2HRopF4H-YG7QxTS3V8NgWvWxvKHSwzN3xPcJXwStewDjYL9XE7FUB8bncjdGvSFX_yA3OZlfXOAqatMcH3w0Jebe-r7HC14HXVGSUPzjxATzH3krdCRrsVQ5T_N3AEDXA-TDldZcNJpl_EpuDcfobDniMsNiSbFzIH6EuBv7Vy4aP |publisher=Center for the Study of Global Christianity}} As one of the oldest surviving religious institutions in the world, the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]] has played a prominent role in the history and culture of [[Eastern Europe|Eastern]] and [[Southeastern Europe]], the [[Caucasus]], and the [[Near East]].{{cite book |last=Ware |first=Kallistos |title=The Orthodox Church |year=1993 |publisher=Penguin |isbn=978-0-14-014656-1 |page=8}} The majority of Eastern Orthodox Christians live mainly in [[Southeast Europe|Southeast]] and [[Eastern Europe]], [[Cyprus]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and parts of the [[Caucasus]] region, [[Siberia]], and the [[Russian Far East]]. Over half of Eastern Orthodox Christians follow the [[Russian Orthodox Church]], while the vast majority live within [[Russia]]. There are also communities in the former [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine regions]] of Africa, the [[Eastern Mediterranean]], and in the [[Middle East]]. Eastern Orthodox communities are also present in many other parts of the world, particularly North America, Western Europe, and Australia, formed through [[diaspora]], [[Conversion to Christianity|conversions]], and [[missionary]] activity.{{Cite book |last1=Bautista |first1=Julius |title=Christianity and the State in Asia: Complicity and Conflict |last2=Gee Lim |first2=Francis Khek |publisher=Taylor & Francis |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-134-01887-1 |pages=28 |quote=Nevertheless, it is clear in Asia that Christianity spread as a result of both trade and military power.}} === Oriental Orthodox Churches === {{Main|Oriental Orthodox Churches}} [[File:Addis abeba, chiesa della trinità, esterno 02.jpg|thumb|[[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Cathedral]] in [[Addis Ababa]], the seat of the Ethiopian Orthodox; the largest of the Oriental Orthodox Churches]] The [[Oriental Orthodox Churches]] (also called "Old Oriental" churches) are those eastern churches that recognize the first three ecumenical councils—[[First Council of Nicaea|Nicaea]], [[First Council of Constantinople|Constantinople]], and [[First Council of Ephesus|Ephesus]]—but reject the dogmatic definitions of the [[Council of Chalcedon]] and instead espouse a [[Miaphysite christology]]. The Oriental Orthodox communion consists of six groups: [[Syriac Orthodox]], [[Coptic Orthodox Church|Coptic Orthodox]], [[Ethiopian Orthodox]], [[Eritrean Orthodox]], [[Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church]] (India), and [[Armenian Apostolic]] churches.{{cite web|url=https://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |title=Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Wcc-coe.org|access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100406014259/https://www.wcc-coe.org/wcc/what/ecumenical/ooc-e.html |archive-date=6 April 2010}} These six churches, while being in communion with each other, are completely independent hierarchically.{{cite web |url=https://www.pluralism.org/affiliates/student/allen/Oriental-Orthodox/Home.html |title=An Introduction to the Oriental Orthodox Churches |publisher=Pluralism.org |date=15 March 2005 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-date=8 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708191023/http://www.pluralism.org/affiliates/student/allen/Oriental-Orthodox/Home.html |url-status=dead }} These churches are generally not in communion with the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]], with whom they are in dialogue for erecting a communion.{{cite web |author=OONS |url=https://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |title=Syrian Orthodox Resources – Middle Eastern Oriental Orthodox Common Declaration |publisher=Sor.cua.edu |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100626020037/https://sor.cua.edu/Ecumenism/20010317oomtg4.html |archive-date=26 June 2010 |url-status=dead}} Together, they have about 62 million members worldwide.{{cite book |last1=Lamport |first1=Mark A. |title=Encyclopedia of Christianity in the Global South |year=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-7157-9 |page=601 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=B6xVDwAAQBAJ&q=oriental+orthodox+50+million&pg=PA601 |quote=Today these churches are also referred to as the Oriental Orthodox Churches and are made up of 50 million Christians.}}{{cite journal |title=Orthodox Christianity in the 21st Century |journal=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |date=8 November 2017 |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2017/11/08/orthodox-christianity-in-the-21st-century/ |quote=Oriental Orthodoxy has separate self-governing jurisdictions in Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, India, Armenia and Syria, and it accounts for roughly 20% of the worldwide Orthodox population.}}{{Cite web |url=https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/orthodox-churches-oriental |title=Orthodox churches (Oriental) — World Council of Churches |website=www.oikoumene.org}}{{Cite journal |date=19 December 2011 |title=Christian Traditions |url=https://www.pewforum.org/2011/12/19/global-christianity-traditions/ |journal=Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project |quote=About half of all Christians worldwide are Catholic (50%), while more than a third are Protestant (37%). Orthodox communions comprise 12% of the world's Christians.}} As some of the oldest religious institutions in the world, the Oriental Orthodox Churches have played a prominent role in the history and culture of [[Armenia]], [[Egypt]], [[Turkey]], [[Eritrea]], [[Ethiopia]], [[Christian Nubia|Sudan]], [[Iran]], [[Azerbaijan]],{{cite book|last1=Barry|first1=James |title=Christians in Iran and Azerbaijan|year=2019|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=9781108429047|pages=241–242}} and parts of the [[Middle East]] and [[India]].{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHstAQAAIAAJ |title=Christians in the Arab East: A Political Study |last=Betts |first=Robert B. |publisher=Lycabettus |year=1978 |edition=2nd |location=Athens |isbn=978-0-8042-0796-6}}{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6J_YAAAAMAAJ |title=Imperial unity and Christian divisions: The Church 450-680 A.D. |last=Meyendorff |first=John |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=1989 |series=The Church in history |volume=2 |location=Crestwood, NY |author-link=John Meyendorff |isbn=978-0-88141-055-6}}{{cite book |last1=Barry |first1=James |title=Armenian Christians in Iran |year=2019 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=9781108429047 |pages=241–242}} An Eastern Christian body of [[Autocephaly|autocephalous]] [[Christian denomination|churches]], its [[bishop]]s are equal by virtue of [[episcopal ordination]], and its doctrines can be summarized in that the churches recognize the validity of only the first three [[ecumenical council]]s.{{cite book|last1=Hindson |first1=Ed |last2=Mitchell |first2=Dan |title=The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4eE2LdSKiQwC |year=2013 |publisher=Harvest House |isbn=978-0-7369-4806-7}} Some followers of Oriental Orthodox Churches follow cultural practices that are reminiscent of [[Old Testament]] practices, like [[Religious restrictions on the consumption of pork|abstaining from pork]],{{cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Anthony |last2=Gates |first2=Henry Louis |title=Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience |year=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-517055-9 |page=566}} [[circumcising]] male babies,{{Cite book |last=N. Stearns |first=Peter |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Modern World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-19-517632-2 |page=179 |quote=Uniformly practiced by Jews, Muslims, and the members of Coptic, Ethiopian, and Eritrean Orthodox Churches, male circumcision remains prevalent in many regions of the world, particularly Africa, South and East Asia, Oceania, and Anglosphere countries.}} and observing [[ritual purification]].{{cite book |first=Ian |last=Bradley |title=Water: A Spiritual History |year=2012 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-4411-6767-5 }}{{Cite book|last=H. Bulzacchelli |first=Richard |title=Judged by the Law of Freedom: A History of the Faith-works Controversy, and a Resolution in the Thought of St. Thomas Aquinas |publisher=[[University Press of America]] |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-7618-3501-1 |page=19 |quote=The Ethiopian and Coptic Churches distinguishes between clean and unclean meats, observes days of ritual purification, and keeps a kind of dual Sabbath on both Saturday and Sunday.}} === Church of the East === {{Further|Assyrian Church of the East|Ancient Church of the East}} [[File:Church of Saint John the Arab.jpg|thumb|A 6th-century [[Nestorian church]], St. John the Arab, in the [[Assyrian tribes|Assyrian village]] of [[Andac|Geramon]] in [[Hakkari (historical region)|Hakkari]], southeastern Turkey.]] The [[Church of the East]], which was part of the [[Great Church]],{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q-vhwjamOioC&q=anagignoskomena&pg=PA23 |title=Orthodox and Wesleyan Scriptural understanding and practice |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-88141-301-4 |editor-last=S. T. Kimbrough}} shared [[communion (Christian)|communion]] with those in the [[Roman Empire]] until the [[Council of Ephesus]] [[Nestorian schism|condemned Nestorius]] in 431. Continuing as a ''[[dhimmi]]'' community under the [[Rashidun Caliphate]] after the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]] (633–654), the [[Church of the East]] played a major role in the history of [[Christianity in Asia]]. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, it represented the world's largest [[Christian denomination]] in terms of geographical extent. It established [[Dioceses of the Church of the East to 1318|dioceses]] and communities stretching from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and today's Iraq and [[Iran]], to [[India (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)|India]] (the [[Saint Thomas Christians|Saint Thomas Syrian Christians]] of [[Kerala]]), the [[Christianity among the Mongols|Mongol kingdoms]] in Central Asia, and [[Church of the East in China|China]] during the [[Tang dynasty]] (7th–9th centuries). In the 13th and 14th centuries, the church experienced a final period of expansion under the [[Mongol Empire]], where influential Church of the East clergy sat in the Mongol court. The [[Assyrian Church of the East]], with an unbroken patriarchate established in the 17th century, is an independent [[Eastern Christian]] denomination which claims continuity from the [[Church of the East]]—in parallel to the Catholic patriarchate established in the 16th century that evolved into the [[Chaldean Catholic Church]], an [[Eastern Catholic]] church in [[full communion]] with the [[Pope]]. It is an Eastern Christian [[Christian denomination|church]] that follows the traditional [[christology]] and [[ecclesiology]] of the historical Church of the East. Largely [[Aniconism in Christianity|aniconic]] and not in [[communion (Christianity)|communion]] with any other church, it belongs to the eastern branch of [[Syriac Christianity]], and uses the [[East Syriac Rite]] in its [[liturgy]].{{Cite book|last=Baumer|first=Christoph|title=The Church of the East: An Illustrated History of Assyrian Christianity|year=2006|location=London & New York|publisher=Tauris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ7ZAAAAMAAJ|isbn=978-1-84511-115-1}} [[File:Church of Saint Mary - Urmia - Iran - کلیسای ننه مریم، ارومیه - ایران.jpg|thumb|[[St. Mary Church, Urmia|Saint Mary Church]]; an ancient Assyrian church located in the city of [[Urmia]], Iran]] Its main spoken language is [[Syriac language|Syriac]], a dialect of [[Eastern Aramaic]], and the majority of its adherents are ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], mostly living in [[Iran]], [[Iraq]], [[Syria]], [[Turkey]], [[India]] ([[Chaldean Syrian Church]]), and in the [[Assyrian diaspora]].{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Islam| first=Juan |last=Eduardo Campo |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-4381-2696-8| page=142 |publisher=Infobase |quote=the Assyrian Church of the East (found mainly in northern Iraq, southern Turkey, Iran, southwest India, and now the United States).}} It is officially headquartered in the city of [[Erbil]] in northern [[Iraqi Kurdistan]], and its original area also spreads into south-eastern Turkey and north-western Iran, corresponding to ancient [[Assyria]]. Its hierarchy is composed of [[metropolitan bishop]]s and [[diocesan bishop]]s, while lower clergy consists of [[priest]]s and [[deacon]]s, who serve in dioceses (eparchies) and parishes throughout the Middle East, India, North America, Oceania, and Europe (including the [[Caucasus]] and Russia).{{Cite book|last=Hunter|first=Erica C.D.|chapter=The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East|editor-last=Leustean|editor-first=Lucian N.|title=Eastern Christianity and Politics in the Twenty-First Century|year=2014|location=London & New York|publisher=Routledge|pages=601–620|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zt2vAwAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-317-81866-3}} The [[Ancient Church of the East]] distinguished itself from the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] in 1964. It is one of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] churches that claim continuity with the historical Church of the East, one of the oldest Christian churches in Mesopotamia.{{Cite web |url=https://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |title=CNEWA: Ronald G. Roberson, C.S.P. – The Assyrian Church of the East |access-date=15 August 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120316110009/http://www.cnewa.us/default.aspx?ID=1&pagetypeID=9&sitecode=HQ&pageno=1 |archive-date=16 March 2012 |url-status=dead}} It is officially headquartered in the city of [[Baghdad]], Iraq. The majority of its adherents are ethnic [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]].{{Cite book|title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Eastern Christianity|year=2017|publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-6658-4|editor-last=Parry|editor-first=Ken|location=Oxford|pages=122–123|chapter=Church of the East|doi=10.1002/9781405166584|orig-year=1999|editor-last2=Melling|editor-first2=David J.|editor-last3=Brady|editor-first3=Dimitri|editor-last4=Griffith|editor-first4=Sidney H.|editor-last5=Healey|editor-first5=John F.}} === Protestantism === {{Main|Protestantism|Proto-Protestantism}} {{See also|Protestant ecclesiology}} In 1521, the [[Edict of Worms]] condemned [[Martin Luther]] and officially banned citizens of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] from defending or propagating his ideas.Fahlbusch, Erwin, and Bromiley, Geoffrey William, ''The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Volume 3''. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans, 2003. p. 362. This split within the Roman Catholic church is now called the [[Reformation]]. Prominent Reformers included Martin Luther, [[Huldrych Zwingli]], and [[John Calvin]]. The 1529 [[Protestation at Speyer]] against being excommunicated gave this party the name [[Protestantism]]. Luther's primary theological heirs are known as [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]. Zwingli and Calvin's heirs are far broader denominationally and are referred to as the [[Calvinism|Reformed tradition]].McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. pp. 251–259. The [[Anglicanism|Anglican]] churches descended from the [[Church of England]] and organized in the [[Anglican Communion]]. Some Lutherans identify as [[Evangelical Catholic]]s and some but not all Anglicans consider themselves both Protestant and Catholic.{{cite web |last1=Mulvaine |first1=Troy A. |title=Evangelical Catholic |url=https://churchoftheapostleslutheran.org/evangelical-catholic |publisher=Church of the Apostles, Lutheran |access-date=29 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180903061548/http://churchoftheapostleslutheran.org/evangelical-catholic/ |archive-date=3 September 2018 |date=2013}}Sykes/Booty/Knight. ''The Study of Anglicanism'', p. 219. Some Anglicans consider their church a [[Branch theory|branch of the "One Holy Catholic Church"]] alongside of the Catholic, Scandinavian Lutheran and Eastern Orthodox churches, a concept rejected by the Catholic Church, some Eastern Orthodox, and many [[evangelical Anglican]]s themselves, for more on this, see Gregory Hallam, ''[https://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/articles/ecumenical/hallam_orthodoxy_ecumenism.htm Orthodoxy and Ecumenism]''.Gregory Mathewes-Green, "[https://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html Whither the Branch Theory?]", ''Anglican Orthodox Pilgrim'' Vol. 2, No. 4. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120519104645/https://www.westernorthodox.com/branch.html |date=19 May 2012}} Protestants have developed [[Protestant culture|their own culture]], with major contributions in education, the [[Merton thesis|humanities and sciences]], the political and social order, the [[Protestant work ethic|economy]] and the arts, and many other fields.Karl Heussi, ''Kompendium der Kirchengeschichte'', 11. Auflage (1956), Tübingen (Germany), pp. 317–319, 325–326.{{cite encyclopedia |first=Martin |last=E. Marty |title=The Protestant Heritage - Protestantism's influence in the modern world |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Protestant-Heritage-1354359/Protestantisms-influence-in-the-modern-world|entry=Protestantism's influence in the modern world |date=13 August 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}} Since the Anglican, Lutheran, and the Reformed branches of Protestantism originated for the most part in cooperation with the government, these movements are termed the "[[Magisterial Reformation]]". On the other hand, groups such as the [[Anabaptism|Anabaptists]], who often do not consider themselves to be Protestant, originated in the [[Radical Reformation]], which though sometimes protected under ''Acts of Toleration'', do not trace their history back to any state church. They are further distinguished by their rejection of infant baptism; they believe in baptism only of adult believers—[[credobaptism]] (Anabaptists include the [[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof]], [[Mennonites]], [[Hutterites]], [[River Brethren]] and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]] groups.){{cite web |last1=Gertz |first1=Steven |title=Outsider's Guide to America's Anabaptists |url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/history/issues/issue-84/outsiders-guide-to-americas-anabaptists.html |publisher=[[Christianity Today]] |access-date=20 May 2021 |date=2004}}{{cite book|last1=Benedetto|first1=Robert|last2=Duke|first2=James O.|title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History|year=2008|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22416-5|page=22}}{{cite book|last=Littell|first=Franklin H.|title=The Anabaptist View of the Church|year=2000|publisher=The Baptist Standard Bearer |isbn=978-1-57978-836-0|page=79|quote=In reviewing the records, the reader is struck with the Anabaptists' acute consciousness of separation from the "fallen" church—in which they included the Reformers as well as the Roman institution. Some writers have therefore concluded that Anabaptism is not merely a variant form of Protestantism, but rather an ideology and practice quite different in kind from those of both Rome and the Reformers.}}{{cite web|url=https://mennoniteusa.org/who-we-are/|title=Who We Are: A Quick Visual Guide |year=2018|publisher=Mennonite Church US|access-date=26 April 2018|quote=Anabaptists: We are neither Catholic nor Protestant, but we share ties to those streams of Christianity. We cooperate as a sign of our unity in Christ and in ways that extend the reign of God's Kingdom on earth. We are known as "Anabaptists" (not anti-Baptist)—meaning "rebaptizers."}} The term ''Protestant'' also refers to any churches which formed later, with either the Magisterial or Radical traditions. In the 18th century, for example, [[Methodism]] grew out of [[Anglican]] minister [[John Wesley]]'s [[Evangelical Revival|evangelical revival movement]].{{cite web|url=https://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |title=About The Methodist Church |publisher=Methodist Central Hall Westminster |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070121041402/https://www.methodist-central-hall.org.uk/history/WhatisMethodism.htm |archive-date=21 January 2007}} Several [[Pentecostal]] and [[Nondenominational Christianity|non-denominational churches]], which emphasize the cleansing power of the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], in turn grew out of Methodism.{{cite web|url = https://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|title = Christianity: Pentecostal Churches|publisher = GodPreach |access-date = 31 December 2007|url-status=dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150211234057/https://www.godpreach.com/christianity-pentecostal-churches/|archive-date = 11 February 2015|df = dmy-all}} Because Methodists, Pentecostals and other evangelicals stress "accepting Jesus as your personal Lord and Savior",{{cite web|url=https://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |title=Statement of Belief |publisher=Cambridge Christ United Methodist Church |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928101604/https://www.cambridgechristumc.com/statementofbelief.htm |archive-date=28 September 2007}} which comes from Wesley's emphasis of the [[Born again (Christianity)|New Birth]],{{cite web|url=https://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |title=The New Birth by John Wesley (Sermon 45) |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070913232442/https://new.gbgm-umc.org/umhistory/wesley/sermons/45/ |archive-date=13 September 2007}} they often refer to themselves as being [[born again]].{{cite web|url=https://gbgm-umc.org/umw/wesley/walk.stm |title=God's Preparing, Accepting, and Sustaining Grace |publisher=The United Methodist Church GBGM |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080109013416/https://gbgm-umc.org/UMW/Wesley/walk.stm |archive-date=9 January 2008}}{{cite web|url=https://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |title=Total Experience of the Spirit |publisher=Warren Wilson College |access-date=31 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060903030820/https://www.warren-wilson.edu/~religion/newifo/religions/christianity/index/pentecostal/essay.shtml |archive-date=3 September 2006}} Protestantism is the second largest major group of Christians after Catholicism by number of followers, although the Eastern Orthodox Church is larger than any single Protestant denomination. Estimates vary, mainly over the question of which denominations to classify as Protestant. The total Protestant population has reached 1.17 billion in 2024, corresponding to nearly 44% of the world's Christians.{{cite web |url=https://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |title=Pewforum: Christianity (2010) |access-date=14 May 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130805020311/https://www.pewforum.org/files/2011/12/Christianity-fullreport-web.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2013 |url-status=dead}}{{cite book |last1=Noll |first1=Mark A. |title=Protestantism: A Very Short Introduction |year=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-162013-3 |page=9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1GKBgK00JSsC&q=protestantism+million&pg=PA9}} The majority of Protestants are members of just a handful of denominational families, i.e. [[Adventism]], [[Anabaptism]] ([[Amish]], [[Apostolic Christian Church|Apostolic]], [[Bruderhof Communities|Bruderhof]], [[Hutterites]], [[Mennonites]], [[River Brethren]], and [[Schwarzenau Brethren]]), [[Anglicanism]], [[Baptist]]s, [[Lutheranism]], [[Methodism]], [[Moravian Church|Moravianism/Hussites]], [[Pentecostalism]], [[Plymouth Brethren]], [[Quakers|Quakerism]], [[Calvinism|Reformed Christianity]] ([[Congregational church|Congregationalists]], [[Continental Reformed Protestantism|Continental Reformed]], [[Reformed Anglican]]s, and [[Presbyterianism|Presbyterians]]),This branch was first called Calvinism by [[Lutheranism|Lutherans]] who opposed it, and many within the tradition would prefer to use the word ''Reformed''. and [[Waldensians|Waldensianism]] are the main families of Protestantism. [[Nondenominational Christianity|Nondenominational]], [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]], [[Charismatic Movement|charismatic]], [[Neo-charismatic churches|neo-charismatic]], independent, and other churches are on the rise, and constitute a significant part of Protestant Christianity.[https://www.oikoumene.org/en/church-families/evangelical-churches World Council of Churches: Evangelical churches]: "Evangelical churches have grown exponentially in the second half of the 20th century and continue to show great vitality, especially in the global South. This resurgence may in part be explained by the phenomenal growth of Pentecostalism and the emergence of the charismatic movement, which are closely associated with evangelicalism. However, there can be no doubt that the evangelical tradition "per se" has become one of the major components of world Christianity. Evangelicals also constitute sizable minorities in the traditional Protestant and Anglican churches. In regions like Africa and Latin America, the boundaries between "evangelical" and "mainline" are rapidly changing and giving way to new ecclesial realities." Some groups of individuals who hold basic Protestant tenets identify themselves as "Christians" or "[[born-again]] Christians". They typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] and [[creed]]alism of other Christian communitiesConfessionalism is a term employed by historians to refer to "the creation of fixed identities and systems of beliefs for separate churches which had previously been more fluid in their self-understanding, and which had not begun by seeking separate identities for themselves—they had wanted to be truly Catholic and reformed." (MacCulloch, ''The Reformation: A History'', p. xxiv.) by calling themselves "[[Non-denominational Christianity|non-denominational]]" or "[[evangelical]]". Often founded by individual pastors, they have little affiliation with historic denominations.{{cite web|url = https://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf|title = Classification of Protestant Denominations|publisher = Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life / U.S. Religious Landscape Survey|access-date = 27 September 2009|archive-date = 9 October 2009|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20091009175734/http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report2religious-landscape-study-appendix3.pdf|url-status = dead}} {{Plain image with caption|image=Protestant branches.svg|caption=Historical chart of the main Protestant branches|width=650px|align=center|caption position=top}} {{clear}} === Restorationism === {{Main|Restorationism}} [[File:Priesthood03080u.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|A 19th-century drawing of [[Joseph Smith]] and [[Oliver Cowdery]] receiving the [[Aaronic priesthood (Latter Day Saints)|Aaronic priesthood]] from [[John the Baptist]]. [[Latter Day Saint movement|Latter Day Saints]] believe that the [[Christian priest|Priesthood]] ceased to exist after the death of the apostles and therefore needed to be [[Restoration (Latter Day Saints)|restored]].]] The [[Second Great Awakening]], a period of religious revival that occurred in the United States during the early 1800s, saw the development of a number of unrelated churches. They generally saw themselves as [[Restorationism|restoring]] the original church of Jesus Christ rather than reforming one of the existing churches.McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 91ff. A common belief held by Restorationists was that the other divisions of Christianity had introduced doctrinal defects into Christianity, which was known as the [[Great Apostasy]].{{cite web|url = https://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20061212202036/http://www.religioustolerance.org/chrrest.htm|url-status = usurped|archive-date = 12 December 2006| title = The Restorationist Movements|publisher = Religious Tolerance|access-date = 31 December 2007}} In Asia, {{lang|tl|[[Iglesia ni Cristo]]|italic=no}} is a known Restorationist denomination that was established during the early 1900s. Other examples of Restorationist denominations include [[Catholic Apostolic Church|Irvingianism]] and [[Swedenborgians|Swedenborgianism]].{{cite book |last1=Bloesch |first1=Donald G. |title=The Holy Spirit: Works Gifts |date=2 December 2005 |publisher=InterVarsity Press |isbn=978-0-8308-2755-8 |page=158 |language=en}} Some of the churches originating during this period are historically connected to early 19th-century camp meetings in the Midwest and upstate New York. One of the largest churches produced from the movement is [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]].{{Cite news|url=https://newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org/facts-and-statistics|title=The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints Statistics and Church Facts {{!}} Total Church Membership|work=newsroom.churchofjesuschrist.org|access-date=3 November 2020}} American [[Millennialism]] and [[Adventism]], which arose from Evangelical Protestantism, influenced the [[Jehovah's Witnesses]] movement and, as a reaction specifically to [[William Miller (preacher)|William Miller]], the [[Seventh-day Adventist Church|Seventh-day Adventists]]. Others, including the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]], [[Evangelical Christian Church in Canada]],Sydney E. Ahlstrom, ''A Religious History of the American People'' (2004)Melton's Encyclopedia of American Religions (2009) [[Churches of Christ]], and the [[Christian churches and churches of Christ]], have their roots in the contemporaneous Stone-Campbell [[Restoration Movement]], which was centered in Kentucky and Tennessee. Other groups originating in this time period include the [[Christadelphians]] and the previously mentioned [[Latter Day Saints movement]]. While the churches originating in the Second Great Awakening have some superficial similarities, their doctrine and practices vary significantly.''Manuscript History of the Church'', LDS Church Archives, book A-1, p. 37; reproduced in [[Dean C. Jessee]](comp.) (1989). ''The Papers of Joseph Smith: Autobiographical and Historical Writings''(Salt Lake City, Utah: Deseret Book) '''1''':302–303. === Other === [[File:Biserica unitariană 20180321 115158 05.jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|[[Unitarian Church of Transylvania]] in [[Cluj-Napoca]]]] Within Italy, Poland, Lithuania, Transylvania, Hungary, Romania, and the United Kingdom, [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Churches]] emerged from the [[Reformed tradition|Reformed]] tradition in the 16th century;J. Gordon Melton, ''Encyclopedia of Protestantism'', 2005, p. 543: "Unitarianism – The word ''unitarian'' [italics] means one who believes in the oneness of God; historically it refers to those in the Christian community who rejected the doctrine of the Trinity (one God expressed in three persons). Non-Trinitarian Protestant churches emerged in the 16th century in ITALY, POLAND, and TRANSYLVANIA." the [[Unitarian Church of Transylvania]] is an example of such a denomination that arose in this era.{{cite book |last1=Fahlbusch |first1=Erwin |last2=Bromiley |first2=Geoffrey William |last3=Lochman |first3=Jan Milic |last4=Mbiti |first4=John |last5=Pelikan |first5=Jaroslav |title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity, Vol. 5 |year= 2008 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2 |page=603}} They adopted the [[Anabaptist]] doctrine of [[credobaptism]].{{cite book |last1=Bochenski |first1=Michael I. |title=Transforming Faith Communities: A Comparative Study of Radical Christianity in Sixteenth-Century Anabaptism and Late Twentieth-Century Latin America |date=14 March 2013 |publisher=Wipf & Stock |isbn=978-1-62189-597-8}} Various smaller [[Independent Catholic]] communities, such as the [[Old Catholic Church]],{{citation |title=God, Land & Freedom: The True Story of ICAB|first=Edward|last=Jarvis|author-link=Edward Jarvis (author)|year=2018|publisher=The Apocryphile Press|location=Berkeley, CA|isbn=978-1-947826-90-8}} include the word ''[[Catholic (term)|Catholic]]'' in their title, and arguably have more or less liturgical practices in common with the Catholic Church but are no longer in [[full communion]] with the [[Holy See]].{{cite book |last=Plummer |first=John P. |date=2004 |title=The Many Paths of the Independent Sacramental Movement|location=Berkeley, CA |publisher=The Apocryphile Press |isbn=0-9771461-2-X | page = 86}} [[Spiritual Christians]], such as the [[Doukhobors]] and [[Molokan]]s, broke from the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and maintain close association with Mennonites and [[Quakers]] due to similar religious practices; all of these groups are furthermore collectively considered to be [[peace churches]] due to their belief in [[Christian pacifism|pacifism]].{{cite book|last=Fahlbusch|first=Erwin|title=The Encyclodedia of Christianity|year=2008|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-2417-2|page=208}}{{cite book|last1=Fleming|first1=John A.|last2=Rowan|first2=Michael J.|last3=Chambers|first3=James Albert|title=Folk Furniture of Canada's Doukhobors, Hutterites, Mennonites and Ukrainians|year=2004|publisher=University of Alberta|isbn=978-0-88864-418-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/folkfurnitureofc00flem/page/4 4]|quote=The English Quakers, who had made contact with the Doukhobors earlier, as well as the Philadelphia Society of Friends, also determined to help with their emigration from Russia to some other country—the only action which seemed possible.|url=https://archive.org/details/folkfurnitureofc00flem/page/4}} [[Messianic Judaism]] (or the Messianic Movement) is the name of a Christian movement comprising a number of streams, whose members may consider themselves Jewish. The movement originated in the 1960s and 1970s, and it blends elements of religious Jewish practice with evangelical Christianity. Messianic Judaism affirms Christian creeds such as the messiahship and divinity of "Yeshua" (the Hebrew name of Jesus) and the Triune Nature of God, while also adhering to some Jewish dietary laws and customs.{{Cite book |last = Ariel |first = Yaakov |editor1-last=Gallagher |editor1-first=Eugene V. |editor2-last=Ashcraft |editor2-first=W. Michael |title= Jewish and Christian Traditions |access-date= 9 September 2015 |series= Introduction to New and Alternative Religions in America |volume= 2 |year= 2006 |publisher=Greenwood |location= Westport, CN |isbn= 978-0-275-98714-5 |page= 208 |chapter= Judaism and Christianity Unite! The Unique Culture of Messianic Judaism |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=oZiScvbS6-cC&pg=RA1-PA208 |quote = For example, Messianic Jews, without exception, believe that the way to eternal life is through the acceptance of Jesus as one's personal savior and that no obedience to the Jewish law or "works" is necessary in order to obtain that goal....Remarkably, it has been exactly this adherence to the basic Christian evangelical faith that has allowed Messianic Jews to adopt and promote Jewish rites and customs. They are Christians in good standing and can retain whatever cultural attributes and rites they choose.}} [[Esoteric Christianity|Esoteric Christians]], such as [[The Christian Community]],{{cite book |last1=Melton |first1=J. Gordon |last2=Baumann |first2=Martin |title=Religions of the World: A Comprehensive Encyclopedia of Beliefs and Practices |edition=2nd |year= 2010 |publisher=ABC-CLIO |isbn=978-1-59884-204-3 |page=620}} regard Christianity as a [[Western esotericism|mystery religion]]Western Esotericism and the Science of Religion: Selected Papers Presented at the 17th Congress{{cite book | last = Besant | first = Annie | title = Esoteric Christianity or the Lesser Mysteries | publisher = Adamant Media | year = 2001 | isbn = 978-1-4021-0029-1}} and profess the existence and possession of certain [[Western esotericism|esoteric]] doctrines or practices,From the Greek ἐσωτερικός (esôterikos, "inner"). The term [[Western esotericism|esotericism]] itself was coined in the 17th century. (Oxford English Dictionary Compact Edition, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, 1971, p. 894.)Wouter J. Hanegraaff, Antoine Faivre, [[Roelof van den Broek]], Jean-Pierre Brach, Dictionary of Gnosis & Western Esotericism, Brill 2005. hidden from the public and accessible only to a narrow circle of "enlightened", "initiated", or highly educated people.{{cite web |url=https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esotericism |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esotericism |publisher=Webster.com |date=13 August 2010 |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202062757/https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esotericism |archive-date=2 December 2008 |url-status=dead}}{{cite web |url=https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esoteric |title=Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary: esoteric |publisher=Webster.com |access-date=19 November 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080907075009/https://www.webster.com/dictionary/esoteric |archive-date=7 September 2008 |url-status=dead}} [[Nondenominational Christianity]] or non-denominational Christianity consists of [[Simple church|churches]] which typically distance themselves from the [[confessionalism (religion)|confessionalism]] or [[creed]]alism of other Christian communities by not formally aligning with a specific [[Christian denomination]]. Nondenominational Christianity first arose in the 18th century through the [[Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement]], with followers organizing themselves as "[[Christians (Stone Movement)|Christians]]" and "[[Disciples of Christ (Campbell Movement)|Disciples of Christ]]",{{refn|group=note|The first Nondenominational Christian churches which emerged through the [[Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement]] are tied to associations such as the [[Churches of Christ]] or the [[Christian Church (Disciples of Christ)]].}}{{cite book |title=The Journal of American History |year=1997 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |page=1400 |quote=Richard T. Hughes, professor of religion at Pepperdine University, argues that the Churches of Christ built a corporate identity around "restoration" of the primitive church and the corresponding belief that their congregations represented a nondenominational Christianity.}}{{cite web |last1=Barnett |first1=Joe R. |title=Who are the Churches of Christ |url=https://www.southsidehopkinsville.com/who-are-the-churches-of-christ/ |publisher=Southside Church of Christ |access-date=7 December 2020 |year=2020 |quote=Not A Denomination: For this reason, we are not interested in man-made creeds, but in the New Testament pattern. We do not conceive of ourselves as being a denomination–nor as Catholic, Protestant, or Jewish—but as members of the church which Jesus established and for which he died. And that, incidentally, is why we wear his name. The term "church of Christ" is not used as a denominational designation, but rather as a descriptive term indicating that the church belongs to Christ. |archive-date=19 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219100501/https://www.southsidehopkinsville.com/who-are-the-churches-of-christ/ |url-status=dead }} but many typically adhere to [[evangelical Christianity]].{{cite web |last1=Nash |first1=Donald A. |title=Why the Churches of Christ Are Not A Denomination |url=https://www.thecra.org/files/WhyNotDenom.pdf |publisher=The Christian Restoration Association |access-date=7 December 2020}}{{cite book |last1=Hughes |first1=Richard Thomas |last2=Roberts |first2=R. L. |title=The Churches of Christ |year=2001 |publisher=Greenwood |isbn=978-0-313-23312-8 |page=63 |quote=Barton Stone was fully prepared to ally himself with Alexander Campbell in an effort to promote nondenominational Christianity, though it is evident that the two men came to this emphasis by very different routes.}}{{cite book |last1=Cherok |first1=Richard J. |title=Debating for God: Alexander Campbell's Challenge to Skepticism in Antebellum America |date=14 June 2011 |publisher=[[ACU Press]] |isbn=978-0-89112-838-0 |quote=Later proponents of Campbell's views would refer to themselves as the "Restoration Movement" because of the Campbellian insistence on restoring Christianity to its New Testament form. ... Added to this mix were the concepts of American egalitarianism, which gave rise to his advocacy of nondenominational individualism and local church autonomy, and Christian primitivism, which led to his promotion of such early church practices as believer's baptism by immersion and the weekly partaking of the Lord's Supper.}} == Cultural influence == {{Main|Christian culture|Role of Christianity in civilization}} {{Further|Protestant culture|Christian influences in Islam}} {{multiple image | align = right | total_width = 300 | perrow = 1/2/2 | title = [[Christian culture]] | image1 = La volta della Cappella Sistina (Michelangelo Buonarroti 1508-1512) - panoramio.jpg | image2 = Hollfeld Krippe P1340403.jpg | image3 = NotreDameDeParis.jpg | image4 = Christ the Redeemer - Cristo Redentor.jpg | image5 = Svatba (2).jpg | footer = ''Clockwise from top'': [[Sistine Chapel ceiling]], [[Notre-Dame de Paris|Notre-Dame]] cathedral in Paris, Eastern Orthodox [[wedding]], ''[[Christ the Redeemer (statue)|Christ the Redeemer]]'' statue, [[Nativity scene]] }} The history of the [[Christendom]] spans about 1,700 years and includes a variety of socio-political developments, as well as advances in the [[Christian art|arts]], [[Architecture of cathedrals and great churches|architecture]], [[Christian literature|literature]], [[Christianity and science|science]], [[Christian philosophy|philosophy]], and technology.{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|orig-year=1961|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=Reprint|first2=Glenn |last2=Olsen|publisher=CUA Press }}{{cite book |last= E. McGrath|first= Alister |title=Christianity: An Introduction|year=2006 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=1-4051-0899-1|page=336}}{{cite web |title=Review of ''How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization'' by Thomas Woods Jr. |url=http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/bookpage.asp?prod_cd=c6664 |work=National Review Book Service |access-date=16 September 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060822150152/http://www.nrbookservice.com/products/BookPage.asp?prod_cd=c6664 |archive-date=22 August 2006 |url-status=dead }} Since the spread of Christianity from the [[Levant]] to [[Europe]] and [[North Africa]] during the early [[Roman Empire]], Christendom has been divided in the pre-existing [[Greek East and Latin West]]. Consequently, different versions of the Christian cultures arose with their own rites and practices, centered around the cities of Rome ([[Western Christianity]]) and [[Archdiocese of Carthage|Carthage]], whose communities were called Western or Latin Christendom,{{Cite book |last=Chazan |first=Robert |year=2006 |title=The Jews of Medieval Western Christendom: 1000–1500 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JxJQ_98I3R0C |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=xi |isbn=978-0-521-61664-5 |access-date=26 January 2018}} and [[Constantinople]] ([[Eastern Christianity]]), [[Antioch]] ([[Syriac Christianity]]), [[Kerala]] ([[Saint Thomas Christians|Indian Christianity]]) and [[Alexandria]] ([[Coptic Christianity]]), whose communities were called Eastern or Oriental Christendom.Encarta-encyclopedie Winkler Prins (1993–2002) s.v. "christendom. § 1.3 Scheidingen". Microsoft Corporation/Het Spectrum.{{Cite book |last=Meyendorff |first=John |title=The Byzantine Legacy in the Orthodox Church |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |date=1982 |isbn=978-0-913836-90-3 |location=Yonkers |author-link=John Meyendorff|page=19}}{{harvnb|Cameron|2006|pp=42–49}}. The [[Byzantine Empire]] was one of the peaks in [[Christian history]] and Eastern [[Christian civilization]]. From the 11th to 13th centuries, [[Latin Christendom]] rose to the central role of the [[Western world]]. The Bible has had a profound influence on Western civilization and on cultures around the globe; it has contributed to the formation of [[Western law]], [[Western art|art]], [[Western literature|texts]], and education.{{cite book |title=Religion and Spirituality in Psychiatry |first=Harold |last=G. Koenig |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-521-88952-0 |page=31 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote=The Bible is the most globally influential and widely read book ever written. ... it has been a major influence on the behavior, laws, customs, education, art, literature, and morality of Western civilization.}}{{cite book|title=God, Justice, and Society: Aspects of Law and Legality in the Bible |first=Jonathan |last=Burnside |year=2011| isbn=978-0-19-975921-7 |page=XXVI |publisher=Oxford University Press}}{{sfn|Riches|2000|loc=ch. 1}} With a literary tradition spanning two millennia, the Bible is one of the most influential works ever written. From practices of [[Hygiene in Christianity|personal hygiene]] to philosophy and ethics, the Bible has directly and indirectly influenced politics and law, war and peace, sexual morals, marriage and family life, toilet etiquette, letters and learning, the arts, economics, social justice, medical care and more.{{sfn|Riches|2000|loc=ch. 1}} [[Lists of Christians|Christians]] have made a myriad of contributions to [[Progress (history)|human progress]] in a broad and diverse range of fields, including philosophy,{{cite book |last= A. Spinello|first= Richard |title=The Encyclicals of John Paul II: An Introduction and Commentary |year=2012 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |quote= ... The insights of Christian philosophy "would not have happened without the direct or indirect contribution of Christian faith" (FR 76). Typical Christian philosophers include St. Augustine, St. Bonaventure, and St. Thomas Aquinas. The benefits derived from Christian philosophy are twofold....|isbn=978-1-4422-1942-7|page=147}} [[List of Christians in science and technology|science and technology]],{{cite book |last1= Gilley |first1= Sheridan |last2=Stanley |first2=Brian |title=World Christianities c. 1815–c.1914 |series=The Cambridge History of Christianity |volume=8 |year=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press|quote= ... Many of the scientists who contributed to these developments were Christians...|isbn=0-521-81456-1|page=164}}{{cite book |last=Steane |first=Andrew |title=Faithful to Science: The Role of Science in Religion|year=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |quote= ... the Christian contribution to science has been uniformly at the top level, but it has reached that level and it has been sufficiently strong overall ...|isbn=978-0-19-102513-6|page=179}}{{cite web|last=Graves|first=Daniel|url=https://www.rae.org/influsci.html|title=Christian Influences in the Sciences|website=rae.org|date=7 July 1998|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924084347/https://www.rae.org/influsci.html|archive-date=24 September 2015}}{{cite web|url=https://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html|title=50 Nobel Laureates and Other Great Scientists Who Believe in God|url-status=usurped|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190617072212/https://www.adherents.com/people/100_Nobel.html|archive-date=17 June 2019}} Many well-known historical figures who influenced Western science considered themselves Christian such as [[Nicolaus Copernicus]], [[Galileo Galilei]], [[Johannes Kepler]], [[Isaac Newton]], [[Robert Boyle]], [[Alessandro Volta]], [[Michael Faraday]], [[William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin]] and [[James Clerk Maxwell]]. [[Catholic Church and health care|medicine]],{{cite book |last=S. Kroger|first= William |title=Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis in Medicine, Dentistry and Psychology |year=2016 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing |quote=Many prominent Catholic physicians and psychologists have made significant contributions to hypnosis in medicine, dentistry, and psychology.|isbn=978-1-78720-304-4}} [[List of Catholic Church artists|fine arts and architecture]],{{cite web|url=https://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051211024930/https://www.adherents.com/people/adh_art.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=11 December 2005|title=Religious Affiliation of the World's Greatest Artists}} [[Christianity and politics|politics]], [[List of Catholic authors|literatures]], [[Christian music|music]],Suzel Ana Reily, Jonathan M. Dueck, ''The Oxford Handbook of Music and World Christianities'', Oxford University Press, USA, 2016, p. 443 and business.{{cite web|url=https://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051119112115/https://www.adherents.com/people/100_business.html|url-status=usurped|archive-date=19 November 2005|title=Wealthy 100 and the 100 Most Influential in Business}}{{cite book|title=Religion, Art, and Money: Episcopalians and American Culture from the Civil War to the Great Depression |first=Peter |last=W. Williams |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-4696-2698-7 |page=176 |publisher=University of North Carolina Press}} According to ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' a review of the Nobel Prizes award between 1901 and 2000 reveals that (65.4%) of [[Nobel Prizes]] Laureates, [[List of Christian Nobel laureates|have identified Christianity]] in its various forms as their religious preference.Baruch A. Shalev, ''100 Years of Nobel Prizes'' (2003), Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, p. 57: between 1901 and 2000 reveals that 654 Laureates belong to 28 different religions. Most (65.4%) have identified Christianity in its various forms as their religious preference. {{ISBN|978-0935047370}} Outside the Western world, Christianity has had an influence on various cultures, such as in Africa, the Near East, Middle East, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and the Indian subcontinent.{{cite book |title=Jews, Antisemitism, and the Middle East|first=Michael |last=Curtis |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-351-51072-1 |page=173 |publisher=Routledge}}{{cite book |title=Cultural Politics and Asian Values |first=Michael |last=D. Barr |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-136-00166-6 |page=81 |publisher=Routledge}} [[List of Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world|Eastern Christian scientists and scholars of the medieval Islamic world]] (particularly [[Syriac Orthodox Church|Jacobite]] and [[Nestorianism|Nestorian]] Christians) contributed to the [[Islamic Golden Age|Islamic civilization]] during the reign of the [[Umayyad|Umayyads]] and the [[Abbasid]]s, by translating works of [[Greek philosophers]] to [[Syriac language|Syriac]] and afterwards, to [[Arabic language|Arabic]].Hill, Donald. ''Islamic Science and Engineering''. 1993. Edinburgh Univ. Press. {{ISBN|0748604553}}, p. 4{{cite book |title=The Legend of the Middle Ages |last=Brague |first=Rémi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c8YjEkLPXNYC |isbn=978-0-226-07080-3 |page=164 |year=2009 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}{{cite book |first=Kitty |last=Ferguson |title=Pythagoras: His Lives and the Legacy of a Rational Universe |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trM7NJz011oC&pg=PT100 |year=2011 |publisher=Icon |isbn=978-1-84831-250-0 |page=100 |quote=It was in the Near and Middle East and North Africa that the old traditions of teaching and learning continued, and where Christian scholars were carefully preserving ancient texts and knowledge of the ancient Greek language}} They also excelled in philosophy, science, theology, and medicine.{{cite book |last=Kaser |first=Karl |title=The Balkans and the Near East: Introduction to a Shared History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3i8muwLf8AC&pg=PA137 |year=2011 |publisher=LIT Verlag Münster |isbn=978-3-643-50190-5 |page=135}}Rémi Brague, [https://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm Assyrians contributions to the Islamic civilization] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130927015958/https://www.christiansofiraq.com/assyriancontributionstotheislamiccivilization.htm |date=27 September 2013 }}Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/409819/Nestorian Nestorian] Scholars and intellectuals agree [[Christians in the Middle East]] have made significant contributions to Islamic civilization since the introduction of [[Islam]], and they have had a significant impact contributing the culture of the [[Mashriq]], [[Turkey]], and [[Iran]].{{cite book |last=Pacini |first=Andrea |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KMfYAAAAMAAJ |title=Christian Communities in the Arab Middle East: The Challenge of the Future |publisher=Clarendon |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-19-829388-0 |pages=38, 55}} === Influence on Western culture === [[File:St-thomas-aquinasFXD.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Thomas Aquinas]], an Italian [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] [[friar]] and [[Catholic priest|priest]], the foremost [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] thinker,{{cite encyclopedia |title=Thomas Aquinas |encyclopedia= Encyclopedia Britannica|year= |publisher= |id= |url= https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Thomas-Aquinas|access-date=October 9, 2024 |quote= Thomas Aquinas... was an Italian Dominican theologian, the foremost medieval Scholastic.}} as well as one of the most influential philosophers and theologians in the Western tradition.{{cite encyclopedia |year= |title=Thomas Aquinas (1224/6–1274) |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher= |id= |url=https://iep.utm.edu/thomas-aquinas/ |access-date=October 10, 2024 |quote=However, it also seems right to say—if only from the sheer influence of his work on countless philosophers and intellectuals in every century since the 13th, as well as on persons in countries as culturally diverse as Argentina, Canada, England, France, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, Poland, Spain, and the United States—that, globally, Thomas is one of the 10 most influential philosophers in the Western philosophical tradition.}}]] [[Western culture]], throughout most of its history, has been nearly equivalent to [[Christian culture]], and a large portion of the population of the Western Hemisphere can be described as practicing or nominal Christians. The notion of "Europe" and the "Western World" has been intimately connected with the concept of "Christianity and Christendom". Many historians even attribute Christianity for being the link that created a unified [[European identity]].{{cite book|last1=Dawson|first1=Christopher|title=Crisis in Western Education|orig-year=1961|year=2010|isbn=978-0-8132-1683-6|edition=Reprint|first2=Glenn|last2=Olsen|page=108|publisher=CUA Press }} Though Western culture contained several polytheistic religions during its early years under the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Roman Empire]]s, as the centralized Roman power waned, the dominance of the Catholic Church was the only consistent force in Western Europe.{{cite book|last=Koch|first=Carl|title=The Catholic Church: Journey, Wisdom, and Mission|year=1994|publisher=St. Mary's Press|location=Early Middle Ages|isbn=978-0-88489-298-4|url=https://archive.org/details/catholicchurchjo00koch}} Until the [[Age of Enlightenment]], Christian culture guided the course of philosophy, literature, art, music and science. Christian disciplines of the respective arts have subsequently developed into [[Christian philosophy]], [[Christian art]], [[Christian music]], [[Christian literature]], and so on. Christianity has had a significant impact on education, as the church created the bases of the Western system of education, and was the sponsor of [[Medieval university|founding universities]] in the Western world, as the university is generally regarded as an institution that has its origin in the [[History of Christianity|Medieval Christian]] setting. Historically, Christianity has often been a patron of science and medicine; many [[List of Catholic cleric-scientists|Catholic clergy]],{{citation|title=Richter's Scale: Measure of an Earthquake, Measure of a Man|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rvmDeAxEiO8C&pg=PA68 |first=Susan Elizabeth |last=Hough|author-link=Susan Hough |year=2007 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-12807-8|page=68}} [[List of Jesuit scientists|Jesuits]] in particular,{{Sfn|Woods|2005|p=109}}{{cite book |last=Wright |first=Jonathan |year=2004 |title=God's Soldiers: Adventure, Politics, intrigue and Power: A History of the Jesuits |publisher=HarperCollins|page=200}}{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/302999/Jesuit |entry=Jesuit |date=16 May 2023 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Jesuit | History, Definition, Order, Catholic, Slavery, & Facts | Britannica }} have been active in the sciences throughout history and have made significant contributions to the [[Christianity and science|development of science]].{{Cite book|author-link1=Rodney Stark|author-last1=Stark|author-first1=Rodney|title=For the Glory of God: How Monotheism Led to Reformations, Science, Witch-Hunts and the End of Slavery|year= 2003|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|ISBN=0691114366|page= 123}}{{Cite book|author-last1=Wallace|author-first1= William A. |year=1984|title=Prelude, Galileo and his Sources. The Heritage of the Collegio Romano in Galileo's Science|location=New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press}} Some scholars state that Christianity contributed to the rise of the [[Scientific Revolution]].{{Citation | last1 = Lindberg | first1 = David C. | author-link = David C. Lindberg | last2 = Numbers | first2 = Ronald L. | author2-link = Ronald L. Numbers | title = God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science | place = Berkeley and Los Angeles | publisher = University of California Press | year = 1986 | chapter = Introduction | pages = 5, 12 | isbn = 978-0-520-05538-4 }} Protestantism also has had an important influence on science. According to the [[Merton Thesis]], there was a positive correlation between the rise of English [[Puritanism]] and German [[Pietism]] on the one hand, and early experimental science on the other.{{cite book | last = Cohen | first =I. Bernard |title = Puritanism and the rise of modern science: the Merton thesis | publisher = Rutgers University Press | location = New Brunswick, NJ | year = 1990 | isbn = 978-0-8135-1530-4 }}{{cite book | last = Cohen | first = H. | author-link = H. Floris Cohen | title = The scientific revolution: a historiographical inquiry | publisher = University of Chicago Press | pages = [https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320 320–321] | year = 1994 | isbn = 978-0-226-11280-0 | url = https://archive.org/details/scientificrevolu00cohe/page/320 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=2iieLX7nrEAC&dq=Merton+thesis&pg=PA320 Google Print, pp. 320–321]{{cite book | last = Ferngren | first = Gary B. | author-link = Gary B. Ferngren | title = Science and religion: a historical introduction | publisher = Johns Hopkins University Press | page = 125 | location = Baltimore, MD | year = 2002 | isbn = 978-0-8018-7038-5 }} [https://books.google.com/books?id=weOOCfiDhDcC&dq=Merton+thesis&pg=PA125 Google Print, p.125] The civilizing influence of Christianity includes social welfare, contribution to the medical and health care,{{cite book |last=Crislip |year=2005 |first=Andrew T. |title=From Monastery to Hospital: Christian Monasticism & the Transformation of Health Care in Late Antiquity |publisher=University of Michigan Press |place=Ann Arbor |isbn=978-0-472-11474-0 |page=3 |url={{googlebooks|r90OUzO9AP8C|plainurl=y}} }} founding hospitals,{{cite encyclopedia|first = Jaroslav |last = Jan Pelikan| title=Christianity - Church, State, History | Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity/The-history-of-church-and-state|entry=The Christian community and the world|date =13 August 2022 |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}} economics (as the [[Protestant work ethic]]),{{cite book|last=Weber|first=Max|title=The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism|year=1905}}{{cite book |last= Hillerbrand|first=Hans J. |title=Encyclopedia of Protestantism: 4-volume Set |year=2016 |publisher=Pickle Partners Publishing|quote= ... In the centuries succeeding the holy ''Reformation'' the teaching of Protestantism was consistent on the nature of work. Some Protestant theologians also contributed to the study of economics, especially the nineteenth-century Scottish minister Thomas Chalmers ....|isbn=978-1-78720-304-4|page=174}} architecture,{{cite book |last1=Hopkins|first1=Owen|title=Architectural Styles: A Visual Guide|year=2014|publisher=Laurence King|isbn=978-1-78067-163-5 |pages=23, 25}} literature,Buringh, Eltjo; van Zanden, Jan Luiten: "Charting the 'Rise of the West': Manuscripts and Printed Books in Europe, A Long-Term Perspective from the Sixth through Eighteenth Centuries", ''The Journal of Economic History'', Vol. 69, No. 2 (2009), pp. 409–445 (416, table 1) [[Hygiene in Christianity|personal hygiene]] ([[Ablution in Christianity|ablution]]),Christianity has always placed a strong emphasis on hygiene: * {{cite book |last1= Warsh |first1= Cheryl Krasnick |last2=Strong-Boag |first2=Veronica |title=Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective |year=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press |quote= ... From Fleming's perspective, the transition to Christianity required a good dose of personal and public hygiene ... |isbn=978-0-88920-912-1|page=315}} * {{cite book |last= Warsh |first=Cheryl Krasnick |others=Veronica Strong-Boag |title=Children's Health Issues in Historical Perspective |year=2006 |publisher=Wilfrid Laurier University Press| quote= ... Thus bathing also was considered a part of good health practice. For example, Tertullian attended the baths and believed them hygienic. Clement of Alexandria, while condemning excesses, had given guidelines for Christians who wished to attend the baths ... |isbn=978-0-88920-912-1 |page=315}} * {{cite book |last=Squatriti |first=Paolo |title=Water and Society in Early Medieval Italy, AD 400–1000, Parti 400–1000 |year=2002 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |quote= ... but baths were normally considered therapeutic until the days of Gregory the Great, who understood virtuous bathing to be bathing "on account of the needs of body" ... |isbn=978-0-521-52206-9 |page=54}} * {{cite book|last=Eveleigh |first=Bogs |title=Baths and Basins: The Story of Domestic Sanitation |location=Stroud, England|publisher= Sutton|year=2002}} Christianity's role in the development and promotion of spas: * {{cite book |title=Water: A Spiritual History |first=Ian |last=Bradley |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-4411-6767-5 |publisher=Bloomsbury}} Contribution of the Christian missionaries of better health care of the people through hygiene and introducing and distributing the soaps: * {{cite book |last=Channa |first=Subhadra|title=The Forger's Tale: The Search for Odeziaku |year=2009 |publisher=Indiana University Press|quote=A major contribution of the Christian missionaries was better health care of the people through hygiene. Soap, tooth–powder and brushes came to be used increasingly in urban areas. |isbn=978-8177550504 |page=284}} * {{cite book |last=Thomas |first=John |title=Evangelising the Nation: Religion and the Formation of Naga Political Identity|year=2015|publisher=Routledge |quote=cleanliness and hygiene became an important marker of being identified as a Christian |isbn=978-1-317-41398-1|page=284}}{{cite book |first=Henry |last=Gariepy |title=Christianity in Action: The History of the International Salvation Army|url=https://archive.org/details/christianityinac0000gari|url-access=registration |year=2009 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans |isbn=978-0-8028-4841-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/christianityinac0000gari/page/16 16]}} and family life.{{cite book|title=A Companion to Families in the Greek and Roman Worlds |first=Beryl |last=Rawson |year=2010| isbn=978-1-4443-9075-9 |page=111 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |quote= ...Christianity placed great emphasis on the family and on all members from children to the aged...}} Historically, ''[[Extended family|extended families]]'' were the basic family unit in the [[Christian culture]] and [[Christian countries|countries]].{{cite book |title=Mental Health Social Work: Evidence-Based Practice| first=Colin |last=Pritchard |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-134-36544-9 |page=111 |publisher=Routledge}} [[Cultural Christian]]s are secular people with a Christian heritage who may not believe in the religious claims of Christianity, but who retain an affinity for the popular culture, art, [[Christian music|music]], and so on related to the religion.James D. Mallory, Stanley C. Baldwin, ''The kink and I: a psychiatrist's guide to untwisted living'', 1973, [https://books.google.com/books?id=ahEG4X5pSXIC&q=%22cultural+Christian%22+-%22multi-cultural+Christian%22+-%22cross-cultural+Christian%22 p. 64] ''[[Postchristianity]]'' is a term for the [[decline of Christianity]], particularly in [[Christianity in Europe|Europe]], [[Religion in Canada|Canada]], [[Christianity in Australia|Australia]], and to a minor degree the [[Southern Cone]], in the 20th and 21st centuries, considered in terms of [[postmodernism]]. It refers to the loss of Christianity's monopoly on [[values]] and [[world view]] in historically Christian societies.G.C. Oosthuizen. ''Postchristianity in Africa''. C Hurst & Co Publishers Ltd (1968). {{ISBN|0903983052}} Christian leaders and congregations have had an influence on the broader [[environmental movement]]. Christian teachings relate to ecology, and draw on teachings of the [[Bible]] to promote the moral responsibility of humans to care for God's creation. Christianity acknowledges the tension between humanity's duty to care for God's creation and the natural human inclination to resist God's will.Gottlieb, R.S., & Gottlieb, R.S. (2003). This Sacred Earth: Religion, Nature, Environment (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203426982 In recent decades, major Christian denominations have revisited their teachings and practices in response to the environmental crisis. There has been a rise in activity in Christian congregations to curb [[climate change]],{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1080/13549839.2018.1449822 | doi=10.1080/13549839.2018.1449822 | title=Faith-based climate action in Christian congregations: Mobilisation and spiritual resources | date=2018 | last1=Bomberg | first1=Elizabeth | last2=Hague | first2=Alice | journal=Local Environment | volume=23 | issue=5 | pages=582–596 | bibcode=2018LoEnv..23..582B | hdl=20.500.11820/2365e019-d817-4f3f-a5d1-f5916df49e6c | hdl-access=free }} partly inspired by the advocacy of [[Pope Francis]] following his publication of the encyclical letter [[Laudato Si']]—On Care for Our Common Home. Organizations such as Green Christian,"[http://greenchristian.org.uk/ Promoting Prayer, Hope and Action]." Green Christian. Accessed 27 Jan. 2025. [[Laudato Si' Movement]],[http://laudatosimovement.org/ "Laudato Si’ Movement, Catholics for Our Common Home] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250325184501/https://laudatosimovement.org/ |date=25 March 2025 }}." Laudato Si’ Movement, Accessed 6 Jan. 2025. and the [[Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development]]"[http://interfaithsustain.com/christian-ecology/ Christian Ecology]." The Interfaith Center for Sustainable Development, 24 May 2024. are a few examples of groups working in the Christian and ecology movement. These initiatives reflect how Christians, alongside other people of faith, are increasingly embracing ecological concerns, recognizing that the protection of the [[Earth]] is a spiritual imperative tied to faith and justice.{{cite journal | url=https://doi.org/10.1111/jore.12376 | doi=10.1111/jore.12376 | title=Toward an Ecocentric Christian Ecology | date=2021 | last1=Waters | first1=James W. | journal=Journal of Religious Ethics | volume=49 | issue=4 | pages=768–792 | url-access=subscription }} == Ecumenism == {{Main|Ecumenism}} [[File:2bishopsReformation.jpg|thumb|Bishop [[John M. Quinn]] of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Winona]] and Bishop Steven Delzer of [[List of ELCA synods|Evangelical Lutheran Southeastern Minnesota Synod]] leading a [[Reformation Day]] service (2017)|229x229px]] Christian groups, sects and [[List of Christian denominations|denominations]] have long expressed ideals of being reconciled, and in the 20th century, Christian ecumenism advanced in two ways.{{Cite news |last=Peter |first=Laurence |date=17 October 2018 |title=Orthodox Church split: Five reasons why it matters |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-45877584 |access-date=17 October 2018}}McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', pp. 581–584.{{cite book |last1=Pizzey |first1=Antonia |title=Receptive Ecumenism and the Renewal of the Ecumenical Movement: The Path of Ecclesial Conversion |year= 2019 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9004397804 |page=131 }} One way was greater cooperation between groups, such as the [[World Evangelical Alliance]] founded in 1846 in London or the [[Edinburgh Missionary Conference]] of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the [[World Council of Churches]] founded in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils like the [[National Council of Churches in Australia]], which includes Catholics. The other way was an institutional union with [[United and uniting churches|united churches]], a practice that can be traced back to unions between Lutherans and Calvinists in early 19th-century Germany. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches united in 1925 to form the [[United Church of Canada]],McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. pp. 413ff. and in 1977 to form the [[Uniting Church in Australia]]. The [[Church of South India]] was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Baptist, Methodist, Congregationalist, and Presbyterian churches.McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 498. The [[Christian Flag]] is an ecumenical flag designed in the early 20th century to represent all of Christianity and [[Christendom]].{{cite journal|year=1942|title=Resolution|journal=Federal Council Bulletin|publisher=Religious Publicity Service of the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America|volume=25–27}} Substantial agreement between various Christian denominations, especially those of Catholicism and Protestantism, has led to a unified presentation of the Christian religion in ''[[The Common Catechism]]''.{{cite book |last1=Bent |first1=Ans Joachim van der |title=Historical Dictionary of Ecumenical Christianity |date=1 December 1994 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |isbn=978-1-4616-5922-8 |page=70 |language=en}}{{cite book|last=Phan|first=Peter C.|title=The Gift of the Church: A Textbook on Ecclesiology|date=24 March 2016|publisher=Liturgical Press|language=English|isbn=9780814680827|page=165}} The ecumenical, [[Christian monasticism|monastic]] [[Taizé Community]] is notable for being composed of more than one hundred [[monk|brothers]] from Protestant and Catholic traditions.{{cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Christian thought|year=2000|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-860024-4|url=https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hast|url-access=registration|page=[https://archive.org/details/oxfordcompaniont00hast/page/694 694]}} The community emphasizes the reconciliation of all denominations and its main church, located in [[Taizé, Saône-et-Loire]], France, is named the "Church of Reconciliation". The community is internationally known, attracting over 100,000 young [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]] annually.Oxford, "Encyclopedia of Christianity, p. 307. Steps towards reconciliation on a global level were taken in 1965 by the Catholic and Orthodox churches, mutually revoking the excommunications that marked their [[East-West Schism|Great Schism]] in 1054;McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 373. the Anglican Catholic International Commission (ARCIC) working towards full communion between those churches since 1970;McManners, ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity'', p. 583. and the [[Lutheran World Federation]] and the Catholic Church signing the [[Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification]] in 1999 to address conflicts at the root of the Protestant Reformation. In 2006, the [[World Methodist Council]], representing all Methodist denominations, adopted the declaration.{{cite web |url=https://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |title=Methodist Statement |access-date=19 November 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116215437/https://www.lutheranworld.org/What_We_Do/OEA/Methodist-Statement-2006-EN.pdf |archive-date=16 January 2010}} == Criticism, persecution, and apologetics == {{Main|Criticism of Christianity|Persecution of Christians|Christian apologetics}} {{See also|Anti-Christian sentiment}} === Criticism === [[File:Bronze statue of Giordano Bruno by Ettore Ferrari , Campo de' Fiori, Roma.jpg|thumb|upright|The monument to [[Giordano Bruno]] in the place he was executed in Rome]] Criticism of Christianity and Christians goes back to the [[Apostolic Age]], with the New Testament recording friction between the followers of Jesus and the [[Pharisees]] and [[scribes]] (e.g., {{Bibleverse||Matthew|15:1–20|NIV}} and {{Bibleverse||Mark|7:1–23|NIV}}).''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E-J'' by Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 {{ISBN|0-8028-3782-4}} p. 175 In the 2nd century, Christianity was criticized by the Jews on various grounds, e.g., that the prophecies of the Hebrew Bible could not have been fulfilled by Jesus, given that he did not have a successful life.''Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135'' by James D.G. Dunn 1999 {{ISBN|0802844987}} pp. 112–113 Additionally, a sacrifice to remove sins in advance, for everyone or as a human being, did not fit the Jewish sacrifice ritual; furthermore, [[God in Judaism]] is said to judge people on their deeds instead of their beliefs.Asher Norman ''Twenty-six Reasons why Jews Don't Believe in Jesus'' Feldheim Publishers 2007 {{ISBN|978-0977193707}} p. 11Keith Akers ''The Lost Religion of Jesus: Simple Living and Nonviolence in Early Christianity''. Lantern Books 2000 {{ISBN|978-1930051263}} p. 103 One of the first comprehensive attacks on Christianity came from the Greek philosopher [[Celsus]], who wrote ''[[The True Word]]'', a polemic criticizing Christians as being unprofitable members of society.{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg|url-access=limited|year=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg/page/n581 562]–564|edition=second}}{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Stephen|date=2004|chapter=Celsus|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|location=Louisville, KY|editor-last=McGuckin|editor-first=John Anthony|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=72–73}} In response, the church father [[Origen]] published his treatise ''[[Contra Celsum]]'', or ''Against Celsus'', a seminal work of Christian apologetics, which systematically addressed Celsus's criticisms and helped bring Christianity a level of academic respectability.{{cite book|last=McGuckin|first=John Anthony|year=2004|chapter=The Scholarly Works of Origen|title=The Westminster Handbook to Origen|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=riEdrWEDFq0C&q=Origen+ordination&pg=PA13|location=Louisville, KY |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |isbn=978-0-664-22472-1|pages=32–34}}{{citation|last=Olson|first=Roger E.|year=1999|title=The Story of Christian Theology: Twenty Centuries of Tradition & Reform|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zexBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA100|location=Downers Grove, IL|publisher=InterVarsity |isbn=978-0-8308-1505-0|page=101}} By the 3rd century, criticism of Christianity had mounted. Wild rumors about Christians were widely circulated, claiming that they were [[atheism|atheists]] and that, as part of their rituals, they devoured human infants and engaged in incestuous orgies.{{cite book|last1=Ferguson|first1=Everett|title=Backgrounds of Early Christianity|url=https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg|url-access=limited|year=1993|publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, MI|isbn=978-0-8028-0669-7|pages=[https://archive.org/details/backgroundsearly00ferg/page/n575 556] 561|edition=second}}{{cite journal |last1=Sherwin-White |first1=A. N. |title=Why Were the Early Christians Persecuted? – An Amendment |journal=Past and Present|date=April 1964|issue=27|pages=23–27|jstor=649759|doi=10.1093/past/27.1.23}} The [[Neoplatonism|Neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Porphyry (philosopher)|Porphyry]] wrote the fifteen-volume ''Adversus Christianos'' as a comprehensive attack on Christianity, in part building on the teachings of [[Plotinus]].''The Encyclopedia of Christian Literature, Volume 1'' by George Thomas Kurian and James Smith 2010 {{ISBN|081086987X}} p. 527''Apologetic Discourse and the Scribal Tradition'' by Wayne Campbell Kannaday 2005 {{ISBN|9004130853}} pp. 32–33 By the 12th century, the [[Mishneh Torah]] (i.e., [[Rabbi]] [[Moses Maimonides]]) was criticizing Christianity on the grounds of idol worship, in that Christians attributed divinity to Jesus, who had a physical body.''A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations'' by Edward Kessler, Neil Wenborn 2005 {{ISBN|0521826926}} p. 168 In the 19th century, [[Nietzsche]] began to write a series of polemics on the "unnatural" teachings of Christianity (e.g. sexual abstinence), and continued his criticism of Christianity to the end of his life.''The Cambridge Companion to Nietzsche'' by Bernd Magnus, Kathleen Marie Higgins 1996 {{ISBN|0521367670}} pp. 90–93 In the 20th century, the philosopher [[Bertrand Russell]] expressed his criticism of Christianity in ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]'', formulating his rejection of Christianity.''Russell on Religion: Selections from the Writings of Bertrand Russell'' by Bertrand Russell, Stefan Andersson and Louis Greenspan 1999 {{ISBN|0415180910}} pp. 77–87 Criticism of Christianity continues to date, e.g. [[Jewish]] and [[Muslim]] theologians criticize the doctrine of the [[Trinity]] held by most Christians, stating that this doctrine in effect assumes that there are three gods, running against the basic tenet of [[monotheism]].''Christianity: An Introduction'' by Alister E. McGrath 2006 {{ISBN|1405108991}} pp. 125–126. New Testament scholar [[Robert M. Price]] has outlined the possibility that some Bible stories are based partly on myth in ''The Christ Myth Theory and its problems''." The Christ Myth Theory and its Problems ", published 2011 by American Atheist Press, Cranford, NJ, {{ISBN|1578840171}} === Persecution === [[File:Kharput Greek-Orthodox refugees - C.D.Morris - National Geographic, Nov. 1925.jpg|thumb|right|Christians fleeing their homes in the [[Ottoman Empire]], {{c.|1922|lk=no}}. Many Christians were persecuted and killed during the [[Armenian genocide]], [[Greek genocide]], and [[Assyrian genocide]].{{Cite book|first1=James L. |last1=Barton|title=Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917|publisher=Gomidas Institute|year=1998|isbn=1884630049}}]] Christians are one of the most [[Persecution of Christians|persecuted]] religious groups in the world, especially in the [[Christianity in the Middle East|Middle-East]], [[North Africa]] and South and East Asia.{{Cite journal|last=Kaplan|first=S.|year=2005|title="Religious Nationalism": A Textbook Case from Turkey|journal=Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East|volume=25|issue=3|pages=665–676|doi=10.1215/1089201x-25-3-665|s2cid=144003006 |issn=1089-201X}}[https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-48146305 "Christian persecution 'at near genocide levels'".] ''[[BBC News]]''. 3 May 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/may/02/persecution-driving-christians-out-of-middle-east-report|author-last1=Wintour|author-first1=Patrick|title=Persecution of Christians coming close to genocide' in Middle East – report|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2 May 2019|access-date= 7 October 2019}} In 2017, [[Open Doors]] estimated approximately 260 million Christians are subjected annually to "high, very high, or extreme persecution"{{Cite web|url=https://www.christianitytoday.com/news/2017/january/top-50-countries-christian-persecution-world-watch-list.html|author-last1=Weber|author-first1=Jeremy|title='Worst year yet': the top 50 countries where it's hardest to be a Christian|work=[[Christianity Today]]|date=11 January 2017|access-date=7 October 2019}} with North Korea considered the most hazardous nation for Christians.[https://www.forbes.com/sites/oliviaenos/2017/01/25/north-korea-is-the-worlds-worst-persecutor-of-christians/#36250678318e Enos, Olivia. "North Korea is the world's worst persecutor of Christians".] ''[[Forbes]]''. 25 January 2017. Retrieved 7 October 2019.{{Cite web|url=https://www.opendoorsusa.org/|title=Serving Persecuted Christians – Open Doors USA|last=Worldwatchlist2020|first=Most dangerous countries for Christians|website=www.opendoorsusa.org|access-date=24 March 2020|archive-date=2 March 2000|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000302223728/https://www.opendoorsusa.org/|url-status=dead}} In 2019, a report[https://christianpersecutionreview.org.uk/storage/2019/05/interim-report.pdf Mounstephen, Philip. "Interim report".] ''Bishop of Truro's Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians''. April 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. commissioned by the United Kingdom's [[Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs|Secretary of State]] of the [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] (FCO) to investigate global persecution of Christians found persecution has increased, and is highest in the Middle East, North Africa, India, China, North Korea, and Latin America, among others, and that it is global and not limited to Islamic states.{{Cite web|url=https://nationalpost.com/opinion/barbara-kay-our-politicians-may-not-care-but-christians-are-under-siege-across-the-world|author-last1=Kay|author-first1=Barbara|title=Our politicians may not care, but Christians are under siege across the world|work=[[National Post]]|date=8 May 2019|access-date=7 October 2019}}[https://christianpersecutionreview.org.uk/storage/2019/07/final-report-and-recommendations.pdf Mounstephen, Philip. "Final Report and Recommendations".] ''[[Philip Mounstephen|Bishop of Truro's]] Independent Review for the Foreign Secretary of FCO Support for Persecuted Christians''. July 2019. Retrieved 7 October 2019. This investigation found that approximately 80% of persecuted believers worldwide are Christians. === Apologetics === [[File:SummaTheologiae.jpg|upright|thumb|A copy of the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'' by [[Thomas Aquinas]]]] Christian apologetics aims to present a [[reason|rational]] basis for Christianity. The word "apologetic" (Greek: ἀπολογητικός ''apologētikos'') comes from the Greek verb ἀπολογέομαι ''apologeomai'', meaning "(I) speak in defense of".{{LSJ|a)pologhtiko/s|ἀπολογητικός}}, {{LSJ|a)pologe/omai|ἀπολογέομαι|shortref}}. Christian apologetics has taken many forms over the centuries, starting with Paul the Apostle. The philosopher [[Thomas Aquinas]] presented five arguments for God's existence in the ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', while his ''[[Summa contra Gentiles]]'' was a major apologetic work.{{cite book|last=Dulles|first=Avery Robert Cardinal|title=A History of Apologetics |year=2005 |publisher=Ignatius |location=San Francisco|isbn=978-0-89870-933-9|page=120}}{{cite book|title=Classical Readings in Christian Apologetics |year=1983 |publisher=Zondervan |location=Grand Rapids |isbn=978-0-310-45641-4 |editor-first=L. Russ |editor-last=Bush|page=275}} Another famous apologist, [[G. K. Chesterton]], wrote in the early twentieth century about the benefits of religion and, specifically, Christianity. Famous for his use of paradox, Chesterton explained that while Christianity had the most mysteries, it was the most practical religion.{{cite web|url=https://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/|title=Why I Believe in Christianity – Society of Gilbert Keith Chesterton|date=6 December 2010}}{{cite journal|author-last1=Hauser|author-first1= Chris (History major, Dartmouth College class of 2014)|date=Fall 2011|title=Faith and Paradox: G.K. Chesterton's Philosophy of Christian Paradox|journal=[[Dartmouth College publications#The Dartmouth Apologia|The Dartmouth Apologia: A Journal of Christian Thought]]|volume=6|issue=1|pages=16–20|url=https://issuu.com/apologia/docs/apol11sv25|access-date=29 March 2015|archive-date=14 July 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150714080437/http://issuu.com/apologia/docs/apol11sv25|url-status=dead}} He pointed to the [[Role of the Christian Church in civilization|advance of Christian civilizations]] as proof of its practicality.{{cite web|url=https://www.chesterton.org/why-i-believe-in-christianity/|title=Christianity|date=6 December 2010}} The physicist and priest [[John Polkinghorne]], in his ''[[Questions of Truth]]'', discusses the subject of [[religion and science]], a topic that other Christian apologists such as [[Ravi Zacharias]], [[John Lennox]], and [[William Lane Craig]] have engaged, with the latter two men opining that the [[Religious interpretations of the Big Bang theory|inflationary Big Bang model]] is evidence for the [[existence of God]].{{cite book|last=Howson|first=Colin|title=Objecting to God|url=https://archive.org/details/objectingtogod00hows|url-access=limited|year=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49856-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/objectingtogod00hows/page/n104 92]|quote=Nor is the agreement coincidental, according to a substantial constituency of religious apologists, who regard the inflationary Big Bang model as direct evidence for God. John Lennox, a mathematician at the University of Oxford, tells us that 'even if the non-believers don't like it, the Big Bang fits in exactly with the Christian narrative of creation'. ... William Lane Craig is another who claims that the Biblical account is corroborated by Big Bang cosmology. Lane Craig also claims that there is a prior ''proof'' that there is a God who created this universe.}} [[Creationist apologetics]] are apologetics that aim to defend [[creationism]]. == See also == * [[Outline of Christianity]] * [[Christian atheism]] * [[Christians of Saint John]] * [[Christianity and Islam]] * [[Christianity and Judaism]] * [[Christianity and politics]] * [[Christian mythology]] * [[Christianisation]] * [[One true church]] * [[Prophets in Christianity]] * [[Christian ethics]] == Notes == {{reflist|group="note"|2|refs= {{refn|group=note|name="nontrinitarianism"|A small minority of Christians, such as the [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]], reject the belief that Jesus is God the Son.{{cite book|last=Halsey|first=A.|title=British Social Trends since 1900: A Guide to the Changing Social Structure of Britain|year=1988|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|language=en |isbn=978-1-349-19466-7|page=518|quote=his so called 'non-Trinitarian' group includes the Jehovah's Witnesses, Mormons, Christadelphians, Apostolics, Christian Scientists, Theosophists, Church of Scientology, Unification Church (Moonies), the Worldwide Church of God and so on.}}}} }} == References == {{Duplicated citations|reason=DuplicateReferences script detected: * https://www.gordonconwell.edu/wp-content/uploads/sites/13/2024/01/Status-of-Global-Christianity-2024.pdf (refs: 307, 372) * https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19641121_lumen-gentium_en.html (refs: 379, 383) |date=August 2026}} {{Reflist}} === Bibliography === {{Refbegin|30em}} * [[Greg Bahnsen|Bahnsen, Greg]]. [https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm ''A Reformed Confession Regarding Hermeneutics'' (article 6)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204091801/https://www.cmfnow.com/articles/pt173.htm |date=4 December 2014 }}. * Ball, Bryan; Johnsson, William (ed.). ''The Essential Jesus''. Pacific Press (2002). {{ISBN|0816319294}}. * Barrett, David; Kurian, Tom and others. (ed.). ''World Christian Encyclopedia''. Oxford University Press (2001). * Barry, John F. ''One Faith, One Lord: A Study of Basic Catholic Belief''. William H. Sadlier (2001). {{ISBN|0821522078}} * Benton, John. ''Is Christianity True?'' Darlington, Eng.: Evangelical Press (1988). {{ISBN|0-85234-260-8}} * [[Bettenson, Henry]] (ed.). ''Documents of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press (1943). * {{cite book|last=Bokenkotter|first=Thomas|title=A Concise History of the Catholic Church|publisher=Doubleday|year=2004|isbn=978-0-385-50584-0|url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke}} * {{cite book|last=Browning|first=Robert|title=The Byzantine Empire|url=https://archive.org/details/byzantineempire0000brow|url-access=registration|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=The Catholic University of America Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-8132-0754-4}} * {{cite book |last=Cameron |first=Averil |author-link=Averil Cameron |title=The Byzantines |year=2006|location=Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=978-1-4051-9833-2}} * {{cite book |title=A history of Christianity |publisher=St. Martin's |location=New York |year=1995 | isbn=978-0-312-18723-1 | last=Chadwick |first=Owen}} * Chambers, Mortimer; Crew, Herlihy, Rabb, Woloch. ''The Western Experience. Volume II: The Early Modern Period''. Alfred A. Knopf (1974). {{ISBN|0394317343}}. * Coffey, John. ''Persecution and Toleration in Protestant England 1558–1689''. Pearson Education (2000). * Cross, F. L.; Livingstone, E. A. (ed.). ''The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church''. Oxford University Press (1997). {{ISBN|019211655X}}. * Deppermann, Klaus. ''Melchior Hoffman: Social Unrest and Apocalyptic Vision in the Age of Reformation''. {{ISBN|0567086542}}. * Dilasser, Maurice. ''The Symbols of the Church''. Collegeville, MN: Liturgical Press (1999). {{ISBN|081462538X}} * Duffy, Eamon. ''Saints and Sinners, a History of the Popes''. Yale University Press (1997). {{ISBN|0300073321}} * {{cite book|last1=Elwell|first1=Walter|last2=Comfort|first2=Philip Wesley|title=Tyndale Bible Dictionary|publisher=Tyndale House |year=2001|isbn=0-8423-7089-7}} * Esler, Philip F. (2004). ''The Early Christian World''. Routledge. * Farrar, F. W. ''[https://www.tentmaker.org/books/mercyandjudgment/mercy_and_judgment_ch1.html Mercy and Judgment. A Few Last Words On Christian Eschatology With Reference to Dr. Pusey's, "What Is Of Faith?"]''. Macmillan, London/New York (1904). * Ferguson, Sinclair; Wright, David, eds. New Dictionary of Theology. consulting ed. Packer, James. Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press (1988). {{ISBN|0-85110-636-6}} * Foutz, Scott. {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20000414063800/https://www.quodlibet.net/luther.shtml ''Martin Luther and Scripture'']}}. * Fowler, Jeaneane D. ''World Religions: An Introduction for Students'', Sussex Academic Press (1997). {{ISBN|1898723486}}. * [[Reginald H. Fuller|Fuller, Reginald H.]] ''[[The Foundations of New Testament Christology]]'' Scribners (1965). {{ISBN|068415532X}}. * Froehle, Bryan; Gautier, Mary, ''Global Catholicism, Portrait of a World Church'', Orbis books; Center for Applied Research in the Apostolate, Georgetown University (2003) {{ISBN|157075375X}} * Funk, Robert. ''The Acts of Jesus: What Did Jesus Really Do?''. Polebridge Press (1998). {{ISBN|0060629789}}. * Glenny, W. Edward. ''Typology: A Summary of the Present Evangelical Discussion''. * {{cite book|last1=González|first1=Justo L.|author-link1=Justo L. González|title=The Story of Christianity|date=1984|publisher=Harper & Row|isbn=0-06-063315-8|edition=1st}} * Hanegraaff, Hank. ''Resurrection: The Capstone in the Arch of Christianity''. Thomas Nelson (2000). {{ISBN|0849916437}}. * Harnack, Adolf von. ''[https://www.ccel.org/ccel/harnack/dogma1.ii.iii.iii.html History of Dogma]'' (1894). * Hickman, Hoyt L. and others. ''Handbook of the Christian Year''. Abingdon Press (1986). {{ISBN|068716575X}} * Hitchcock, Susan Tyler. ''Geography of Religion''. National Geographic Society (2004) {{ISBN|0792273133}} * Kelly, J. N. D. ''Early Christian Doctrines''. * Kelly, J. N. D. ''The Athanasian Creed''. Harper & Row, New York (1964). * Kirsch, Jonathan. ''God Against the Gods''. * Kreeft, Peter. ''Catholic Christianity''. Ignatius Press (2001) {{ISBN|0898707986}} * Letham, Robert. ''The Holy Trinity in Scripture, History, Theology, and Worship''. P & R Publishing (2005). {{ISBN|0875520006}}. * {{Cite book |last=Lim |first=Timothy H. |title=The Dead Sea Scrolls: a very short introduction |date=2017 |orig-date=2005 |edition=2nd |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-877952-0}} * Lorenzen, Thorwald. ''Resurrection, Discipleship, Justice: Affirming the Resurrection Jesus Christ Today''. Smyth & Helwys (2003). {{ISBN|1573123994}}. * [[Diarmaid MacCulloch|MacCulloch, Diarmaid]], ''The Reformation: A History''. Viking Adult (2004). * MacCulloch, Diarmaid, ''[[A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years]]''. London, Allen Lane. 2009. {{ISBN|978-0713998696}} * Marber, Peter. ''Money Changes Everything: How Global Prosperity Is Reshaping Our Needs, Values and Lifestyles''. FT Press (2003). {{ISBN|0130654809}} * Marthaler, Berard. ''Introducing the Catechism of the Catholic Church, Traditional Themes and Contemporary Issues''. Paulist Press (1994). {{ISBN|0809134950}} * Mathison, Keith. ''The Shape of Sola Scriptura'' (2001). * McClintock, John, ''Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature''. Harper & Brothers, original from Harvard University (1889) * McLaughlin, R. Emmet, ''Caspar Schwenckfeld, reluctant radical: his life to 1540'', New Haven: Yale University Press (1986). {{ISBN|0300033672}}. * [[John McManners|McManners, John]]. ''Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity''. Oxford University Press (1990). {{ISBN|0198229283}}. * Metzger, Bruce M., Michael Coogan (ed.). ''Oxford Companion to the Bible''. Oxford University Press (1993). {{ISBN|0195046455}}. * {{cite book|last1=Mullin|first1=Robert Bruce|title=A short world history of Christianity|publisher=Westminster John Knox Press|date=2008}}. * Norman, Edward. ''The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History''. University of California (2007) {{ISBN|978-0520252516}} * Olson, Roger E., ''The Mosaic of Christian Belief''. InterVarsity Press (2002). {{ISBN|978-0830826957}}. * Orlandis, Jose, ''A Short History of the Catholic Church''. Scepter Publishers (1993) {{ISBN|1851821252}} * Otten, Herman J. ''Baal or God? Liberalism or Christianity, Fantasy vs. Truth: Beliefs and Practices of the Churches of the World Today''.... Second ed. New Haven, Mo.: Lutheran News, 1988. * Pelikan, Jaroslav; Hotchkiss, Valerie (ed.) ''Creeds and Confessions of Faith in the Christian Tradition''. Yale University Press (2003). {{ISBN|0300093896}}. * Putnam, Robert D. ''Democracies in Flux: The Evolution of Social Capital in Contemporary Society''. Oxford University Press (2002). * {{cite book|last=Ricciotti|first=Giuseppe|date=1999|title=Julian the Apostate: Roman Emperor (361–363)|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L1c9CwAAQBAJ|publisher=TAN Books|isbn=978-1-5051-0454-7|author-link=Giuseppe Ricciotti}} * {{cite book |last=Riches |first=John |year=2000 |title=The Bible: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-285343-1}} * Riley-Smith, Jonathan. ''The Oxford History of the Crusades''. New York: Oxford University Press, (1999). * Schama, Simon. ''A History of Britain''. Hyperion (2000). {{ISBN|0786866756}}. * Servetus, Michael. ''Restoration of Christianity''. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press (2007). * Simon, Edith. ''Great Ages of Man: The Reformation''. Time-Life Books (1966). {{ISBN|0662278208}}. * Spitz, Lewis. ''The Protestant Reformation''. Concordia Publishing House (2003). {{ISBN|0570033209}}. * [[Charles Spurgeon|Spurgeon, Charles]]. ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080410133140/https://www.pcanet.org/general/cof_chapvi-x.htm#chapx A Defense of Calvinism]}}''. * Sykes, Stephen; Booty, John; Knight, Jonathan. ''The Study of Anglicanism''. Augsburg Fortress Publishers (1998). {{ISBN|080063151X}}. * Talbott, Thomas. ''{{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080413172335/https://www.willamette.edu/~ttalbott/PICTURES.pdf Three Pictures of God in Western Theology]}}'' (1995). * Ustorf, Werner. "A missiological postscript", in: McLeod, Hugh; Ustorf, Werner (ed.). ''The Decline of Christendom in Western Europe, 1750–2000''. Cambridge University Press (2003). * Walsh, Chad. ''Campus Gods on Trial''. Rev. and enl. ed. New York: Macmillan, 1962, t.p. 1964. xiv, [4], 154 p. * {{cite book|last1=White|first1=James F.|title=Introduction to Christian Worship Third Edition: Revised and Expanded|year=2010|publisher=Abingdon |isbn=978-1-4267-2285-1|edition=3rd}} * {{Cite book|last1=Woodhead|first1=Linda|title=Christianity: A Very Short Introduction|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2004|isbn=978-0-19-280322-1}} * {{cite book|last=Woods|first=Thomas E.|author-link=Thomas Woods|year=2005|title=How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=Regnery}} {{Refend}} == Further reading == {{Refbegin|30em}} * {{cite book |chapter=[[s:Think Well On't/Rules|Rules for a Christian Life]] |title=Think Well On't or, Reflections on the great truths of the Christian religion for every day of the month |year=1801 |publisher=T. Haydock |first=Richard |last=Challoner |author-link=Richard Challoner}} * {{Cite book |last=Gill |first=Robin |author-link=Robin Gill (priest) |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian ethics |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-521-77918-0 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Gunton |first=Colin E. |title=The Cambridge companion to Christian doctrine |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-521-47695-9 |ref=none}} * MacCulloch, Diarmaid. ''Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years'' (Viking; 2010) 1,161 pp.; survey by leading historian * {{Cite book |last=MacMullen |first=Ramsay |title=Voting About God in Early Church Councils |publisher=Yale University Press |location=New Haven, CT |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-300-11596-3 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Padgett |first1=Alan G. |first2=Sally |last2=Bruyneel |title=Introducing Christianity |publisher=Orbis |location=Maryknoll, NY |year=2003 |isbn=978-1-57075-395-4 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last1=Price |first1=Matthew Arlen |last2=Collins |first2=Michael |title=The story of Christianity |publisher=Dorling Kindersley |location=New York |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-7513-0467-1 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Ratzinger |first=Joseph |title=Introduction To Christianity (Communio Books) |publisher=Ignatius |location=San Francisco |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-58617-029-5 |author-link=Pope Benedict XVI}} * Roper, J.C., ''Bp''. (1923), ''et al.''. ''Faith in God'', in series, ''Layman's Library of Practical Religion, Church of England in Canada'', vol. 2. Toronto, Ont.: Musson Book Co. ''N.B''.: The series statement is given in the more extended form which appears on the book's front cover. * {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=George |title=Essential Judaism: A Complete Guide to Beliefs, Customs and Rituals |url=https://archive.org/details/essentialjudaism00robi |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Pocket |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-671-03481-8 |ref=none}} * {{Cite book |last=Rüegg |first=Walter |title="Foreword. The University as a European Institution", in: A History of the University in Europe. Vol. 1, Universities in the Middle Ages |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1992 |isbn=0-521-36105-2}} * {{Cite book |last1=Tucker |first1=Karen |last2=Wainwright |first2=Geoffrey |title=The Oxford History of Christian Worship |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-513886-3}} * {{Cite book |last=Verger |first=Jacques |title=Culture, enseignement et société en Occident aux XIIe et XIIIe siècles |year=1999 |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes in Rennes |isbn=978-2868473448 |url=https://openlibrary.org/works/OL822497W |language=fr}} * {{Cite book |last=Wagner |first=Richard |title=Christianity for Dummies |publisher=For Dummies |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-7645-4482-8}} * {{Cite book |last=Webb |first=Jeffrey B. |title=The Complete Idiot's Guide to Christianity |publisher=Alpha |location=Indianapolis |year=2004 |isbn=978-1-59257-176-5}} * [[Garry Wills|Wills, Garry]], "A Wild and Indecent Book" (review of [[David Bentley Hart]], ''The New Testament: A Translation'', Yale University Press, 577 pp.), ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXV, no. 2 (8 February 2018), pp. 34–35. Discusses some pitfalls in interpreting and translating the [[New Testament]]. {{Refend}} == External links == {{Library resources box}} * [https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity "Christianity"]. ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' * [https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/christianity/index.shtml Religion & Ethics – Christianity] A number of introductory articles on Christianity from the BBC {{Christianity footer|uncollapsed}} {{Jesus footer}} {{Patriarchates in Christianity}} {{History of Christianity}} {{Religion topics}} {{Western culture}} {{Subject bar|Christianity|Religion |b = Subject:Christianity |commons = Category:Christianity |d = Q5043 |n = Category:Christianity |q = Christianity |s = Portal:Christianity |v = Christianity |voy = Christianity |wikt = Christianity}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Christianity| ]] [[Category:1st-century establishments]] [[Category:1st-century introductions]] [[Category:Abrahamic religions]] [[Category:Monotheistic religions]] [[Category:Middle Eastern religions]] [[Category:Western culture]]