{{Short description|Legitimate power to decide or authorize}}
{{other uses}}
[[File:AuthorityOfLaw.JPG|thumb|The [[Supreme Court of the United States]] is the highest judicial authority in the country]]
'''Authority''' is commonly understood as the [[political legitimacy|legitimate power]] of a person or group over other people.<ref>{{cite book |authorlink1=Frank Bealey |first=Frank |last=Bealey |year =1999 |title=The Blackwell Dictionary of Political Science: A User's Guide to Its Terms |url=https://archive.org/details/blackwelldiction00beal |url-access=limited |isbn=0-631-20694-9 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/blackwelldiction00beal/page/n37 22–23] |publisher=Wiley }}{{dead link|date=September 2024}}</ref><ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Miller
 |first1               = David
 |author-link1         = David Miller (political theorist)
 |date                 = 26 June 2003
 |chapter              = Political authority
 |title                = Political Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=XQNmx06L3sgC
 |series               = Very Short Introductions
 |publisher            = Oxford University Press
 |page                 = 20
 |isbn                 = 9780191577864
 |access-date          = 28 September 2024
 |quote                = Political authority has two sides to it. On the one side, people generally recognize it ''as'' authority, in other words as having the right to command ... On the other side, people who refuse to obey are compelled to do so by the threat of sanctions ... And these two aspects are complementary.
}} 
</ref>
In a civil [[State (polity)|state]], ''authority'' may be practiced by [[Legislature|legislative]], [[Executive (government)|executive]], and [[Judiciary|judicial]] branches of [[government]],<ref name=":0">''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, Allan Bullock and Stephen Trombley, Eds. p. 115.</ref> each of which has authority and <em>is</em> an authority.<ref>
{{cite book
 |last1                = Covell
 |first1               = Charles
 |date                 = 9 July 2009
 |chapter              = Rousseau, Kant and Hegel
 |title                = The Law of Nations in Political Thought: A Critical Survey from Vitoria to Hegel
 |url                  = https://books.google.com/books?id=0e3MCwAAQBAJ
 |publication-place    = Basingstoke
 |publisher            = Palgrave Macmillan
 |isbn                 = 9780230244450
 |access-date          = 28 September 2024
 |quote                = [According to Kant, the] juridicial order of civil society found its concrete institutional embodiment in the civil state, as through the legislative, executive and judicial authorities that comprised the basis of the state constitution and the system of state government. Of the three state authorities, the legislative authority was understood by Kant to be foundational in that it stood as the sovereign authority in the state ...
}} 
</ref>
The term "authority" has multiple nuances and distinctions within various academic fields ranging from [[sociology]] to [[political science]], including [[religious studies]].

The term ''authority'' identifies the [[political legitimacy]], which grants and justifies rulers' right to exercise the power of government; and the term ''power'' identifies the ability to accomplish an authorized goal, either by compliance or by [[obedience]]; hence, ''authority'' is the ''power'' to make decisions and the legitimacy to make such legal decisions and order their execution.<ref>''The New Fontana Dictionary of Modern Thought'', Third edition, Allan Bullock and Stephen Trombley, eds., pp. 677–678.</ref>

== History ==
[[Ancient history|Ancient]] understandings of authority trace back to [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] and draw later from Catholic ([[Thomism|Thomistic]]) thought and other [[tradition]]al understandings. In more modern terms, forms of authority include transitional authority (exhibited in, for example, [[Cambodia]]),<ref>{{Cite news|title=United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC)|last=Widyono|first=Benny|date=Oct 2014}}</ref> public authority in the form of popular power, and, in more administrative terms, bureaucratic or managerial techniques. In terms of bureaucratic governance, one limitation of the governmental agents of the executive branch, as outlined by George A. Krause, is that they are not as close to the popular will as [[Representative democracy|elected representatives]] are.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Legislative Delegation of Authority to Bureaucratic Agencies|last=Krause|first=George A.|date=2010|work=The Oxford Handbook of American Bureaucracy|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor-last=Durant|editor-first=Robert F.|location=New York|page=524}}</ref> The claims of authority can extend to national or individual [[sovereignty]], which is broadly or provisionally understood as a claim to political authority that is [[Legitimation|legitimated]].<ref>{{Cite news|title=Sovereignty|last=Glanville|first=Luke|work=The Oxford Handbook of the Responsibility to Protect|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016|editor-last=Bellamy|editor-first=Alex J.|location=New York|page=153}}</ref>

Historical applications of authority in political terms include the formation of the city-state of [[Geneva]], and experimental treatises involving the topic of authority in relation to education include ''[[Emile, or On Education]]'' by [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. As [[David D. Laitin|David Laitin]] defines, authority is a key concept to be defined in determining the range and role of political theory, science and inquiry.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Laitin|first=David|date=1998|title=Toward a Political Science Discipline: Authority Patterns Revisited|journal=Comparative Political Studies|volume=31|issue=4|pages=423–443|doi=10.1177/0010414098031004002|s2cid=146736449}}</ref>

== Political philosophy ==
{{Main|Political authority}}
There have been several contributions to the debate of political authority. Among others, [[Hannah Arendt]], [[Carl Joachim Friedrich]], [[Thomas Hobbes]], [[Alexandre Kojève]] and [[Carl Schmitt]] have provided some of the most influential texts.

In European [[political philosophy]], the [[jurisdiction]] of political authority, the location of [[sovereignty]], the balancing of notions of [[freedom]] and authority,<ref>{{Cite book|title=Hegel on Freedom and Authority|last=Cristi|first=Renato|publisher=University of Wales Press|year=2005|location=Cardiff, Wales}}</ref> and the requirements of political obligations have been core questions from the time of [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle]] to the present. Most [[democracy|democratic]] societies are engaged in an ongoing discussion regarding the legitimate extent of the exercise of [[government]]al authority. In the [[United States]], for instance, there is a prevailing belief that the political system as instituted by the [[Founding Fathers of the United States|Founding Fathers]] should accord the populace as much freedom as reasonable; that government should limit its authority accordingly, known as [[limited government]].

[[Philosophical anarchism|Political anarchism]] is a philosophy which rejects the legitimacy of political authority and adherence to any form of sovereign rule or autonomy of a nation-state.<ref name=":0" /> An argument for political anarchy is made by [[Michael Huemer]] in his book ''[[The Problem of Political Authority]]''. On the other side, one of the main arguments for the legitimacy of the state is some form of the [[Social contract|social contract theory]] developed by Thomas Hobbes in his 1668 book, [[Leviathan (Hobbes book)|''Leviathan'']], or by Jean-Jacques Rousseau in his political writings on [[The Social Contract|the social contract]].

== Sociology ==
[[File:Cleric, Knight, and Workman representing the Three Classes.jpg|thumb|An inhabited initial from a 13th-century French text representing the tripartite social order of the Middle Ages: the ōrātōrēs (those who pray – clerics), bellātōrēs (those who fight – knights, that is, the nobility), and labōrātōrēs (those who work – peasants and members of the lower middle class).]]

In [[sociology]], '''authority''' is the [[legitimacy (political)|legitimate]] or socially approved power which one person or a group possesses and practices over another. The element of legitimacy is vital to the notion of authority and is the main means by which authority is distinguished from the more general concept of [[Power (social and political)|power]] and dominant group, including [[dominant minority]] and [[dominant majority]].

Power can be exerted by the use of force or [[violence]]. Authority, by contrast, depends on the acceptance by [[subordinate]]s of the right of those above them to give them orders or [[Wiktionary: directive|directive]]s.<ref>Anthony Giddens, ''Sociology.'' London: Polity Press, 1997, p. 581.</ref><ref>Max Weber in "Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society: New Translations for the 21st Century", translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters.  pp. 137-138.</ref> It only exists to the extent that it is [[recognition|recognized]]{{disambiguation needed|date=July 2026}}.<ref>C. Naomi Osorio-Kupferblum: "Conceptualising ‘Authority’". In: ''International Journal of Philosophical Studies.'' Vol. 23, No. 2, 13 March 2015, pp. 223–236, doi:10.1080/09672559.2015.1020828</ref> As [[Andreas Dorschel]] put it: "Authority may in fact go unquestioned, even for a long period of time, but it is never beyond questioning because whosoever grants can also withhold."<ref>Andreas Dorschel, ''Die Welt verändern. Zur Poetik des Manifests.'' Frankfurt am Main: Vittorio Klostermann, 2026, p. 61: "Unbefragt kann Autorität bleiben, selbst lange Zeit hindurch; fraglos aber besteht sie nie, weil, wer etwas zuspricht, es auch absprechen kann." See the entire argument, ibid., pp. 60–64.</ref>

The definition of authority in contemporary social science remains a matter of debate. [[Max Weber]] in his essay "[[Politics as a Vocation]]" (1919) divided legitimate authority into [[Authority (sociology)|three types]]. Others, like [[Howard Bloom]], suggest a parallel between authority and [[Veneration of the dead|respect/reverence for ancestors]].<ref>{{cite book |last1            = Bloom
 |first1           = Howard
 |author-link1     = Howard Bloom
 |title            = The Genius of the Beast: a radical re-vision of capitalism
 |location         = Amherst, New York
 |publisher        = Prometheus Books
 |date = 2010
 |page             = [https://archive.org/details/geniusofbeastrad0000bloo/page/186 186]
 |isbn             = 978-1-59102-754-6
 |quote            = To validate an argument, we refer back to our ancestors – or to someone who, while still alive, has already garnered the sort of authority only ancestors normally have.
 |url-access       = registration
 |url              = https://archive.org/details/geniusofbeastrad0000bloo/page/186
}}
</ref>

===Max Weber on authority===<!-- [[Herrschaft (sociology)]] redirects here -->
{{Main|Tripartite classification of authority|The Three Types of Legitimate Rule|Monopoly on violence}}
[[Max Weber]] defined domination (authority) as the chance of commands being obeyed by a specifiable group of people. Legitimate authority is that which is recognized as legitimate and justified by both the ruler and the ruled. Legitimated rule results in what Weber called the monopoly over the use of coercive violence in a given territory.<ref>Max Weber in Weber's Rationalism and Modern Society, translated and edited by Tony Waters and Dagmar Waters, Palgrave Books 2015, pp. 136 {{ISBN?}}</ref> 
The concept of authority has also been discussed as a guiding principle in human-machine interaction design.<ref>Flemisch, F., Heesen, M., Hesse, T., Kelsch, J., Schieben, A., & Beller, J. (2011). [https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10111-011-0191-6 Towards a Dynamic Balance between Humans and Automation: Authority, Ability, Responsibility and Control in Cooperative Control Situations]. ''Cognition, Technology and Work''. Advance online publication. {{doi|10.1007/s10111-011-0191-6}}</ref>

Genetic research indicates that obedience to authority may be a heritable factor.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ludeke |first1=Steven |last2=Johnson |first2=Wendy |last3=Bouchard |first3=Thomas J. |date=2013-08-01 |title="Obedience to traditional authority:" A heritable factor underlying authoritarianism, conservatism and religiousness |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0191886913001384 |journal=Personality and Individual Differences |volume=55 |issue=4 |pages=375–380 |doi=10.1016/j.paid.2013.03.018 |issn=0191-8869|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Children and authority attributes ===
Authority and its attributes have been identified as of particular relevance to children as they regard their parents and teachers. The three attributes of authority have been described as ''status'', ''specialist skills'' or ''knowledge'', and ''social position''. Children consider the type of command, the characteristics of the authority figure, and the social context when making authority conclusions.<ref>Laupa, 1991.</ref>

Although children regard these three types of authority attributes, they first assess the legitimacy of the authority figure in question using the nature of the commands they give. For example, a teacher who does not appear to have legitimate power from the child's perspective (perhaps because she or he cannot control the class well) will not be obeyed. Regarding parenting, authoritative parents who are warm and high in behavioral control but low in psychological control are more likely to be seen as having legitimate authority over the child, and will believe themselves that they have a duty to obey them and internalize their values. While the study of children in modern capitalist societies does look at the psychological aspects of children's understanding of legitimate authority at the level of symbolic interaction it is also true that is an extrapolated assumption based on one interpretation of a broad Comparative Historical Sociological (CHS) analysis of legitimate authority in multiple societies over a long duration, not the micro-social psychological study of children per se. There is nothing in Weber's published work in the Max Weber Gesamtausgabe that directly deals with children's perceptions in "formations" with traditional legitimate authority, prior to the emergence of modern capitalism .<ref>Reinhard. Bendix. Max Weber: An Intellectual Portrait. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, Doubleday & Company, Inc. 1960.</ref>

== Religious studies ==
Religious authority refers to the organizational control and decision-making power within a social system.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chaves |first=M. |date=1994-03-01 |title=Secularization as Declining Religious Authority |url=https://academic.oup.com/sf/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/sf/72.3.749 |journal=Social Forces |language=en |volume=72 |issue=3 |pages=749–774 |doi=10.1093/sf/72.3.749 |issn=0037-7732|url-access=subscription }}</ref> It operates through three forms: authoritative objects (e.g. sacred texts), religious figures or social positions (e.g. clergy, institutional leaders), and absent authority figures (e.g. gods). The authority can be understood as a kind of projection, reflecting individuals' own ideas through processes such as selective privileging,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Martin |first=Craig |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9781317545071 |title=A Critical Introduction to the Study of Religion |last2=Martin |first2=Craig |date=2014-09-11 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-54507-1 |edition=0 |language=en |doi=10.4324/9781315729152}}</ref> and it is maintained through social recognition, particularly the acceptance of decisions made by clergy or religious leaders.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chaves |first=Mark |date=2003 |title=Religious authority in the modern world |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s12115-003-1034-8 |journal=Society |language=en |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=38–40 |doi=10.1007/s12115-003-1034-8 |issn=0147-2011|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

=== Operation of religious authority ===
Religious authority operates through social processes, including creation, maintenance, and transformation. It is established to improve social coordination through shared rituals and organizational social expectation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=McBride |first=Michael |date=2016 |title=A rational choice theory of religious authority |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1043463116658870 |journal=Rationality and Society |language=en |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=410–438 |doi=10.1177/1043463116658870 |issn=1043-4631|url-access=subscription }}</ref> Then, it is maintained by religious institutions' structures, recognized roles, sacred texts, and relevant ideas, which strengthens authority by communication (online/offline).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=Heidi A. |date=2010 |title=Religious Authority and the Blogosphere |url=https://academic.oup.com/jcmc/article/15/2/251-276/4064813 |journal=Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=251–276 |doi=10.1111/j.1083-6101.2010.01519.x|url-access=subscription }}</ref> At the same time, religious authority can be changed. Especially, in modern society, the increase in the use of new media has an impact on the decentralization of authority, challenging traditional sources of religious authority.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Turner |first=Bryan S. |date=2007 |title=Religious Authority and the New Media |url=https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0263276407075001 |journal=Theory, Culture & Society |language=en |volume=24 |issue=2 |pages=117–134 |doi=10.1177/0263276407075001 |issn=0263-2764|url-access=subscription }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{cols|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Anti-authoritarianism]]
* [[Appeal to authority]]
* ''[[Auctoritas]]''
* [[Authoritarianism]]
* [[Authority (management)]]
* [[Authority bias]]
* [[Legitimacy (political)|Legitimacy]]
* [[List of sociology topics]]
* [[Milgram experiment]] (sociological experiments measuring obedience to authority figures)
* [[Patrimonialism]]
* [[Petty authority]]
* [[Power distance]]
* [[Question authority]]
* [[Soft power]]
{{colend}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
* [[Noh]], ''State of Exception'' (2005)
* [[Hannah Arendt]], "Authority in the Twentieth Century." ''[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/review-of-politics Review of Politics]'' (1956)
* [[Hannah Arendt]], ''On Violence'' (1970)
* [[Józef Maria Bocheński]], ''{{lang|de|Was ist Autorität}}?'' (1974)
* Renato Cristi, ''Hegel on Freedom and Authority'' (2005)
* [[Carl Joachim Friedrich]], ''Authority''. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press (1958)
* [[Carl Joachim Friedrich]], ''An Introduction to Political Theory: Twelve Lectures at Harvard.'' New York: Harper & Row (1967)
* [[Carl Joachim Friedrich]], ''Tradition and Authority''. London: Macmillan (1972)
* [[Robert E. Goodin]] (ed), ''[http://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199604456.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199604456 The Oxford Handbook of Political Science]'' (2011) 
* Sebastian De Grazia. (1959). "[[doi:10.2307/1952150|What Authority Is Not]]". ''American Political Science Review'' 53(2): 321–331.
* Patrick Hayden, ''Hannah Arendt: Key Concepts'' (2014), esp. Chapter 8
* [[Alexandre Kojève]], "The Notion of Authority" (2014)
* C. Naomi Osorio-Kupferblum: "[https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/09672559.2015.1020828?scroll=top&needAccess=true Conceptualising ‘Authority’]". In: ''International Journal of Philosophical Studies.'' Vol. 23, No. 2, 13 March 2015, pp. 223–236, doi:10.1080/09672559.2015.1020828 
* Gail Radford, ''The Rise of the Public Authority: Statebuilding and Economic Development in Twentieth-Century America'' (2013)
* Rosen, Arie (2023). "[https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/legal-theory/article/political-reasons-and-the-limits-of-political-authority/3582E6CED0B260249FD2A0316FCF4F8E Political Reasons and the Limits of Political Authority]." ''Legal Theory'' '''29''' (1): 63–88.
* [[Carl Schmitt]], ''Der Begriff des Politischen'' [''[[The Concept of the Political]]''] (1932) 
* [[Max Weber]], ''[[Economy and Society]]'' (1922)
* [[Max Weber]], ''[[Politics as a Vocation]]'' (1919)

== External links ==
* {{cite IEP|url-id=poli-obl|title=Political Obligation}}
* {{cite SEP |url-id=authority |title=Authority |last=Christiano |first=Tom}}
* Four essays published in the ''[[International Journal of Philosophical Studies]]'' from the [https://web.archive.org/web/20170326140310/http://explore.tandfonline.com/cfp/ah/international-journal-of-philosophical-studies#2014 Robert Papazian Essay Prize Competition on Authority]

{{Political philosophy}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Subject bar|auto=y|d=y}}

[[Category:Authority| ]]
[[Category:Group processes]]
[[Category:Philosophy of law]]
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