{{Short description|Remedies from ancient Egypt}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
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{{More citations needed|date=April 2016}}}}[[File:Edwin Smith Papyrus v2.jpg|thumb|300px|The [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] documents ancient Egyptian medicine, including the diagnosis and treatment of injuries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Wilkins |first=Robert H. |date=1992 |orig-date=First published 1965 |title=Neurosurgical Classics |edition=2nd |location=[[Park Ridge, Illinois]] |publisher=[[American Association of Neurological Surgeons]] |lccn=2011293270 |isbn=978-1-879284-09-8}}</ref>]]
The medicine of the [[ancient Egypt]]ians is some of the oldest documented. From the beginnings of the civilization in the late fourth millennium BC until the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] invasion of 525 BC,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Metwaly AM, Ghoneim MM, Eissa IH, Elsehemy IA, Mostafa AE, Hegazy MM, Afifi WM, Dou D | display-authors = 6 | title = Traditional ancient Egyptian medicine: A review | journal = Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences | volume = 28 | issue = 10 | pages = 5823–5832 | date = October 2021 | pmid = 34588897 | pmc = 8459052 | doi = 10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.06.044 | bibcode = 2021SJBS...28.5823M }}</ref> Egyptian medical practice went largely unchanged and included simple non-invasive [[surgery]], setting of [[bone]]s, [[dentistry]], and an extensive set of [[pharmacopoeia]]. Egyptian medical thought influenced later traditions, including the [[Greek medicine|Greeks]].<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Steinbock RT |date=1990 |title=The Medical Skills of Ancient Egypt |journal=JAMA |volume=264 |issue=23 |page=3074 |doi=10.1001/jama.1990.03450230110044 }}</ref>

==History==
=== Early dynastic period (pre 2181 BCE) ===
The [[Early Dynastic Period of Egypt]] displays a period of unity within Egypt. The Southern Upper region and Northern lower regions merged with a centralized government. '''<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |date=2016-01-22 |title=Early Dynastic Period In Egypt |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Early_Dynastic_Period_In_Egypt/ |journal=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>''' A medical revolution was underway with [[Imhotep]] (vizier to King [[Djoser]]) 's progression away from magic to science and logical explanations for medical conditions. Advancements showed strong progress during this time period, with developments in education, medical specialities, tools and anatomy. The first physician, Sekhet'enanch is mentioned and documented for healing Pharaoh [[Sahure]] of the [[Fifth Dynasty of Egypt|Fifth Dynasty]] of a nasal disease in 3533 BCE.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Serageldin |first=Ismail |date=2013 |title=Ancient Alexandria and the dawn of medical science |journal=Global Cardiology Science & Practice |volume=2013 |issue=4 |pages=395–404 |doi=10.5339/gcsp.2013.47 |issn=2305-7823 |pmc=3991212 |pmid=24749113}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last1=Metwaly |first1=Ahmed M. |last2=Ghoneim |first2=Mohammed M. |last3=Eissa |first3=Ibrahim H. |last4=Elsehemy |first4=Islam A. |last5=Mostafa |first5=Ahmad E. |last6=Hegazy |first6=Mostafa M. |last7=Afifi |first7=Wael M. |last8=Dou |first8=Deqiang |date=October 2021 |title=Traditional ancient Egyptian medicine: A review |journal=Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences |volume=28 |issue=10 |pages=5823–5832 |doi=10.1016/j.sjbs.2021.06.044 |issn=1319-562X |pmc=8459052 |pmid=34588897 |bibcode=2021SJBS...28.5823M }}</ref> The first surgical and anatomical evidence for the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] was developing during the early dynastic period.<ref name=":1" /> In 3000 BCE, in [[Sais, Egypt|Sais]], a medical school known as the Temple of Neith was established. The temple was run by an unknown woman. [[Gynaecology]] and [[Obstetrics]] were the primary medical concentrations.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Silverthorne |first1=Elizabeth |title=Women pioneers in Texas medicine |last2=Fulgham |first2=Geneva |date=1997 |publisher=Texas A & M University Press |isbn=978-0-89096-789-8 |edition=1st |series=The Centennial series of the Association of Former Students, Texas A & M University |location=College Station, Tex}}</ref> [[Dentistry]] was a predominant field due to high amounts of sand in ancient Egyptians diet. The first documentation of dentistry in Egypt was the early dynastic period. [[Hesy-Ra]], the first dentist known by name in history, was the chief of dentistry for [[Djoser]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mark |first=Joshua J. |date=2017-02-17 |title=Egyptian Medicine |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/Egyptian_Medicine/ |journal=World History Encyclopedia |language=en}}</ref>

=== Old kingdom (2613-2181 BCE) ===
[[File:Ancient Egyptian old and middle kingdom.svg|thumb|Map of the Old and Middle Kingdom's of Ancient Egypt 2055 BCE–1650 BCE]]The [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] was "the first golden age" of three periods in ancient Egypt. The Old Kingdom marks the building of the [[pyramid]]s and expansion of civilization in the lower [[Nile Valley]]. Women's contributions to the medical field were increasing. [[Peseshet]], documented as the first lady physician, held the title of "chief woman physician". [[Merit-Ptah]], a female [[Scientist]] and [[Astronomer]] was recognized for her contributions to science.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

=== Middle kingdom (2040-1782 BCE) ===
[[File:Mentuhotep II (detail).jpg|thumb|Mentuhotep II]]
The [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt#Technology|Middle Kingdom of Egypt]] reunified the political divisions seen in the First Intermediate Period, under the rule of [[Mentuhotep II]]. The period is known as "the second golden age" in ancient Egyptian history, following the Old Kingdom.<ref name="Historiographie in der Antike">{{Cite book |title=Historiographie in der Antike |date=2008 |publisher=Walter De Gruyter Inc |isbn=978-3-11-020672-2 |editor-last=Adam |editor-first=Klaus-Peter |series=Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft |location=Berlin New York}}</ref> The [[Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]] was written around 1825 BCE, and is the oldest surviving treatise on gynecology, [[Fertilisation|conception]], and [[Birth control|contraception]].<ref name=":1" /> The [[Kahun Papyri|veterinary papyrus of Kahun]]  was written and included knowledge of animal healing.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal |last=Elhabashy |first=Sameh |last2=Abdelgawad |first2=Elshaimaa M. |date=2019-01-01 |title=The history of nursing profession in ancient Egyptian society |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2214139119300113 |journal=International Journal of Africa Nursing Sciences |volume=11 |article-number=100174 |doi=10.1016/j.ijans.2019.100174 |issn=2214-1391|doi-access=free }}</ref> Medical procedures were advancing with remains of over 40 papyri found.<ref name=":1" />

=== Second intermediate period (1782-1570 BCE) ===
The [[Second Intermediate Period of Egypt|Second Intermediate Period]] is defined by division, with smaller dynasties holding power, lacking a strong centralized government as seen in the Middle and Old kingdoms. Migration of the [[Hyksos]] people, a [[Levant]] ethnic group occurred, and they established the [[Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt|15th Dynasty]]. The dynasty was founded by [[Salitis]].<ref>{{Citation |chapter=''Luculentissima fragmenta'' |date=2011-07-07 |title=Egypt and the Limits of Hellenism |pages=84–141 |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511894992.003 |access-date=2026-04-17 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76551-0}}</ref> In 1600 BCE, the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus|Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus]] was written. The papyrus contained medical information gathered from over the past 500 years prior. With the first written descriptions of the [[brain]], cranial sutures, and [[cerebrospinal fluid]]. The [[London Medical Papyrus]] was written during this period as well, focusing on [[pregnancy]], [[Ophthalmology]], and [[skin condition]]s.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" />

=== New kingdom (1570-1069 BCE) ===
[[File:Map of the new kingdom of egypt in 1453 bc under pharaoh thutmose iii.png|thumb|The New Kingdom 1453 BCE]]
The [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] marks the peak in ancient Egypt, with mass expansion into the Levant and [[Nubia]], following the migration of the Hyksos during the second intermediate period.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |title=The Oxford history of ancient Egypt |date=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-815034-3 |editor-last=Shaw |editor-first=Ian |series=Oxford scholarship online |location=Oxford}}</ref> The Kingdom was coined as the third and final "Golden Age" of ancient Egyptian history.<ref name="Historiographie in der Antike"/>  It was also known as the [[Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Ramessid period]], after the eleven pharaohs named Ramesses.<ref name=":4" /> During this time period medicine grew rapidly with the most well known papyri being composed during the era. In 1550 BCE the [[Ebers Papyrus]] and [[Hearst papyrus]] were written. The two papyri consist of extensive knowledge on prescriptions and recipes used at the time, with the Eber's papyrus containing the first documented cases of [[diabetes]] in history.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> In 1350 BCE, the [[Brugsch Papyrus]] was written, documenting anatomy and pregnancy. In 1300 BCE, the [[London Medical Papyrus]] was written, which included 61 recipes.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":1" /> In 1200 BCE, the [[Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus]] was compiled, with mentions of [[headache]] and [[Proctology|anorectal ailments]] remedies.<ref>{{Citation |chapter=Index of Papyri |date=2004-01-01 |title=Ancient Alexandria between Egypt and Greece |pages=295–296 |editor-last=Harris |editor-first=W.V. |chapter-url=https://doi.org/10.1163/9789047406389_021 |access-date=2026-04-17 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-474-0638-9 |editor2-last=Ruffini |editor2-first=Giovanni}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=BANOV |first=LEON |date=November 1965 |title=Proctology in Ancient Egypt: Its continuing Influence on the Management of Anorectal Diseases |journal=Southern Medical Journal |volume=58 |issue=11 |pages=1366–1369 |doi=10.1097/00007611-196511000-00007 |issn=0038-4348}}</ref>

=== Third intermediate and late periods (1069-332 BCE) ===
The [[Third Intermediate Period of Egypt|Third Intermediate Period]] (1077-664 BCE) arose from the death of [[Pharaoh]] [[Ramesses XI]] in 1077 BC. The [[Late Period of Egypt|Late Period]] followed, lasting from 656-332 BCE. Both periods were shaped by political instability and the loss of native Egyptian rule. The later period concluded with the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], creating the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]]. Medical specialities were highly specialized, as stated by [[Herodotus]]. There were distinct healers for the eyes, teeth, and internal disease. The [[First Achaemenid conquest of Egypt|Persian conquest]] in 525 in the Ptolemaic dynasty led to a gradual decline of ancient Egyptian medical practice and the "torch of knowledge" moved toward [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greece.]]<ref name=":1" />

{{Ancient Egypt graphical timeline}}

==Sources of information==
{{main|Egyptian medical papyri}}
[[File:ebers7766.jpg|300px|thumb|right|[[Ebers Papyrus]] treatment for
 cancer: recounting a "[[tumor]] against the god Xenus", it recommends "do thou nothing there against"]]
Until the 19th century, the main sources of information about ancient Egyptian medicine were writings from later in antiquity. The Greek historian [[Herodotus]] visited Egypt around 440 BC and wrote extensively of his observations of their medicinal practice.<ref>{{citation|jstor=10.1163/j.ctt1w76vxr.6 |chapter=Egyptian Medicine and Greek Medicine |last1=Jouanna |first1=Jacques |last2=Allies |first2=Neil |title=Greek Medicine from Hippocrates to Galen |year=2012 |pages=3–20 |publisher=Brill }}</ref> [[Pliny the Elder]] also wrote favorably of them in historical review. [[Hippocrates]] (the "father of medicine"), [[Herophilos]], [[Erasistratus]] and later [[Galen]] studied at the temple of [[Amenhotep]], and acknowledged the contribution of ancient Egyptian medicine to [[Ancient Greek medicine|Greek medicine]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Said|first=Galal Zaki|date=2013-11-17|title=Orthopaedics in the dawn of civilisation, practices in ancient Egypt|journal=International Orthopaedics|language=en|volume=38|issue=4|pages=905–909|doi=10.1007/s00264-013-2183-z|pmid=24240438|pmc=3971265|issn=0341-2695}}</ref>

The [[decipherment of ancient Egyptian scripts]] in the early 19th century allowed the translation of ancient Egyptian inscriptions and papyri, including many related to medical matters ([[Egyptian medical papyri]]). The resultant interest in [[Egyptology]] in the 19th century led to the discovery of several sets of extensive ancient medical documents, including the [[Ebers papyrus]], the [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]], the [[Hearst Papyrus]], the [[London Medical Papyrus]] and others dating back as far as 2900 BC.

The [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] is a textbook on surgery and details [[anatomical]] observations and the "examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis" of numerous ailments.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Edwin Smith papyrus (Egyptian medical book) |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]] |url=http://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |access-date=1 January 2016 |edition=Online |archive-date=3 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221203103017/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Edwin-Smith-papyrus |url-status=live }}</ref> It was probably written around 1600 BC, but is regarded as a copy of several earlier texts. Medical information in it dates from as early as 3000 BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm |title=Medicine in Ancient Egypt – Part 1 |last=Arab |first=Sameh M. |website=Arab World Books |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-date=23 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160923185651/http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> It is thus viewed as a learning manual. Treatments consisted of ointments made from animal, vegetable or fruit substances or minerals.<ref>{{cite book |last=Fagan |first=Brian M. |date=2004 |title=The Seventy Great Inventions of the Ancient World |url=https://archive.org/details/seventygreatinve0000unse |publisher=[[Thames & Hudson]] |isbn=978-0-50005130-6 |url-access=registration }}</ref> There is evidence of oral surgery being performed as early as the 4th Dynasty (2900–2750 BC).<ref>{{cite journal | jstor=44441040 | title=Further Evidence That Dentistry Was Practiced in Ancient Egypt, Phoenicia and Greece | last1=Weinberger | first1=Bernhard Wolf | journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine | year=1946 | volume=20 | issue=2 | pages=188–195 | pmid=20277446 }}</ref>

The [[Ebers Papyrus|Ebers papyrus]] (c. 1550 BC) includes 877 prescriptions – as categorized by a modern editor – for a variety of ailments and illnesses, some of them involving magical remedies, for Egyptian beliefs regarding magic and medicine were often intertwined.<ref name="auto">{{cite journal | jstor=43430010 | title=The Beginnings of Medicine: Medicine and Surgery in Ancient Egypt | last1=Dawson | first1=Warren R. | journal=Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1919-1933) | year=1927 | volume=22 | issue=86 | pages=275–284 }}</ref> It also contains documentation revealing awareness of [[tumor]]s, along with instructions on tumor removal.<ref name="auto"/>

The [[Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Griffith |first=F. Ll. |author-link1=Francis Llewellyn Griffith |date=1898 |title=The Petrie Papyri: Hieratic Papyri from Kahun and Gurob |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b000766831;view=1up;seq=174 |location=London |publisher=[[Bernard Quaritch]] |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125054847/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b000766831;view=1up;seq=174 |url-status=live }} (Please note the book pages run from back to front.)</ref> treats women's complaints, including problems with conception. Thirty four cases detailing diagnosis and<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bynum |first1=W. F. |last2=Hardy |first2=Anne |last3=Jacyna |first3=Stephen |last4=Lawrence |first4=Christopher |last5=Tansey |first5=E.M. |title=The Western Medical Tradition: 1800–2000 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AKPt9cALKeQC&pg=PA407 |year=2006 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-47565-5 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/westernmedicaltr0000unse/page/198 198–199] |chapter=The Rise of Science in Medicine, 1850–1913 |url=https://archive.org/details/westernmedicaltr0000unse/page/198 }}</ref> treatment survive, some of them fragmentarily.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/kahunpapyrus.htm |title=The Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus |last1=Dollinger |first1=André |publisher=Kibbutz Reshafim |website=An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt |access-date=2012-04-21 |archive-date=19 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419085059/http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/kahunpapyrus.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Dating to 1800&nbsp;BC, it is the oldest surviving medical text of any kind.

Other documents such as the [[Hearst papyrus]] (1450 BC), and [[Brugsch Papyrus|Berlin Papyrus]] (1200 BC) also provide valuable insight into ancient Egyptian medicine.

Other information comes from the images that often adorn the walls of Egyptian tombs and the translation of the accompanying inscriptions. Advances in modern medical technology also contributed to the understanding of ancient Egyptian medicine. [[Paleopathology|Paleopathologist]]s were able to use [[X-ray]]s and later [[CAT Scan]]s to view the bones and organs of [[mummy|mummies]]. [[Electron microscope]]s, [[mass spectrometry]] and various forensic techniques allowed scientists unique glimpses of the state of health in Egypt 4000 years ago.

==Nutrition==
The ancient Egyptians were at least partially aware of the importance of diet, both in balance and moderation.<ref name="dollinger" /> Owing to Egypt's great endowment of fertile land, food production was never a major issue, although no matter how bountiful the land, paupers and starvation still existed. The main crops for most of ancient Egyptian history were [[emmer wheat]] and barley. Consumed in the form of loaves which were produced in a variety of types through baking and fermentation, with yeast greatly enriching the nutritional value of the product, one farmer's crop could support an estimated twenty adults. Barley was also used in beer. Vegetables and fruits of many types were widely grown. Oil was produced from the linseed plant and there was a limited selection of spices and herbs. Meat (sheep, goats, pigs, wild game) was regularly available to at least the upper classes and fish were widely consumed, although there is evidence of prohibitions during certain periods against certain types of animal products; Herodotus wrote of the pig as being 'unclean'. Offerings to [[Unas|King Unas]] (c. 2494–2345 BC) were recorded as "...milk, three kinds of beer, five kinds of wine, ten loaves, four of bread, ten of cakes, four meats, different cuts, joints, roast, spleen, limb, breast, quail, goose, pigeon, figs, ten other fruits, three kinds of corn, barley, spelt, five kinds of oil, and fresh plants..."

It is clear that the Egyptian diet was not lacking for the upper classes and that even the lower classes may have had some selection (Nunn, 2002).

== Pharmacology ==

Like many civilizations in the past, the ancient Egyptians amply discovered the medicinal properties of plant life around them. The [[Edwin Smith Papyrus]] contains many recipes to help heal different ailments. One short section of the papyrus lays out five recipes: one dealing with problems women may have had, three on techniques for refining the complexion, and the fifth recipe for ailments of the colon.<ref name="Breasted">{{cite book |last=Breasted |first=James Henry |date=1930 |title=The Edwin Smith Papyrus |series=University of Chicago Oriental Institute publications; 3-4 |url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027232282;view=1up;seq=7 |location=[[Chicago]], Illinois |publisher=The [[University of Chicago Press]] |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-date=25 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220125054856/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027232282;view=1up;seq=7 |url-status=live }}</ref> The ancient Egyptians were known to use honey as medicine, and the juices of pomegranates served as both an astringent and a delicacy.<ref>{{cite book |last=Allen |first=James P |date=2005 |title=The Art of Medicine in Ancient Egypt |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jNbVl5LOjHUC&q=ancient+egyptian+medicine&pg=PA6 |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=The [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] |isbn=978-0-300-10728-9 |access-date=24 November 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240707005558/https://books.google.com/books?id=jNbVl5LOjHUC&q=ancient+egyptian+medicine&pg=PA6#v=snippet&q=ancient%20egyptian%20medicine&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref> In the Ebers Papyrus, there are over 800 remedies; some were topical-like ointments and wrappings, others were oral [[medication]] such as pills and mouth rinses; still others were taken through inhalation.<ref name="Bryan">{{cite book |last=Bryan |first=Cyril |date=1932 |title=The Ebers Papyrus |location=[[New York City|New York]] |publisher=[[D. Appleton and Company]] }}</ref>{{rp|15}} The recipes to cure constipation consisted of berries from the castor oil tree, Male Palm, and Gengent beans, just to name a few. One recipe that was to help headaches called for "inner-of-onion, fruit-of-the-am-tree, natron, setseft-seeds, bone-of-the-sword-fish, cooked, redfish, cooked, skull-of-crayfish, cooked, honey, and abra-ointment."<ref name="Bryan" />{{rp|44 and 60}} Some of the recommended treatments made use of cannabis and incense.<ref name="Nunn1996">{{cite journal |last=Nunn |first=John F. |date=1996 |title=Ancient Egyptian Medicine |journal=Transactions of the Medical Society of London |volume=113 |pages=57–68 |pmid=10326089}}</ref>{{rp|156 and 158}} "Egyptian medicinal use of plants in antiquity is known to be extensive, with some 160 distinct plant products..."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Ritner |first=Robert K. |date=April 2000 |title=Innovations and Adaptations in Ancient Egyptian Medicine |jstor=545610 |journal=[[Journal of Near Eastern Studies]] |volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=107–117 |doi= 10.1086/468799|pmid=16468204 |s2cid=39263523 }}</ref> Amidst the many plant extracts and fruits, the Egyptians also used animal feces and even some metals as treatments.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/medicine.htm#herbal_medicine |title=Herbal Medicine |last1=Dollinger |first1=André |publisher=Kibbutz Reshafim |website=An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt |access-date=9 October 2015 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115130926/https://www.reshafim.org.il/http_new/index.asp?sitename=reshafim#herbal_medicine |url-status=live }}</ref> These prescriptions of antiquity were measured out by volume, not weight, which makes their prescription-making craft more like cooking than what pharmacists do today.<ref name="Nunn">{{cite book |last=Nunn |first=John F. |date=1996 |title=Ancient Egyptian Medicine |journal=Transactions of the Medical Society of London |volume=113 |pages=57–68 |location=[[Norman, Oklahoma]] |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |pmid=10326089 |isbn=978-0-8061-2831-3}}</ref>{{rp|140}} While their treatments and herbal remedies seem almost boundless, they still included incantations along with some therapeutic remedies.<ref name="Breasted" />{{rp|472}}

Egyptian drug therapy is considered ineffective by today's standards according to Michael D. Parkins, who says that 28% of 260 medical prescriptions in the Hearst Papyrus had ingredients which can be perceived "to have had activity towards the condition being treated" and another third supplied to any given disorder would produce a purgative effect on the gastrointestinal system.<ref name="Parkins2001">{{cite conference|last1=Parkins|first1=Michael D.|last2=Szekrenyes|first2=J.|date=March 2001|title=Pharmacological Practices of Ancient Egypt|url=https://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/Others/HOM/Dayspapers2001.pdf#page=17|location=[[Calgary]], Alberta, Canada|publisher=The [[University of Calgary]]|pages=5–11|book-title=Proceedings of the 10th Annual History of Medicine Days|access-date=24 August 2017|archive-date=23 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170223121902/http://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/Others/HOM/Dayspapers2001.pdf#page=17|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Practices==
[[File:Ancient Egyptian medical instruments.jpg|thumb|Ancient Egyptian medical instruments depicted in a [[Ptolemaic period]] inscription on the [[Temple of Kom Ombo]].]]

Egyptians had some knowledge of human [[anatomy]]. For example, in the classic [[Mummy|mummification]] process, mummifiers knew how to insert a long hooked implement through a nostril, breaking the thin bone of the braincase and removing the [[brain]], but more commonly created a hole in the back of the head so that the brain and other fluids could drain from the foramen magnum.<ref>{{Cite book |author=Hawass, Zahi A. |title=Scanning the Pharaohs: CT Imaging of the New Kingdom Royal Mummies |year=2018 |publisher=American University in Cairo Press |isbn=978-977-416-887-1 |oclc=1078493215 }}</ref> They also had a general idea that inner organs are in the body cavity. They removed the organs through a small incision in the left groin. Whether this knowledge was passed down to the practitioners is unknown; yet it did not seem to have had any impact on their medical theories.

Egyptian physicians were aware of the existence of the pulse and its connection to the heart. The author of the Smith Papyrus even had a vague idea of the cardiac system. However, he did not know about blood circulation and deemed it unimportant to distinguish between blood vessels, tendons, and nerves. They developed their theory of "channels" that carried air, water, and blood to the body by analogies with the [[River Nile]]; if it became blocked, crops became unhealthy. They applied this principle to the body: If a person was unwell, they would use [[laxatives]] to unblock the "channels".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.passmoresschool.com/History/mrmodqa2.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080501130207/http://www.passmoresschool.com/History/mrmodqa2.htm |archive-date=1 May 2008 |title=What progress did the Egyptians make in medical knowledge? |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |website=Medicine Through Time: Model Questions and Answers |publisher=[[Passmores Academy]] |access-date=1 January 2016 }}</ref>{{unreliable source? |date=January 2016}}

The oldest written text mentioning [[enema]]s is the Ebers Papyrus and many medications were administered using enemas. One of the many types of medical specialists was an Iri, the Shepherd of the Anus.<ref>{{cite book |last = Magner |first = Lois |title = A History of Medicine |year = 1992 |publisher = [[CRC Press]] |location = [[Boca Raton, Florida]] |isbn = 978-0-8247-8673-1 |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=qtUzscI9_VIC |page = 31 |access-date = 2 January 2020 |archive-date = 7 July 2024 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20240707005556/https://books.google.com/books?id=qtUzscI9_VIC |url-status = live }}</ref>

Many of their medical practices were effective, such as the surgical procedures given in the Edwin Smith papyrus. Mostly, the physicians' advice for staying healthy was to wash and shave the body, including under the arms, to prevent infections. They also advised patients to look after their diet, and avoid foods such as raw fish or other animals considered to be unclean.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Stiefel|first1=Marc|last2=Shaner|first2=Arlene|last3=Schaefer|first3=Steven D.|date=February 2006|title=The Edwin Smith Papyrus: The Birth of Analytical Thinking in Medicine and Otolaryngology|journal=The Laryngoscope|volume=116|issue=2|pages=182–188|doi=10.1097/01.mlg.0000191461.08542.a3|pmid=16467701|s2cid=35256503|issn=0023-852X|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Surgery===
The oldest metal (Bronze<ref>{{cite news |last=El-Aref |first=Nevine |date=December 2006 |title=Too big for a coffin |url=http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/823/he3.htm |newspaper=[[Al-Ahram Weekly]] |location=[[Cairo]], Egypt |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141118095241/http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2006/823/he3.htm |archive-date=18 November 2014 |publisher=[[Al-Ahram]] |access-date=1 January 2016}}</ref> or copper<ref>{{cite book |last=Hawass |first=Zahi |date=2003 |title=Hidden Treasures of the Egyptian Museum: One Hundred Masterpieces from the Centennial Exhibition |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrMssicQVX4C |location=[[Cairo]], Egypt |publisher=[[American University in Cairo Press]] |page=xx |isbn=978-977-424-778-1 |chapter=The tomb of the physician Qar |edition=[[Supreme Council of Antiquities]] |access-date=23 May 2020 |archive-date=7 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240707005559/https://books.google.com/books?id=DrMssicQVX4C |url-status=live }}</ref>
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://egyptourism.wordpress.com/tag/jean-philippe-lauer/ |title=Imhoteb Museum |last1=Lauer |first1=Jean Philippe |date=3 January 2013 |website=Egypt Tourism News |publisher=Egypt Tourism Board |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-date=11 January 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111013922/http://egyptourism.wordpress.com/tag/jean-philippe-lauer/ |url-status=live }}</ref>) surgical tools<ref>{{cite news |last=Jackson |first=Russell |date=6 December 2006 |title=Mummy of ancient doctor comes to light |url=http://news.scotsman.com/world/Mummy-of-ancient-doctor-comes.2832728.jp |newspaper=[[The Scotsman]] |location=[[Edinburgh]] |access-date=2011-03-24 }}</ref> in the world were discovered in the tomb of [[Qar (doctor)|Qar]].
Surgery was a common practice among physicians as treatment for physical injuries. The Egyptian physicians recognized three categories of injuries; treatable, contestable, and untreatable ailments. Treatable ailments the surgeons would quickly set to right. Contestable ailments were those where the victim could presumably survive without treatment, so patients assumed to be in this category were observed and if they survived then surgical attempts could be made to fix the problem with them. They used knives, hooks, drills, forceps, pincers, scales, spoons, saws and a vase with burning incense.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://puffin.creighton.edu/museums/greiner/ |title=Ancient Egyptian Medicine |last1=Greiner |first1=Ryan |date=2001 |website=Creighton University Virtual Museums |publisher=[[Creighton University]] |access-date=2 April 2011 |archive-date=23 December 2001 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20011223061304/http://puffin.creighton.edu/museums/greiner/ }}</ref>

[[Circumcision]] of males was the normal practice, as stated by Herodotus in his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]''.<ref>{{cite book |last=Herodotus |author-link=Herodotus |translator-last=Macaulay |translator-first=G. C. |date=25 February 2006 |orig-date=First published 1890 |title=An Account of Egypt (from The History of Herodotus Translated into English, Vol. I, Pages 115–208) |url=https://www.gutenberg.org/files/2131/2131-h/2131-h.htm |publisher=[[Project Gutenberg]] |access-date=29 March 2015 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415040731/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2131/2131-h/2131-h.htm |url-status=live }}<!-- Alternate URL http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.$b290219;view=1up;seq=129 --></ref>{{clarify|reason=Where in this source are you referring to?  I've provided an alternate source with pagination as an HTML comment.  If you can locate the passage in that source, I can update the link for you.|date=December 2015}} Though its performance as a procedure was rarely mentioned, the uncircumcised nature of other cultures was frequently noted, the uncircumcised nature of the [[Libya]]ns was frequently referenced and military campaigns brought back uncircumcised [[phalli]] as trophies, which suggests novelty. However, other records describe initiates into the religious orders as involving circumcision which would imply that the practice was special and not widespread. The only known depiction of the procedure, in The Tomb of the Physician, burial place of [[Ankh-Mahor]] at Saqqara, shows adolescents or adults, not babies. [[Female circumcision]] may have been practiced, although the single reference to it in ancient texts may be a mistranslation.<ref name="dollinger">{{cite web |url=http://www.reshafim.org.il/ad/egypt/timelines/topics/medicine.htm |title=Ancient Egyptian Medicine |last1=Dollinger |first1=André |date=December 2002 |website=An introduction to the history and culture of Pharaonic Egypt |publisher=Kibbutz Reshafim |access-date=31 March 2011 |archive-date=15 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210115130926/https://www.reshafim.org.il/http_new/index.asp?sitename=reshafim |url-status=live }}</ref>

Prosthetics, such as artificial toes and eyeballs, were also used; typically, they served little more than decorative purposes. In preparation for burial, missing body parts would be replaced; however, these do not appear as if they would have been useful, or even attachable, before death.<ref name="dollinger"/>

The extensive use of surgery, mummification practices, and autopsy as a religious exercise gave Egyptians a vast knowledge of the body's morphology, and even a considerable understanding of organ functions. The function of most major organs was correctly presumed—for example, blood was correctly guessed to be a transpiration medium for vitality and waste which is not too far from its actual role in carrying oxygen and removing carbon dioxide—with the exception of the heart and brain whose functions were switched.

===Dentistry===
Dentistry as an independent profession dated from the early 3rd millennium BC, although it may never have been prominent. The Egyptian diet was high in abrasives from sand left over from grinding grain and bits of rocks in which the way bread was prepared, and so the condition of their teeth was poor. Archaeologists have noted a steady decrease in severity and incidence of worn teeth throughout 4000 BC to 1000 AD, probably due to improved grain grinding techniques.<ref name="Nunn" /> All Egyptian remains have sets of teeth in quite poor states. Dental disease could even be fatal, such as for [[Djedmaatesankh]], a musician from Thebes, who died around the age of thirty five from extensive dental disease and a large infected cyst. If an individual's teeth escaped being worn down, cavities were rare, due to the rarity of sweeteners. Dental treatment was ineffective and the best sufferers could hope for was the quick loss of an infected tooth. The [[Instruction of Ankhsheshonq]] contains the maxim "There is no tooth that rots yet stays in place".<ref name="dollinger"/> No records document the hastening of this process and no tools suited for the extraction of teeth have been found, though some remains show sign of forced tooth removal.<ref name="Nunn" /> Replacement teeth have been found, although it is not clear whether they are just post-mortem cosmetics. Extreme pain might have been medicated with [[opium]].<ref name="dollinger"/>

==Doctors and other healers==
[[File:Prosthetic toe.jpg|thumb|This wood and leather prosthetic toe was used by an amputee to facilitate walking]]
The ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] word for doctor is "swnw". This title has a long history. The earliest recorded physician in the world, [[Hesy-Ra]], practiced in [[History of Ancient Egypt|ancient Egypt]].<ref name="NunnHalioua">{{cite book |last=Nunn |first=John F. |title=Ancient Egyptian Medicine |publisher=University of Oklahoma Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-8061-2831-3 |page=113 |quote=Hesy-Re is the earliest known physician in history. His titles included 'Chief of Dentists and Physicians' (wr ibḥ swnw).}}

'''See also:''' {{cite book |last1=Halioua |first1=Bruno |title=Medicine in the Days of the Pharaohs |last2=Ziskind |first2=Bernard |publisher=Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-674-01702-3 |page=16}}</ref> He was  "Chief of Dentists and Physicians" to King [[Djoser]], who ruled in the 27th century BC.<ref name="Arab3">{{cite web |url=http://www.arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm |title=Medicine in Ancient Egypt – Part 3 |last=Arab |first=Sameh M. |website=Arab World Books |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-date=24 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200124052234/http://arabworldbooks.com/articles8c.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The lady [[Peseshet]] (2400 BC) may be the first recorded female doctor: she was possibly the mother of [[Akhethetep (scribe)|Akhethotep]], and on a [[stela]] dedicated to her in his tomb she is referred to as ''imy-r swnwt'', which has been translated as "Lady Overseer of the Lady Physicians" (''swnwt'' is the feminine of ''swnw'').{{Citation needed|date=September 2023}}

There were many ranks and specializations in the field of medicine. Royalty employed their own ''swnw'', even their own specialists. There were inspectors of doctors, overseers and chief doctors. Known ancient Egyptian specialists are [[ophthalmologist]], [[Gastroenterology|gastroenterologist]], [[proctologist]], [[dentist]], "doctor who supervises [[butcher]]s" and an unspecified "inspector of liquids". The ancient Egyptian term for proctologist, ''neru phuyt'', literally translates as "shepherd of the anus". The latter title is already attested around 2200 BC by [[Irynachet]].

Institutions, called (Per Ankh)<ref>{{Cite book |title=The Quick and the Dead: Biomedical Theory in Ancient Egypt |series=Egyptological Memoirs |last1=Gordan |last2=Shwabe |first1=Andrew H. |first2=Calvin W. |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-90-04-12391-5 |location=[[Leiden]] |page=154}}</ref> or ''Houses of Life'', are known to have been established in ancient Egypt since the [[First dynasty of Egypt|1st Dynasty]] and may have had medical functions, being at times associated in inscriptions with physicians, such as Peftauawyneit and Wedjahorresnet living in the middle of the 1st millennium BC.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/museum/museum2.html |title=Knowledge and production: the House of Life |last1=Grajetzki |first1=Wolfram |last2=Quirke |first2=Stephen |date=2003 |website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=[[University College London]] |access-date=2011-11-18 |archive-date=31 December 2003 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031231141829/http://www.digitalegypt.ucl.ac.uk/museum/museum2.html |url-status=live }}</ref> By the time of the [[Nineteenth dynasty of Egypt|19th Dynasty]] their employees enjoyed such benefits as [[medical insurance]], [[pensions]] and [[sick leave]].<ref name="Arab3" />

==Table of ancient Egyptian physicians==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100;"
!Physician Name
!Other names
!Kings service & Dating
!Titles
!Gender
!Medical practice Site
!Medical legacy
!Non medical legacy
!Burial site
|-
||[[Imhotep]]||Egyptian ỉỉ-m-ḥtp *jā-im-ḥātap meaning "the one who comes in peace, is with peace", Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep; called Imuthes (Ἰμούθης) ||Djoser circa 2650–2600 BC||Chancellor of the King of Egypt, Doctor, First in line after the King of Upper Egypt, Administrator of the Great Palace, Hereditary nobleman, High Priest of [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]], Builder, Chief Carpenter, Chief Sculptor, and Maker of Vases in Chief.||M||Memphis||Two thousand years after his death, Imhotep's status was raised to that of a deity of medicine and healing. Whether he was actually a physician is debated.|| Imhotep was one of the chief officials of the Pharaoh [[Djoser]] and Egyptologists ascribe to him the designed the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt in 2630–2611 BC. He may have been responsible for the first known use of columns to support a building. The Egyptian historian Manetho credited him with inventing the method of a stone-dressed building during Djoser's reign.||Probably Saqqara
|-
||[[Hesy-Ra]]||re-hesy, Hesire, Hesira||Djoser c. 2670 BC||Great one of the dentists||M||N/A||possibly the first known dentist in history||Wooden panel set of Hesy-Ra||buried in an elaborate tomb at Saqqara
|-
||[[Medunefer]]||N/A||[[Old Kingdom]] c. 2500 BC||leader of the eye physicians of the palace||M||N/A|| ||Known from his mastaba at Giza||N/A
|-
||[[Penthu]]||N/A||[[Akhenaten]] c. 1350 BC, and later||The sealbearer of the King of Lower Egypt, the sole companion, the attendant of the Lord of the Two Lands, the favorite of the good god, king's scribe, the king's subordinate, First servant of the Aten in the mansion of the Aten in Akhetaten, Chief of physicians, and chamberlain||M||[[Aten]]||Chief physician to Akhenaten, but may have survived the upheavals of the end of the Amarna period, and served under Ay, after being Vizier under Tutankhamun||Vizier to king||[[Amarna Tomb 5]]
|-
||[[Peseshet]]||[[Merit-Ptah]]||[[Fourth Dynasty of Egypt]] c. 2500 BC||lady overseer of the female physicians||F||N/A||Midwife (?), earliest known female physician in ancient Egypt||A personal stela at her son [[Akhethetep (scribe)|Akhethetep]]'s tomb||N/A
|-
||[[Qar (doctor)|Qar]]||N/A||[[Sixth Dynasty of Egypt]] c. 2350–2180 BC||The royal physician||M||N/A||The oldest Bronze or copper surgical tool in the world||His mummy in the limestone sarcophagus and 22 bronze statues of different deities and statuette of Imhotep the physician||He died at the age of fifty years and was buried in his tomb at Saqqara, which was re-used several times
|-
||[[Psamtikseneb]]||may King Psamtik be healthy||[[Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt]] c. 664–525 BC||The Head of Physicians, the scorpion charmer, chief physician and chief dentist (wr ἰbḥ) of Psamtik Seneb, an admiral of the royal fleet||M||N/A||N/A||Ushabti of the Head of Physician Psamtik-seneb, photo in relief of Ankh-ef-en-Sekhmet Entertained by a Harpist||His tomb discovered at [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|Heliopolis]] in 1931/32 AD
|-
||[[Udjahorresnet]]||Wedjahor-Resne or Udjahor-Resnet||from [[Amasis II|Amasis]] to [[Darius I]]||The Head of Physicians, supervisor of the medical schools – the '[[Houses of life]]'; the prince, the royal chancellor, the unique companion, the prophet of the one who lives with them, the chief physician, the one truly known and loved by the king, the scribe, the inspector of the scribes of the dedet-court, the first among the great scribes of the prison, the director of the palace, the admiral of the royal navy of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt Khnemibre [Amasis], the admiral of the royal navy of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Ankhkaenre [Psammetichus III], head of the province of Sais Peftuôneit||M||N/A||Wedjahor-Resne composed [[Cambyses II|Cambyses]]' new royal name, Mesuti-Ra ('born of Ra')||His titles are preserved on a beautiful statue (Vatican inv.196)||His tomb<ref>{{cite web |url=http://egyptologie.ff.cuni.cz/?req=doc:vedzahor&lang=en |title=The Shaft Tomb of Udjahorresnet |last1=Bareš |first1=Ladislav |date=2005 |website=Czech Institute of Egyptology |publisher=[[Charles University in Prague]] |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-date=7 July 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240707005611/https://cegu.ff.cuni.cz/?req=doc:vedzahor&lang=en |url-status=live }}</ref> has been discovered in 1995 at [[Abusir]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://egyptianaemporium.wordpress.com/2012/07/04/dispelling-the-myth-herodotus-cambyses-and-egyptian-religion-1/ |title=Dispelling the myth – Herodotus, Cambyses, and Egyptian religion #1 |last1=Wood |first1=Gemma Ellen |date=4 July 2012 |website=The Egyptiana Emporium |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-date=6 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306121913/https://egyptianaemporium.wordpress.com/2012/07/04/dispelling-the-myth-herodotus-cambyses-and-egyptian-religion-1/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="academia.edu">{{cite book |last=Agut-Labordère |first=Damien |date=2013 |chapter=The Saite Period: The Emergence of a Mediterranean Power |title=Ancient Egyptian Administration |series=Handbook of Oriental Studies |chapter-url=https://www.academia.edu/1562920 |location=[[Leiden]] |publisher=[[Brill Academic Publishers]] |pages=965–1027 |isbn=978-90-04-24952-3 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/person/wedjahor-resne/ |title=Wedjahor-Resne |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |date=22 August 2015 |website=Livius.org |publisher=[[Jona Lendering]] |access-date=1 January 2016 |archive-date=25 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151225174735/http://www.livius.org/articles/person/wedjahor-resne/? |url-status=live }}</ref>
|-
||[[Harsiese son of Ramose]]||00||from [[Amasis II|Amasis]] to [[Darius I]]||The Head of Physicians, chief physician of Upper and Lower Egypt, leader of Aegean foreign (troops) and admiral of the royal fleet||M||N/A||N/A||mentioned in [[Instruction of Ankhsheshonq]] (P. BM 10508) as the source of the plot that led to the imprisonment of the unfortunate Ankhsheshonq (P. BM. 10508 col. 1 to 3)||[[Saqqara]]<ref name="academia.edu"/>
|-
||[[Payeftjauemawyneith|Peftuaneith]]||Payeftjauemawyneith||Twenty-sixth Dynasty during the reign of [[Amasis II|Amasis]]<ref name="academia.edu"/>||The Chief physician||M||N/A||N/A||A naophorous statue of the chief physician Petuaneith (Louvre A 93), he restored the temple of Abydos||N/A
|-
||[[Iwti]]||N/A||19th dynasty c. 2500 BC{{Inconsistent|date=January 2017|reason=Dynasty and date give are incompatible}}||The Chief physician||M||Most likely worked or trained in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]] (inscriptions on statue indicate sacrificial relations to Memphite city god)<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fonahn|first=Adolf|date=1909-01-01|title=Der altägyptische Arzt Iwti|jstor=20772830|journal=Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin|volume=2|issue=5|pages=375–378}}</ref>||N/A||A statue of him is displayed at the museum of Egyptology in Leiden<ref>{{cite journal |last=Fonahn |first=Adolf |date=February 1909 |title=Der altägyptische Arzt Iwti |jstor=20772830  |journal=Archiv für Geschichte der Medizin |volume=2 |issue=5 |pages=375–378 |language=de}}</ref>||N/A
|-
||[[Djehutyemheb]]||N/A|| [[Ramesses II]]||The wise scribe and physician||M||Khonsu temple?||N/A||N/A||N/A
|-
||[[Peftjauemauineith]]||N/A||transitional period between [[Apries]] and [[Amasis II]]||the chief physician of Upper and Lower Egypt (wr swnw n sma MHw)||M||N/A||N/A||N/A||N/A
|-
|}

==Table of ancient Egyptian medical papyri==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100;"
!Papyrus Name
!Other names
!Dating
!Language
! Medical specialties
!Contents
!Scribe/Author
!Date & place of discovery
!place of preserving
!size
!image
|-
||[[Edwin Smith Papyrus]]|| Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus|| Dates to Dynasties 16–17 of the Second Intermediate Period in ancient Egypt, c. 1500 BC, but believed to be a copy from Old Kingdom, 3000–2500 BC||Hieratic|| The oldest known surgical treatise on trauma ||The vast majority of the papyrus is concerned with trauma and surgery, with short sections on gynaecology and cosmetics on the verso. On the recto side, there are 48 cases of injury. The verso side consists of eight magic spells and five prescriptions. The oldest known surgical treatise on trauma ||Attributed by some to [[Imhotep]]|| Luxor, Egypt before 1862||[[New York Academy of Medicine]], [[New York City]]||A scroll 4.68 m in length. The recto (front side) has 377 lines in 17 columns, while the verso (backside) has 92 lines in five columns||[[File:Edwin Smith Papyrus v2.jpg|150px]]
|-
||[[Ebers Papyrus]]|| Papyrus Ebers||c. 1550 BC but believed to be a copy from earlier texts of 3400 BC ||Hieratic||Medicine, Obestitrics & gynecology & Surgery ||The scroll contains some 700 magical formulas and remedies, chapters on contraception, diagnosis of pregnancy and other gynecological matters, intestinal disease and parasites, eye and skin problems, dentistry and the surgical treatment of abscesses and tumors, bone-setting and burns||N/A|| Assassif district of the Theban necropolis in 1873-74||[[Leipzig University Library]], [[Leipzig]]|| A 110-page scroll, which is about 20 meters long||[[File:PEbers c41-bc.jpg|150px]]
|-
||[[Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus]]|| Kahun Papyrus, Kahun Medical Papyrus, or UC 32057 ||c. 1825 BC ||Hieratic||Medicine, Obestitrics & gynecology, pediatrics and veterinary medicine || The text is divided into thirty-four sections that deals with women's health—gynaecological diseases, fertility, pregnancy, contraception, etc. The later [[Brugsch Papyrus|Berlin Papyrus]] and the [[Ramesseum medical papyri]] cover much of the same ground, often giving identical prescriptions ||N/A||[[El-Lahun]] by [[Flinders Petrie]] in 1889 || [[University College London]], [[London]]||2 gynecologic papyri & 1 veterinary payrus||[[File:PKahun LV2.jpg|150px]]
|-
||[[Ramesseum medical papyri]]|| Ramesseum medical papyri parts III, IV, and V ||18th century BC ||Hieroglyphic & Hieratic||Medicine, gynecology, ophthalmology, rheumatology & pediatrics|| A collection of ancient Egyptian medical documents in parts III, IV, and V, and written in vertical columns that mainly dealt with ailments, diseases, the structure of the body, and supposed remedies used to heal these afflictions. namely ophthalmologic ailments, gynaecology, muscles, tendons, and diseases of children ||N/A||[[Ramesseum]] temple||[[Ashmolean Museum]], [[Oxford]]||3 papyri (parts III, IV, V)||[[File:AN00272216 001 J.jpg|thumb]]
|-
||[[Hearst papyrus]]|| Hearst Medical Papyrus ||[[18th Dynasty of Egypt]], around time of [[Tuthmosis III]] c. 0000 but believed to have been composed earlier, during the Middle Kingdom, around 2000 BC||Hieratic||Urology, Medicine and bites|| 260 paragraphs on 18 columns in 18 pages of medical prescriptions for problems of urinary system, blood, hair, and bites|| N/A||Discovered by an Egyptian peasant of village of Der-el-Ballas before 1901||[[Bancroft Library]], [[University of California, Berkeley]]||18 pages||[[File:Papyrus Hearst Plate 2.jpg|150px]]
|-
||[[London Medical Papyrus]]|| BM EA 10059 || 19th dynasty 1300 BC or c. 1629–1628 BC||Hieratic||Skin complaints, eye complaints, bleeding, miscarriage and burns || 61 recipes, of which 25 are classified as medical the remainder are of magic||N/A||Thebes, 1860||[[Royal Institution]],
London
|N/A
|[[File:London Medical Papyrus 15.jpg|150px]]
|-
||[[Brugsch Papyrus|Papyrus Berlin 3038]]|| Brugsch Papyrus, the Greater Berlin Papyrus ||19th dynasty, and dated c. 1350–1200 BC || Hieratic?||Medical||Discussing general medical cases and bears a great similarity to the Ebers papyrus. Some historians believe that this papyrus was used by Galen in his writings|| N/A||Discovered by an Egyptian in [[Saqqara]] before 1827 ||[[Egyptian Museum of Berlin|Berlin Museum]], [[Berlin]]|| 24 pages (21 to the front and 3 on the back)||N/A
|-
||[[Papyrus Carlsberg Collection#Carlsberg Papyrus VIII|Carlsberg papyrus]]||N/A||Between the 19th and 20th dynasties, New Kingdom; its style relates it to the 12th dynasty. Some fragments date back to c. 2000 BC, others—the Tebtunis manuscripts—date back to c. 1st century AD||[[Hieratic]], [[Demotic Egyptian script|Demotic]]. [[Hieroglyphs]] and in [[Greek language|Greek]]||Obestitrics & gynecology, Medicine, Pediatrics & ophthalmology||The structure of the papyrus bears great resemblance to that of the Kahun and Berlin papyri. || N/A||Discovered in [[Luxor Temple]] in the cellar ||Egyptological Institute of the [[University of Copenhagen]]|| Approximately 6 meters||[[File:Papyri (Villa of the Papyri).jpg|thumb|Papyri text of the Carlsberg collection]]
|-
||[[Chester Beatty Medical Papyrus]]|| Chester Beatty Papyri, Papyrus VI of the Chester Beatty Papyri 46 (Papyrus no. 10686, British Museum), Chester Beatty V BM 10685, VI BM 10686, VII BM 10687, VIII BM 10688, XV BM 10695 ||Dated around 1200 BC||Hieratic||Headache, and Anorectal disorders||Magic spells and medical recipes for headache & anorectal disease|| N/A||Started off as a private collection by the scribe Qen-her-khepeshef in the 19th Dynasty and passed on down through his family until they were placed in a tomb||[[British Museum]]||Approximately 236 pages ranging from sizes of 14 by 24.2&nbsp;cm to 18 by 33&nbsp;cm||[[File:P. Chester Beatty XII, leaf 3, verso.jpg|thumb]]
|-
||[[Brooklyn Medical Papyrus]]|| 47.218.48 och 47.218.85, also known as the Brooklyn Medical Papyrus|| A collection of papyri which belong to the end of the 30th dynasty, dated to around 450 BC, or the beginning of the Ptolemaic Period. However, it is written with the Middle Kingdom style which could suggest its origin might be from the Thirteenth dynasty of Egypt||Hieratic|| Deals only with snakes and scorpion bites, and the formulae to drive out the poison of such animals ||It speaks about remedies to drive out poison from snakes, scorpions and tarantulas. The style of these remedies relates to that of the Ebers papyrus|| N/A ||Might originate from a temple at [[Heliopolis (Ancient Egypt)|ancient Heliopolis]], discovered before 1885|| [[Brooklyn Museum]] in New York|| A scroll of papyrus divided into two parts with some parts missing, its total length is estimated to 175 × 27&nbsp;cm||[[File:Roll, 664 - 332 B.C.E. Brooklyn Papyrus 47.218.48a-f.jpg|frameless]]
|-
||[[Erman Papyrus]]|| Given with the Westcar papyrus to Berlin museum || Early New Kingdom's 18th Dynasty (1525-1400 BCE)||Hieratic||Medicine, Magic & Anatomy||  Holds some medical formulae and a list of anatomic names (body and viscera), approximately 20 magical formulae, childbirth and infant protection medicine and magic discussed ||N/A||Before 1837 ||[[Egyptian Museum of Berlin|Berlin Museum]]||Fifteen preserved columns with 6 glued sheets
240&nbsp;cm x 15.7&nbsp;cm
|N/A
|-
||[[Ipuwer Papyrus|Leiden Papyrus]]|| Rijksmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden 1343–1345|| 18th–19th dynasties||Hieratic||Medicine, Magic ||Magical texts, poems of the plagues that followed after the [[The Exodus|Exodus]] from Egypt||Possibly Ipuwer but highly debated by scholars ||Discovered by traders who sold it to [[Giovanni Anastasi (merchant)|Giovanni Anastasi]] who later sold it to the Dutch Government in 1928||[[Rijksmuseum van Oudheden]], [[Leiden]]
| 378&nbsp;cm x 18&nbsp;cm||[[File:Egitto ellenistico, papiro con testo magico in greco (papiro X di leida), da tebe, 200-300 ac ca.jpg|frameless]]
|}

==See also==
* [[Ancient Greek medicine]]
* [[Byzantine medicine]]
* [[Medicine in ancient Rome]]
* [[History of medicine]]
* [[Unani]]
* [[Disability in Ancient Egypt]]

==References==
{{Reflist|35em}}

==Further reading==
; English
* Rosalie David & Roger Forshaw. ''Medicine and healing practices in Ancient Egypt''. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2023.
* Bruno Halioua & Bernard Ziskind. ''Medicine in the Days of the Pharaohs''. Trans. by M. B. DeBevoise. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press, 2005.
* Philippa Lang. ''Medicine and society in Ptolemaic Egypt''. Leiden: Brill, 2013.
* Lois N. Magner & Oliver J. Kim. ''A History of Medicine'', 3rd edn. Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC Press, 2018.
* John F. Nunn. ''Ancient Egyptian Medicine''. Norman, Okla.: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996.
* Pain, Stephanie. (2007). "The pharaohs' pharmacists." ''New Scientist''. 15 December 2007, pp.&nbsp;40–43
* Michael D. Parkins. [https://www.ucalgary.ca/uofc/Others/HOM/Dayspapers2001.pdf Pharmacological practices of ancient Egypt], 10th Annual Proceedings of the History of Medicine Days, 2001.
* Roy Porter. ''The Greatest Benefit to Mankind: A medical History of Humanity''. NY: W.W. Norton, 1997.
* Ian Shaw. 'Medicine, magic and pharmacy: the fusion of science and art', chap. 4 of ''Ancient Egyptian technology and innovation: transformations in pharaonic material culture''. London: Bloomsbury, 2015.
* Evžen Strouhal, Břetislav Vachala, & Hana Vymazalová. ''The medicine of the ancient Egyptians''. 2 vols. Trans. by Sean Mark Miller. Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 2014/2021.

; French
* Ange Pierre Leca, La Médecine égyptienne au temps des Pharaons, éd. Dacosta, Paris, 1992 ({{ISBN|2-851-28-029-5}})
* Thierry Bardinet, Les papyrus médicaux de l'Égypte pharaonique, éd. Fayard, Paris, 1995 ({{ISBN|2-213-59280-2}})
* ''Histoire de la médecine en Egypte ancienne'', Paris, 2013– (http://medecineegypte.canalblog.com/)
* Richard-Alain Jean, À propos des objets égyptiens conservés du musée d'Histoire de la Médecine, éd. Université René Descartes – Paris V, coll. Musée d'Histoire de la Médecine de Paris, Paris, 1999 ({{ISBN|2-9508470-3-X}})
* Richard-Alain Jean, La chirurgie en Égypte ancienne. À propos des instruments médico-chirurgicaux métalliques égyptiens conservés au musée du Louvre, Editions Cybele, Paris, 2012 ({{ISBN|978-2-915840-29-2}})
* Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette, À propos des textes médicaux des Papyrus du Ramesseum nos III et IV, I : la reproduction, ''in'' S.H. Aufrère (éd.), Encyclopédie religieuse de l'Univers végétal (''ERUV'' – II), Montpellier, 2001, pp.&nbsp;537–564 ({{ISBN|978-2-84269-502-6}})
* Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette, À propos des textes médicaux des Papyrus du Ramesseum nos III et IV, I : la contraception, ''in'' S.H. Aufrère (éd.), Encyclopédie religieuse de l'Univers végétal (''ERUV'' – II), Montpellier, 2001, pp.&nbsp;564–592 ({{ISBN|978-2-84269-502-6}})
* Bruno Halioua, La médecine au temps des Pharaons, éd. Liana Levi, coll. Histoire lieu, Paris, 2002 ({{ISBN|2-867-46-306-8}})
* Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette, À propos des textes médicaux des Papyrus du Ramesseum nos III et IV, I : la gynécologie (1), ''in'' S.H. Aufrère (éd.), Encyclopédie religieuse de l'Univers végétal (''ERUV'' – III), Montpellier, 2005, pp.&nbsp;351–487 ({{ISBN|2-84269-695-6}})
* Richard-Alain Jean, Anne-Marie Loyrette, La mère, l'enfant et le lait en Égypte Ancienne. Traditions médico-religieuses. Une étude de sénologie égyptienne, S.H. Aufrère (éd.), éd. L'Harmattan, coll. Kubaba – Série Antiquité – Université de Paris 1, Panthéon Sorbonne, Paris, 2010 ({{ISBN|978-2-296-13096-8}})

; German
* [[Wolfhart Westendorf]], Handbuch der altägyptischen Medizin [Handbook of Ancient Egyptian Medicine]. Handbook of Oriental Studies, vol. 1,36. Leiden: Brill, 1999 (part 1: {{ISBN|90-04-11320-7}}, part II: {{ISBN|90-04-11321-5}}).

==External links==
{{Commons category|Ancient Egyptian medicine}}
* [http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam22.html Medicine in Old Egypt] – Transcript from ''History of Science'' by [[George Sarton]]
* [http://www.aldokkan.com/science/medicine.htm Ancient Egyptian Medicine – Aldokkan]
* [http://www.crystalinks.com/egyptmedicine.html Ancient Egyptian Medicine]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/woe/index.htm Brian Brown (ed.) (1923) The Wisdom of the Egyptians. New York: Brentano's]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=qeApebusL_0C&q=PtahHotep Texts from the Pyramid Age by Nigel C. Strudwick, Ronald J. Leprohon, 2005, Brill Academic Publishers]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=9ToLAAAAIAAJ&q=PtahHotep Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book by Marshall Clagett, 1989]
* {{in lang|fr}} [http://medecineegypte.canalblog.com Site sur la médecine et la chirurgie dans l'Antiquité Egyptienne.]
* {{in lang|fr}} [http://medecine.ancienne.perso.sfr.fr/ Ancient medicine website]

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